Ashoka

Ashoka, also known as Asoka or Aśoka (/əˈʃoʊkə/[7] ə-SHOH-kə;

Sanskrit pronunciation: [ɐˈɕoːkɐ], IAST: Aśoka; c. 304 – 232 BCE), and
Ashoka
popularly known as Ashoka the Great, was Emperor of Magadha[8] Chakravartin
from c. 268 BCE until his death in 232 BCE, and the third ruler from the Devanampriya
Mauryan dynasty. His empire covered a large part of the Indian Priyadarsin
subcontinent, stretching from present-day Afghanistan in the west to Magadha-raja
present-day Bangladesh in the east, with its capital at Pataliputra. A
patron of Buddhism, he is credited with playing an important role in the
spread of Buddhism across ancient Asia.

Ashoka's edicts state that during his eighth regnal year (c. 260 BCE), he
conquered Kalinga after a brutal war. Ashoka subsequently devoted
himself to the propagation of "dhamma" or righteous conduct, the major
theme of the edicts. Ashoka's edicts suggest that a few years after the
Kalinga War, he was gradually drawn towards Buddhism. The Buddhist
legends credit Ashoka with establishing a large number of stupas,
patronising the Third Buddhist council, supporting Buddhist missionaries,
making generous donations to the sangha.

Ashoka's existence as a historical emperor had almost been forgotten, but A c. 1st century BCE / CE relief from Sanchi,
since the decipherment in the 19th century of sources written in the showing Ashoka on his chariot, visiting the
Brahmi script, Ashoka holds a reputation as one of the greatest Indian Ramagrama.[1][2]
emperors. The State Emblem of the modern Republic of India is an Emperor of the Maurya Empire
adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka. Ashoka's wheel, the Ashoka Reign c. 268 – 232 BCE[3]
Chakra, is adopted at the centre of the National Flag of India.
Coronation c. 269 BCE[3]
Predecessor Bindusara

Sources of information Successor Dasharatha

Crown Prince of Magadha
Information about Ashoka comes from his inscriptions, other inscriptions Predecessor Susima
that mention him or are possibly from his reign, and ancient literature,
Successor Kunala
especially Buddhist texts.[9] These sources often contradict each other,
although various historians have attempted to correlate their Viceroy of Avantirastra
testimony.[10]
Born c. 304 BCE
Pataliputra, Magadha, Mauryan
Inscriptions Empire(Present day Bihar, India)

Ashoka's inscriptions are the earliest self-representations of imperial Died 232 BCE
power in the Indian subcontinent.[11] However, these inscriptions are Pataliputra, Magadha, Mauryan
focused mainly on the topic of dhamma, and provide little information Empire(Present day Bihar, India)
regarding other aspects of the Maurya state or society.[10] Even on the Spouses Devi (Sri Lankan tradition)
topic of dhamma, the content of these inscriptions cannot be taken at face Karuvaki (own inscriptions)
value. In the words of American academic John S. Strong, it is sometimes
Padmavati (North Indian
helpful to think of Ashoka's messages as propaganda by a politician
tradition)
whose aim is to present a favourable image of himself and his
Asandhimitra (Sri Lankan
administration, rather than record historical facts.[12]
tradition)
Tishyaraksha (Sri Lankan and
North Indian tradition)
A small number of other inscriptions also provide some information Issue Mahendra (Sri Lankan tradition)
about Ashoka.[10] For example, he finds a mention in the 2nd century Sanghamitta (Sri Lankan
Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman.[13] An inscription discovered tradition)
at Sirkap mentions a lost word beginning with "Priyadari", which is
Tivala (own inscriptions)
theorised to be Ashoka's title "Priyadarshi" since it has been written in
Kunala (North Indian tradition)
Aramaic of 3rd century BCE, although this is not certain.[14] Some other
inscriptions, such as the Sohgaura copper plate inscription and the Jalauka (Kalhana's
Mahasthan inscription, have been tentatively dated to Ashoka's period by Rajatarangini)
some scholars, although others contest this.[15] Charumati
Dynasty Maurya
Buddhist legends Father Bindusara

Much of the information about Ashoka comes from Buddhist legends, Mother Subhadrangi or Dharma[note 1]
which present him as a great, ideal emperor.[16] These legends appear in Religion Supported Buddhism[4][5] but
texts that are not contemporary to Ashoka and were composed by also other religions, propagated
Buddhist authors, who used various stories to illustrate the impact of their dharma ("righteousness")[6]
faith on Ashoka. This makes it necessary to exercise caution while
relying on them for historical information.[17] Among modern scholars, opinions
range from downright dismissal of these legends as mythological to acceptance of all
historical portions that seem plausible.[18]

The Buddhist legends about Ashoka exist in several languages, including Sanskrit,
Pali, Tibetan, Chinese, Burmese, Khmer, Sinhala, Thai, Lao, and Khotanese. All
these legends can be traced to two primary traditions:[19]

the North Indian tradition preserved in the Sanskrit-language texts such

Ashoka's Major Rock Edict at
as Divyavadana (including its constituent Ashokavadana); and Chinese
Junagadh contains inscriptions by
sources such as A-yü wang chuan and A-yü wang ching.[19]
Ashoka (fourteen of the Edicts of
the Sri Lankan tradition preserved in Pali-language texts, such as Ashoka), Rudradaman I and
Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Vamsatthapakasini (a commentary on Skandagupta.
Mahavamsa), Buddhaghosha's commentary on the Vinaya, and
Samanta-pasadika.[13][19]
There are several significant differences between the two traditions. For example, the Sri Lankan tradition emphasizes
Ashoka's role in convening the Third Buddhist council, and his dispatch of several missionaries to distant regions, including
his son Mahinda to Sri Lanka.[19] However, the North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events. It describes other
events not found in the Sri Lankan tradition, such as a story about another son named Kunala.[20]

Even while narrating the common stories, the two traditions diverge in several ways. For example, both Ashokavadana and
Mahavamsa mention that Ashoka's empress Tishyarakshita had the Bodhi Tree destroyed. In Ashokavadana, the empress
manages to have the tree healed after she realises her mistake. In the Mahavamsa, she permanently destroys the tree, but
only after a branch of the tree has been transplanted in Sri Lanka.[21] In another story, both the texts describe Ashoka's
unsuccessful attempts to collect a relic of Gautama Buddha from Ramagrama. In Ashokavadana, he fails to do so because
he cannot match the devotion of the Nāgas who hold the relic; however, in the Mahavamsa, he fails to do so because the
Buddha had destined the relic to be enshrined by King Dutthagamani of Sri Lanka.[22] Using such stories, the Mahavamsa
glorifies Sri Lanka as the new preserve of Buddhism.[23]
King Ashoka visits Ramagrama, to take relics of the Buddha from the Nagas, but in vain. Southern gateway, Stupa 1, Sanchi.[2]

Other sources
Numismatic, sculptural, and archaeological evidence supplements research on Ashoka.[24] Ashoka's name appears in the
lists of Mauryan emperors in the various Puranas. However, these texts do not provide further details about him, as their
Brahmanical authors were not patronised by the Mauryans.[25] Other texts, such as the Arthashastra and Indica of
Megasthenes, which provide general information about the Maurya period, can also be used to make inferences about
Ashoka's reign.[26] However, the Arthashastra is a normative text that focuses on an ideal rather than a historical state, and
its dating to the Mauryan period is a subject of debate. The Indica is a lost work, and only parts of it survive in the form of
paraphrases in later writings.[10]

The 12th-century text Rajatarangini mentions a Kashmiri king Ashoka of Gonandiya dynasty who built several stupas:
some scholars, such as Aurel Stein, have identified this king with the Maurya emperor Ashoka; others, such as Ananda W. P.
Guruge dismiss this identification as inaccurate.[27]

Alternative interpretation of the epigraphic evidence

The Edicts and their declared authors

Edicts in the name of Piyadasi or Edicts in the name of Ashoka or just

Devanampiya Piyadasi ("Beloved of "Devanampiya" ("Beloved of the
the Gods Piyadasi"): Gods"), or both together:
: Major Rock Edicts : Minor Rock Edicts
: Major Pillar Edicts : Minor Pillar Edicts
The different areas covered by the two types of inscriptions, and their different content in respect to Buddhism, may point to
different rulers namely Chandragupta Maurya and Bindusara.[28]

For Christopher I. Beckwith, Ashoka, whose name only appears in the Minor Rock Edicts, is not the same as king Piyadasi,
or Devanampiya Piyadasi (i.e. "Beloved of the Gods Piyadasi", "Beloved of the Gods" being a fairly widespread title for
"King"), who is named as the author of the Major Pillar Edicts and the Major Rock Edicts.[28]

Beckwith suggests that Piyadasi was living in the 3rd century BCE, was probably the son of Chandragupta Maurya known
to the Greeks as Amitrochates, and only advocated for piety ("Dharma") in his Major Pillar Edicts and Major Rock Edicts,
without ever mentioning Buddhism, the Buddha, or the Sangha (the single notable exception is the 7th Edict of the Major
Pillar Edicts which does mention the Sangha, but is a considered a later fake by Beckwith).[28] Also, the geographical spread
of his inscription shows that Piyadasi ruled a vast Empire, contiguous with the Seleucid Empire in the West.[28]

On the contrary, for Beckwith, Ashoka was a later king of the 1st–2nd century CE, whose name only appears explicitly in
the Minor Rock Edicts and allusively in the Minor Pillar Edicts, and who does mention the Buddha and the Sangha,
explicitly promoting Buddhism.[28] The name "Priyadarsi" does occur in two of the minor edicts (Gujarra and Bairat), but
Beckwith again considers them as later fabrications.[28] The minor inscriptions cover a very different and much smaller
geographical area, clustering in Central India.[28] According to Beckwith, the inscriptions of this later Ashoka were typical
of the later forms of "normative Buddhism", which are well attested from inscriptions and Gandhari manuscripts dated to
the turn of the millennium, and around the time of the Kushan Empire.[28] The quality of the inscriptions of this Ashoka is
significantly lower than the quality of the inscriptions of the earlier Piyadasi.[28]

However, many of Beckwith's methodologies and interpretations concerning early Buddhism, inscriptions, and
archaeological sites have been criticized by other scholars, such as Johannes Bronkhorst and Osmund Bopearachchi.

Names and titles

The name "A-shoka" literally means "without sorrow". According to an
Names and titles of Ashoka
Ashokavadana legend, his mother gave him this name because his birth
removed her sorrows.[29]

The name Priyadasi is associated with Ashoka in the 3rd–4th century CE

"Devānampiyasa The name "Asoka" (𑀅𑀲𑁄
Dipavamsa.[30][31] The term literally means "he who regards amiably", or Asoka", in the Maski 𑀓 A-so-ka) in the Maski
"of gracious mien" (Sanskrit: Priya-darshi). It may have been a regnal Edict of Ashoka. Minor Rock Edict.
name adopted by Ashoka.[32][33] A version of this name is used for
Ashoka in Greek-language inscriptions: βασιλεὺς Πιοδασσης ("Basileus
Piodassēs").[33]
Ashoka's title "Devanaṃpiyena Piyadasi" (𑀤𑁂 𑀯𑀸 𑀦𑀁 𑀧𑀺
Ashoka's inscriptions mention his title Devanampiya (Sanskrit:
𑀬𑁂 𑀦 𑀧𑀺 𑀬𑀤𑀲𑀺 ) in the Lumbini Minor Pillar Edict.
Devanampriya, "Beloved of the Gods"). The identification of
Devanampiya and Ashoka as the same person is established by the Maski
and Gujarra inscriptions, which use both these terms for the king.[34][35] The title was adopted by other kings, including the
contemporary king Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura and Ashoka's descendant Dasharatha Maurya.[36]

Date
The exact date of Ashoka's birth is not certain, as the extant contemporary Indian texts did not record such details. It is
known that he lived in the 3rd century BCE, as his inscriptions mention several contemporary rulers whose dates are known
with more certainty, such as Antiochus II Theos, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, Antigonus II Gonatas, Magas of Cyrene, and
Alexander (of Epirus or Corinth).[37] Thus, Ashoka must have been born sometime in the late 4th century BCE or early 3rd
century BCE (c. 304 BCE),[38] and ascended the throne around 269-268 BCE.[37]

Ancestry
Ashoka's own inscriptions are fairly detailed but make no mention of his ancestors.[39] Other sources, such as the Puranas
and the Mahavamsa state that his father was the Mauryan emperor Bindusara, and his grandfather was Chandragupta – the
founder of the Empire.[40] The Ashokavadana also names his father as Bindusara, but traces his ancestry to Buddha's
contemporary king Bimbisara, through Ajatashatru, Udayin, Munda, Kakavarnin, Sahalin, Tulakuchi, Mahamandala,
Prasenajit, and Nanda.[41] The 16th century Tibetan monk Taranatha, whose account is a distorted version of the earlier
traditions,[26] describes Ashoka as son of king Nemita of Champarana from the daughter of a merchant.[42]
Ashokavadana states that Ashoka's mother was the daughter of a Brahmin from
Champa, and was prophesied to marry a king. Accordingly, her father took her to
Pataliputra, where she was inducted into Bindusara's harem, and ultimately, became
his chief empress.[43] The Ashokavadana does not mention her by name,[44] although
other legends provide different names for her.[45] For example, the
Asokavadanamala calls her Subhadrangi.[46][47] The Vamsatthapakasini or
Mahavamsa-tika, a commentary on Mahavamsa, calls her "Dharma" ("Dhamma" in
Pali), and states that she belonged to the Moriya Kshatriya clan.[47] A Divyavadana
legend calls her Janapada-kalyani;[48] according to scholar Ananda W. P. Guruge, this
is not a name, but an epithet.[46]

According to the 2nd-century historian Appian, Chandragupta entered into a marital

alliance with the Greek ruler Seleucus I Nicator, which has led to speculation that
either Chandragupta or his son Bindusara married a Greek princess. However, there
is no evidence that Ashoka's mother or grandmother was Greek, and most historians
have dismissed the idea.[49]

As a prince The Major Rock Edict No.13 of

Ashoka, mentions the Greek kings
Ashoka's own inscriptions do not describe his early life, and much of the information
Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus,
on this topic comes from apocryphal legends written hundreds of years after him.[50] Magas and Alexander by name, as
While these legends include obviously fictitious details such as narratives of recipients of his teachings.
Ashoka's past lives, they have some plausible historical information about Ashoka's

Pataliputra at the time of Ashoka

Ruins of pillared hall at Kumrahar site The Pataliputra capital,

at Pataliputra. 4th–3rd c. BCE.
Ashoka was probably born in the city of Pataliputra. Remains of the city from around that time have been found through
excavations in central areas of the modern city of Patna.

period.[50][48]

According to the Ashokavadana, Bindusara disliked Ashoka because of his rough skin. One day, Bindusara asked the ascetic
Pingala-vatsajiva to determine which of his sons was worthy of being his successor. He asked all the princes to assemble at
the Garden of the Golden Pavilion on the ascetic's advice. Ashoka was reluctant to go because his father disliked him, but
his mother convinced him to do so. When minister Radhagupta saw Ashoka leaving the capital for the Garden, he offered to
provide the prince with an imperial elephant for the travel.[51] At the Garden, Pingala-vatsajiva examined the princes and
realised that Ashoka would be the next emperor. To avoid annoying Bindusara, the ascetic refused to name the successor.
Instead, he said that one who had the best mount, seat, drink, vessel and food would be the next king; each time, Ashoka
declared that he met the criterion. Later, he told Ashoka's mother that her son would be the next emperor, and on her advice,
left the empire to avoid Bindusara's wrath.[52]
While legends suggest that Bindusara disliked Ashoka's ugly appearance, they also state that Bindusara gave him important
responsibilities, such as suppressing a revolt in Takshashila (according to north Indian tradition) and governing Ujjain
(according to Sri Lankan tradition). This suggests that Bindusara was impressed by the other qualities of the prince.[53]
Another possibility is that he sent Ashoka to distant regions to keep him away from the imperial capital.[54]

Rebellion at Taxila
According to the Ashokavadana, Bindusara dispatched prince Ashoka to suppress a rebellion
in the city of Takshashila[55] (present-day Bhir Mound[56] in Pakistan). This episode is not
mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition, which instead states that Bindusara sent Ashoka to
govern Ujjain. Two other Buddhist texts – Ashoka-sutra and Kunala-sutra – state that
Bindusara appointed Ashoka as a viceroy in Gandhara (where Takshashila was located), not
Ujjain.[53]

The Ashokavadana states that Bindusara provided Ashoka with a fourfold-army (comprising
cavalry, elephants, chariots and infantry) but refused to provide any weapons for this army.
Ashoka declared that weapons would appear before him if he was worthy of being an
emperor, and then, the deities emerged from the earth and provided weapons to the army.
When Ashoka reached Takshashila, the citizens welcomed him and told him that their
rebellion was only against the evil ministers, not the emperor. Sometime later, Ashoka was
similarly welcomed in the Khasa territory and the gods declared that he would go on to
conquer the whole earth.[55]

Takshashila was a prosperous and geopolitically influential city, and historical evidence
proves that by Ashoka's time, it was well-connected to the Mauryan capital Pataliputra by the
Uttarapatha trade route.[57] However, no extant contemporary source mentions the
Takshashila rebellion, and none of Ashoka's records states that he ever visited the city.[58]
That said, the historicity of the legend about Ashoka's involvement in the Takshashila
rebellion may be corroborated by an Aramaic-language inscription discovered at Sirkap near The Aramaic Inscription of
Taxila. The inscription includes a name that begins with the letters "prydr", and most Taxila probably mentions
Ashoka.
scholars restore it as "Priyadarshi", which was the title of Ashoka.[53] Another evidence of
Ashoka's connection to the city may be the name of the Dharmarajika Stupa near Taxila; the
name suggests that it was built by Ashoka ("Dharma-raja").[59]

The story about the deities miraculously bringing weapons to Ashoka may be the text's way of deifying Ashoka; or
indicating that Bindusara – who disliked Ashoka – wanted him to fail in Takshashila.[60]

Viceroy of Ujjain
According to the Mahavamsa, Bindusara appointed Ashoka as the Viceroy of Avantirastra (present day Ujjain district),[53]
which was an important administrative and commercial province in central India.[61] This tradition is corroborated by the
Saru Maru inscription discovered in central India; this inscription states that he visited the place as a prince.[62] Ashoka's
own rock edict mentions the presence of a prince viceroy at Ujjain during his reign,[63] which further supports the tradition
that he himself served as a viceroy at Ujjain.[64]

Pataliputra was connected to Ujjain by multiple routes in Ashoka's time, and on the way, Ashoka entourage may have
encamped at Rupnath, where his inscription has been found.[65]

According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka visited Vidisha, where he fell in love with a beautiful woman on his way to
Ujjain. According to the Dipamvamsa and Mahamvamsa, the woman was Devi – the daughter of a merchant. According to
the Mahabodhi-vamsa, she was Vidisha-Mahadevi and belonged to the Shakya clan of Gautama Buddha. The Buddhist
chroniclers may have fabricated the Shakya connection to connect Ashoka's family to Buddha.[66] The Buddhist texts allude
to her being a Buddhist in her later years but do not describe her conversion to Buddhism. Therefore, it is likely that she was
already a Buddhist when she met Ashoka.[67]
The Mahavamsa states that Devi gave birth to Ashoka's son Mahinda in Ujjain, and
two years later, to a daughter named Sanghamitta.[68] According to the Mahavamsa,
Ashoka's son Mahinda was ordained at the age of 20 years, during the sixth year of
Ashoka's reign. That means Mahinda must have been 14 years old when Ashoka
ascended the throne. Even if Mahinda was born when Ashoka was as young as 20
years old, Ashoka must have ascended the throne at 34 years, which means he must
have served as a viceroy for several years.[69]

Ascension to the throne

Legends suggest that Ashoka was not the crown prince, and his ascension on the
The Saru Maru commemorative
throne was disputed. [70]
inscription seems to mention the
presence of Ashoka in the area of
Ashokavadana states that Bindusara's eldest son Susima once slapped a bald minister
Ujjain as he was still a Prince.
on his head in jest. The minister worried that after ascending the throne, Susima may
jokingly hurt him with a sword. Therefore, he instigated five hundred ministers to
support Ashoka's claim to the throne when the time came, noting that Ashoka was predicted to become a chakravartin
(universal ruler).[71] Sometime later, Takshashila rebelled again, and Bindusara dispatched Susima to curb the rebellion.
Shortly after, Bindusara fell ill and was expected to die soon. Susima was still in Takshashila, having been unsuccessful in
suppressing the rebellion. Bindusara recalled him to the capital and asked Ashoka to march to Takshashila.[72] However, the
ministers told him that Ashoka was ill and suggested that he temporarily install Ashoka on the throne until Susmia's return
from Takshashila.[71] When Bindusara refused to do so, Ashoka declared that if the throne were rightfully his, the gods
would crown him as the next emperor. At that instance, the gods did so, Bindusara died, and Ashoka's authority extended to
the entire world, including the Yaksha territory located above the earth and the Naga territory located below the earth.[72]
When Susima returned to the capital, Ashoka's newly appointed prime minister Radhagupta tricked him into a pit of
charcoal. Susima died a painful death, and his general Bhadrayudha became a Buddhist monk.[73]

The Mahavamsa states that when Bindusara fell sick, Ashoka returned to Pataliputra from Ujjain and gained control of the
capital. After his father's death, Ashoka had his eldest brother killed and ascended the throne.[67] The text also states that
Ashoka killed ninety-nine of his half-brothers, including Sumana.[63] The Dipavamsa states that he killed a hundred of his
brothers and was crowned four years later.[71] The Vamsatthapakasini adds that an Ajivika ascetic had predicted this
massacre based on the interpretation of a dream of Ashoka's mother.[76] According to these accounts, only Ashoka's uterine
brother Tissa was spared.[77] Other sources name the surviving brother Vitashoka, Vigatashoka, Sudatta (So-ta-to in A-yi-
uang-chuan), or Sugatra (Siu-ka-tu-lu in Fen-pie-kung-te-hun).[77]

The figures such as 99 and 100 are exaggerated and seem to be a way of stating that Ashoka killed several of his
brothers.[71] Taranatha states that Ashoka, who was an illegitimate son of his predecessor, killed six legitimate princes to
ascend the throne.[42] It is possible that Ashoka was not the rightful heir to the throne and killed a brother (or brothers) to
acquire the throne. However, the Buddhist sources have exaggerated the story, which attempts to portray him as evil before
his conversion to Buddhism. Ashoka's Rock Edict No. 5 mentions officers whose duties include supervising the welfare of
"the families of his brothers, sisters, and other relatives". This suggests that more than one of his brothers survived his
ascension. However, some scholars oppose this suggestion, arguing that the inscription talks only about the families of his
brothers, not the brothers themselves.[77]

Date of ascension
According to the Sri Lankan texts Mahavamsa and the Dipavamsa, Ashoka ascended the throne 218 years after the death of
Gautama Buddha and ruled for 37 years.[78] The date of the Buddha's death is itself a matter of debate,[79] and the North
Indian tradition states that Ashoka ruled a hundred years after the Buddha's death, which has led to further debates about the
date.[20]

Assuming that the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, and assuming that the Buddha died in 483 BCE – a date proposed by
several scholars – Ashoka must have ascended the throne in 265 BCE.[79] The Puranas state that Ashoka's father Bindusara
reigned for 25 years, not 28 years as specified in the Sri Lankan tradition.[40] If this is true, Ashoka's ascension can be dated
three years earlier, to 268 BCE. Alternatively, if the Sri Lankan tradition is correct,
but if we assume that the Buddha died in 486 BCE (a date supported by the
Cantonese Dotted Record), Ashoka's ascension can be dated to 268 BCE.[79] The
Mahavamsa states that Ashoka consecrated himself as the emperor four years after
becoming a sovereign. This interregnum can be explained assuming that he fought a
war of succession with other sons of Bindusara during these four years.[80]

The Ashokavadana contains a story about Ashoka's minister Yashas hiding the sun
with his hand. Professor P. H. L. Eggermont theorised that this story was a reference
to a partial solar eclipse that was seen in northern India on 4 May 249 BCE.[81]
According to the Ashokavadana, Ashoka went on a pilgrimage to various Buddhist
sites sometime after this eclipse. Ashoka's Rummindei pillar inscription states that he
visited Lumbini during his 21st regnal year. Assuming this visit was a part of the
pilgrimage described in the text, and assuming that Ashoka visited Lumbini around
1–2 years after the solar eclipse, the ascension date of 268–269 BCE seems more
likely.[79][37] However, this theory is not universally accepted. For example,
according to John S. Strong, the event described in the Ashokavadana has nothing to
do with chronology, and Eggermont's interpretation grossly ignores the literary and
religious context of the legend.[82]

Reign before Buddhist influence

Both Sri Lankan and North Indian traditions assert that Ashoka was a violent person
before Buddhism.[83] Taranatha also states that Ashoka was initially called
"Kamashoka" because he spent many years in pleasurable pursuits (kama); he was
then called "Chandashoka" ("Ashoka the fierce") because he spent some years
The Lion Capital of Ashoka in
performing evil deeds; and finally, he came to be known as Dhammashoka ("Ashoka
Sarnath, showing its four Asiatic
the righteous") after his conversion to Buddhism.[84] lions standing back to back, and
symbolizing the Four Noble Truths
The Ashokavadana also calls him "Chandashoka", and describes several of his cruel of Buddhism, supporting the Wheel
acts:[85] of Moral law (Dharmachakra,
reconstitution per Sarnath Museum
The ministers who had helped him ascend the throne started treating him notice).[74] The lions stand on a
with contempt after his ascension. To test their loyalty, Ashoka gave them circular abacus, decorated with
the absurd order of cutting down every flower-and fruit-bearing tree. dharmachakras alternating with four
When they failed to carry out this order, Ashoka personally cut off the animals in profile: horse, bull,
heads of 500 ministers.[85] elephant, and lion. The architectural
One day, during a stroll at a park, Ashoka and his concubines came bell below the abacus, is a stylized
across a beautiful Ashoka tree. The sight put him in an amorous mood, upside down lotus. Sarnath
but the women did not enjoy caressing his rough skin. Sometime later, Museum.[75]
when Ashoka fell asleep, the resentful women chopped the flowers and
the branches of his namesake tree. After Ashoka woke up, he burnt 500
of his concubines to death as punishment.[86]
Alarmed by the king's involvement in such massacres, prime minister Radha-Gupta proposed hiring an
executioner to carry out future mass killings to leave the king unsullied. Girika, a Magadha village boy who
boasted that he could execute the whole of Jambudvipa, was hired for the purpose. He came to be known as
Chandagirika ("Girika the fierce"), and on his request, Ashoka built a jail in Pataliputra.[86] Called Ashoka's
Hell, the jail looked pleasant from the outside, but inside it, Girika brutally tortured the prisoners.[87] but was
last executed during the demolition of ashoka"s hell.
The 5th-century Chinese traveller Faxian states that Ashoka personally visited the underworld to study torture methods there
and then invented his methods. The 7th-century traveller Xuanzang claims to have seen a pillar marking the site of Ashoka's
"Hell".[84]

The Mahavamsa also briefly alludes to Ashoka's cruelty, stating that Ashoka was earlier called Chandashoka because of his
evil deeds but came to be called Dharmashoka because of his pious acts after his conversion to Buddhism.[88] However,
unlike the north Indian tradition, the Sri Lankan texts do not mention any specific evil deeds performed by Ashoka, except
his killing of 99 of his brothers.[83]

Such descriptions of Ashoka as an evil person before his conversion to Buddhism appear to be a fabrication of the Buddhist
authors,[84] who attempted to present the change that Buddhism brought to him as a miracle.[83] In an attempt to dramatise
this change, such legends exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion.[89]

Kalinga war and conversion to Buddhism

Ashoka's inscriptions mention that he conquered the Kalinga region during his 8th
regnal year: the destruction caused during the war made him repent violence, and in
the subsequent years, he was drawn towards Buddhism.[91] Edict 13 of the Edicts of
Ashoka Rock Inscriptions expresses the great remorse the king felt after observing
the destruction of Kalinga:

Directly, after the Kalingas had been annexed, began His Sacred Majesty's
zealous protection of the Law of Piety, his love of that Law, and his
inculcation of that Law. Thence arises the remorse of His Sacred Majesty
for having conquered the Kalingas because the conquest of a country
previously unconquered involves the slaughter, death, and carrying away
captive of the people. That is a matter of profound sorrow and regret to His
Sacred Majesty.[92]
Kanaganahalli inscribed panel
portraying Ashoka and his queens
On the other hand, the Sri Lankan tradition suggests that Ashoka was already a
with the Brahmi label "King Asoka",
devoted Buddhist by his 8th regnal year, converted to Buddhism during his 4th
1st–3rd century CE.[90]
regnal year, and constructed 84,000 viharas during his 5th–7th regnal years.[91] The
Buddhist legends make no mention of the Kalinga campaign.[93]

Based on Sri Lankan tradition, some scholars, such as Eggermont, believe Ashoka converted to Buddhism before the
Kalinga war.[94] Critics of this theory argue that if Ashoka were already a Buddhist, he would not have waged the violent
Kalinga War. Eggermont explains this anomaly by theorising that Ashoka had his own interpretation of the "Middle
Way".[95]

Some earlier writers believed that Ashoka dramatically converted to Buddhism after seeing the suffering caused by the war
since his Major Rock Edict 13 states that he became closer to the dhamma after the annexation of Kalinga.[93] However,
even if Ashoka converted to Buddhism after the war, epigraphic evidence suggests that his conversion was a gradual
process rather than a dramatic event.[93] For example, in a Minor Rock Edict issued during his 13th regnal year (five years
after the Kalinga campaign), he states that he had been an upasaka (lay Buddhist) for more than two and a half years, but
did not make much progress; in the past year, he was drawn closer to the sangha and became a more ardent follower.[93]

Kalinga war
According to Ashoka's Major Rock Edict 13, he conquered Kalinga 8 years after ascending to the throne. The edict states
that during his conquest of Kalinga, 100,000 men and animals were killed in action; many times that number "perished";
and 150,000 men and animals were carried away from Kalinga as captives. Ashoka states that the repentance of these
sufferings caused him to devote himself to the practice and propagation of dharma.[96] He proclaims that he now considered
the slaughter, death and deportation caused during the conquest of a country painful and deplorable; and that he considered
the suffering caused to the religious people and householders even more deplorable.[96]

This edict has been inscribed at several places, including Erragudi, Girnar, Kalsi, Maneshra, Shahbazgarhi and Kandahar.[97]
However, it is omitted in Ashoka's inscriptions found in the Kalinga region, where the Rock Edicts 13 and 14 have been
replaced by two separate edicts that make no mention of Ashoka's remorse. It is possible that Ashoka did not consider it
politically appropriate to make such a confession to the people of Kalinga.[98] Another possibility is the Kalinga war and its
consequences, as described in Ashoka's rock edicts, are "more imaginary than real". This description is meant to impress
those far removed from the scene, thus unable to verify its accuracy.[99]
Ancient sources do not mention any other military activity of Ashoka, although the 16th-century writer Taranatha claims
that Ashoka conquered the entire Jambudvipa.[94]

First contact with Buddhism

Different sources give different accounts of Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism.[84]

According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka's father, Bindusara, was a devotee of Brahmanism, and his mother Dharma was a
devotee of Ajivikas.[100] The Samantapasadika states that Ashoka followed non-Buddhist sects during the first three years
of his reign.[101] The Sri Lankan texts add that Ashoka was not happy with the behaviour of the Brahmins who received his
alms daily. His courtiers produced some Ajivika and Nigantha teachers before him, but these also failed to impress him.[102]

The Dipavamsa states that Ashoka invited several non-Buddhist religious leaders to his palace and bestowed great gifts
upon them in the hope that they would answer a question posed by the king. The text does not state what the question was
but mentions that none of the invitees were able to answer it.[103] One day, Ashoka saw a young Buddhist monk called
Nigrodha (or Nyagrodha), who was looking for alms on a road in Pataliputra.[103] He was the king's nephew, although the
king was not aware of this:[104] he was a posthumous son of Ashoka's eldest brother Sumana, whom Ashoka had killed
during the conflict for the throne.[105] Ashoka was impressed by Nigrodha's tranquil and fearless appearance, and asked him
to teach him his faith. In response, Nigrodha offered him a sermon on appamada (earnestness).[103] Impressed by the
sermon, Ashoka offered Nigrodha 400,000 silver coins and 8 daily portions of rice.[106] The king became a Buddhist
upasaka, and started visiting the Kukkutarama shrine at Pataliputra. At the temple, he met the Buddhist monk Moggaliputta
Tissa, and became more devoted to the Buddhist faith.[102] The veracity of this story is not certain.[106] This legend about
Ashoka's search for a worthy teacher may be aimed at explaining why Ashoka did not adopt Jainism, another major
contemporary faith that advocates non-violence and compassion. The legend suggests that Ashoka was not attracted to
Buddhism because he was looking for such a faith, rather, for a competent spiritual teacher.[107] The Sri Lankan tradition
adds that during his sixth regnal year, Ashoka's son Mahinda became a Buddhist monk, and his daughter became a Buddhist
nun.[108]

A story in Divyavadana attributes Ashoka's conversion to the Buddhist monk Samudra, who was an ex-merchant from
Shravasti. According to this account, Samudra was imprisoned in Ashoka's "Hell", but saved himself using his miraculous
powers. When Ashoka heard about this, he visited the monk, and was further impressed by a series of miracles performed
by the monk. He then became a Buddhist.[109] A story in the Ashokavadana states that Samudra was a merchant's son, and
was a 12-year-old boy when he met Ashoka; this account seems to be influenced by the Nigrodha story.[94]

The A-yu-wang-chuan states that a 7-year-old Buddhist converted Ashoka. Another story claims that the young boy ate 500
Brahmanas who were harassing Ashoka for being interested in Buddhism; these Brahmanas later miraculously turned into
Buddhist bhikkus at the Kukkutarama monastery, which Ashoka visited.[109]

Several Buddhist establishments existed in various parts of India by the time of Ashoka's ascension. It is not clear which
branch of the Buddhist sangha influenced him, but the one at his capital Pataliputra is a good candidate.[110] Another good
candidate is the one at Mahabodhi: the Major Rock Edict 8 records his visit to the Bodhi Tree – the place of Buddha's
enlightenment at Mahabodhi – after his tenth regnal year, and the minor rock edict issued during his 13th regnal year
suggests that he had become a Buddhist around the same time.[93][110]

Reign after Buddhist influence

Construction of stupas and temples

Both Mahavamsa and Ashokavadana state that Ashoka constructed 84,000 stupas or viharas.[111] According to the
Mahavamsa, this activity took place during his fifth–seventh regnal years.[108]

The Ashokavadana states that Ashoka collected seven out of the eight relics of Gautama Buddha, and had their portions kept
in 84,000 boxes made of gold, silver, cat's eye, and crystal. He ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas throughout the
earth, in towns that had a population of 100,000 or more. He told Elder Yashas, a monk at the Kukkutarama monastery, that
 he wanted these stupas to be completed on the same day. Yashas stated that he would
signal the completion time by eclipsing the sun with his hand. When he did so, the
84,000 stupas were completed at once.[22]

The Mahavamsa states that Ashoka ordered

construction of 84,000 viharas (monasteries)
rather than the stupas to house the relics.[115]
Like Ashokavadana, the Mahavamsa
Stupa of Sanchi. The central stupa describes Ashoka's collection of the relics, but
was built during the Mauryas, and
does not mention this episode in the context
enlarged during the Shungas, but
the decorative gateway is dated to
of the construction activities.[115] It states that
the later dynasty of the Ashoka decided to construct the 84,000
Satavahanas. viharas when Moggaliputta Tissa told him
that there were 84,000 sections of the
Buddha's Dharma.[116] Ashoka himself began
the construction of the Ashokarama vihara, and ordered subordinate kings to build
the other viharas. Ashokarama was completed by the miraculous power of Thera
Indagutta, and the news about the completion of the 84,000 viharas arrived from
various cities on the same day.[22]

The construction of following stupas and viharas is credited to Ashoka:

Illustration of the original Mahabodhi
Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India Temple temple built by Ashoka at
Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India Bodh Gaya. At the center, the
Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar, India Vajrasana, or "Enlightenment
Barabar Caves, Bihar, India Throne of the Buddha", with its
Nalanda Mahavihara (some portions like Sariputta Stupa), Bihar, India supporting columns, being the
object of adoration. A Pillar of
Takshashila University (some portions like Dharmarajika Stupa and
Ashoka topped by an elephant
Kunala Stupa), Takshashila, Pakistan
appears in the right corner. Bharhut
Bhir Mound (reconstructed), Takshashila, Pakistan relief, 1st century BCE.[112]
Bharhut stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India
Deorkothar Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India
Butkara Stupa, Swat, Pakistan
Sannati Stupa, Karnataka, India
Mir Rukun Stupa, Nawabshah, Pakistan

Propagation of Dharma
Ashoka's rock edicts suggest that during his eighth–ninth regnal years, he made a The rediscovered Vajrasana, or
pilgrimage to the Bodhi Tree, started propagating dharma, and performed social "Enlightenment Throne of the
Buddha", at the Mahabodhi Temple
welfare activities. The welfare activities included establishment of medical treatment
in Bodh Gaya. It was built by
facilities for humans and animals; plantation of medicinal herbs; and digging of wells
Ashoka to commemorate the
and plantation of trees along the roads. These activities were conducted in the enlightenment of the Buddha, about
neighbouring kingdoms, including those of the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, two hundred years before
Tamraparni, the Greek kingdom of Antiyoka.[117] him.[113][114]

The edicts also state that during his tenth–eleventh regnal years, Ashoka became
closer to the Buddhist sangha, and went on a tour of the empire that lasted for at least 256 days.[117]

By his 12th regnal year, Ashoka had started inscribing edicts to propagate dharma, having ordered his officers (rajjukas and
pradesikas) to tour their jurisdictions every five years for inspection and for preaching dharma. By the next year, he had set
up the post of the dharma-mahamatra.[117]
During his 14th regnal year, he commissioned the enlargement of the stupa of Buddha Kanakamuni.[117]

Third Buddhist Council

The Sri Lankan tradition presents a greater role for Ashoka in the Buddhist community.[19] In this tradition, Ashoka starts
feeding monks on a large scale. His lavish patronage to the state patronage leads to many fake monks joining the sangha.
The true Buddhist monks refuse to co-operate with these fake monks, and therefore, no uposatha ceremony is held for seven
years. The king attempts to eradicate the fake monks, but during this attempt, an over-zealous minister ends up killing some
real monks. The king then invites the elder monk Moggaliputta-Tissa, to help him expel non-Buddhists from the monastery
founded by him at Pataliputra.[104] 60,000 monks (bhikkhus) convicted of being heretical are de-frocked in the ensuing
process.[19] The uposatha ceremony is then held, and Tissa subsequently organises the Third Buddhist council,[118] during
the 17th regnal year of Ashoka.[119] Tissa compiles Kathavatthu, a text that reaffirms Theravadin orthodoxy on several
points.[118]

The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events, which has led to doubts about the historicity of the Third
Buddhist council.[20]

Richard Gombrich argues that the non-corroboration of this story by inscriptional

evidence cannot be used to dismiss it as completely unhistorical, as several of
Ashoka's inscriptions may have been lost.[118] Gombrich also argues that Asohka's
inscriptions prove that he was interested in maintaining the "unanimity and purity" of
the Sangha.[120] For example, in his Minor Rock Edict 3, Ashoka recommends the
members of the Sangha to study certain texts (most of which remain unidentified).
Similarly, in an inscription found at Sanchi, Sarnath, and Kosam, Ashoka mandates
that the dissident members of the sangha should be expelled, and expresses his desire Ashoka and Monk Moggaliputta-
Tissa at the Third Buddhist Council.
to the Sangha remain united and flourish.[121][122]
Nava Jetavana, Shravasti.

The 8th century Buddhist pilgrim Yijing records another story about Ashoka's
involvement in the Buddhist sangha. According to this story, the earlier king
Bimbisara, who was a contemporary of the Gautama Buddha, once saw 18 fragments of a cloth and a stick in a dream. The
Buddha interpreted the dream to mean that his philosophy would be divided into 18 schools after his death, and predicted
that a king called Ashoka would unite these schools over a hundred years later.[76]

Buddhist missions
In the Sri Lankan tradition, Moggaliputta-Tissa – who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out nine Buddhist missions to spread
Buddhism in the "border areas" in c. 250 BCE. This tradition does not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions.
Each mission comprises five monks, and is headed by an elder.[123] To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son Mahinda,
accompanied by four other Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala.[19] Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help,
Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of the Yonas
(Greeks), Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka.[19]

The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the following missionaries:[117]

Mahinda to Sri Lanka

Majjhantika to Kashmir and Gandhara
Mahadeva to Mahisa-mandala (possibly modern Mysore region)
Rakkhita to Vanavasa
Dhammarakkhita the Greek to Aparantaka (western India)
Maha-dhamma-rakkhita to Maharashtra
Maharakkhita to the Greek country
Majjhima to the Himalayas
Soṇa and Uttara to Suvaṇṇabhūmi (possibly Lower Burma and Thailand)
The tradition adds that during his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter Sanghamitta went to Sri Lanka to establish an order
of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her.[123][119]
The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events.[20] Ashoka's own inscriptions also appear to omit any mention
of these events, recording only one of his activities during this period: in his 19th regnal year, he donated the Khalatika
Cave to ascetics to provide them a shelter during the rainy season. Ashoka's Pillar Edicts suggest that during the next year,
he made pilgrimage to Lumbini – the place of Buddha's birth, and to the stupa of the Buddha Kanakamuni.[119]

The Rock Edict XIII states that Ashoka's won a "dhamma victory" by sending messengers to five kings and several other
kingdoms. Whether these missions correspond to the Buddhist missions recorded in the Buddhist chronicles is debated.[124]
Indologist Etienne Lamotte argues that the "dhamma" missionaries mentioned in Ashoka's inscriptions were probably not
Buddhist monks, as this "dhamma" was not same as "Buddhism".[125] Moreover, the lists of destinations of the missions and
the dates of the missions mentioned in the inscriptions do not tally the ones mentioned in the Buddhist legends.[126]

Other scholars, such as Erich Frauwallner and Richard Gombrich, believe that the missions mentioned in the Sri Lankan
tradition are historical.[126] According to these scholars, a part of this story is corroborated by archaeological evidence: the
Vinaya Nidana mentions names of five monks, who are said to have gone to the Himalayan region; three of these names
have been found inscribed on relic caskets found at Bhilsa (near Vidisha). These caskets have been dated to the early 2nd
century BCE, and the inscription states that the monks are of the Himalayan school.[123] The missions may have set out
from Vidisha in central India, as the caskets were discovered there, and as Mahinda is said to have stayed there for a month
before setting out for Sri Lanka.[127]

According to Gombrich, the mission may have included representatives of other religions, and thus, Lamotte's objection
about "dhamma" is not valid. The Buddhist chroniclers may have decided not to mention these non-Buddhists, so as not to
sideline Buddhism.[128] Frauwallner and Gombrich also believe that Ashoka was directly responsible for the missions, since
only a resourceful ruler could have sponsored such activities. The Sri Lankan chronicles, which belong to the Theravada
school, exaggerate the role of the Theravadin monk Moggaliputta-Tissa in order to glorify their sect.[128]

Some historians argue that Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal patronage.[129] However,
epigraphic evidence suggests that the spread of Buddhism in north-western India and Deccan region was less because of
Ashoka's missions, and more because of merchants, traders, landowners and the artisan guilds who supported Buddhist
establishments.[130]

Violence after conversion

According to the 5th century Buddhist legend Ashokavadana, Ashoka resorted to violence even after converting to
Buddhism. For example:[131]

He slowly tortured Chandagirika to death in the "hell" prison.[131]

He ordered a massacre of 18,000 heretics for a misdeed of one.[131]
He launched a pogrom against the Jains, announcing a bounty on the head of any heretic; this resulted in the
beheading of his own brother – Vitashoka.[131]
According to the Ashokavadana, a non-Buddhist in Pundravardhana drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet
of the Nirgrantha leader Jnatiputra. The term nirgrantha ("free from bonds") was originally used for a pre-Jaina ascetic
order, but later came to be used for Jaina monks.[132] "Jnatiputra" is identified with Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara of Jainism.
The legend states that on complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka issued an order to arrest the non-Buddhist artist, and
subsequently, another order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were
executed as a result of this order.[133][134] Sometime later, another Nirgrantha follower in Pataliputra drew a similar picture.
Ashoka burnt him and his entire family alive in their house.[134] He also announced an award of one dinara to anyone who
brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic. According to Ashokavadana, as a result of this order, his own brother was
mistaken for a heretic and killed by a cowherd.[133] Ashoka realised his mistake, and withdrew the order.[132]
For several reasons, scholars say, these stories of persecutions of rival sects by Ashoka appear to be clear fabrications
arising out of sectarian propaganda.[134][135][136] Additionally, these stories do not appear in the Jain texts themselves who
do mention Ashoka, such as the Parishtaparvan or Theravali.[137][138]

Family

Consorts
Various sources mention five consorts of Ashoka: Devi (or Vedisa-Mahadevi-
Shakyakumari), Asandhimitra, Padmavati, Karuvaki and Tishyarakshita.[140]

Karuvaki is the only queen of Ashoka known from his own inscriptions: she is
mentioned in an edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad. The inscription names her as
the mother of prince Tivara, and orders the imperial officers (mahamattas) to record
her religious and charitable donations.[80] According to one theory, Tishyarakshita An emperor - most probably Ashoka
- with his two empresses
was the regnal name of Kaurvaki.[80]
Asandhimitra and Karuvaki and
three attendants, in a relief at
According to the Mahavamsa, Ashoka's chief empress was Asandhimitta, who died
Sanchi.[2] The emperor's
four years before him.[80] It states that she was born as Ashoka's empress because in identification with Ashoka is
a previous life, she directed a pratyekabuddha to a honey merchant (who was later suggested by a similar relief at
reborn as Ashoka).[141] Some later texts also state that she additionally gave the Kanaganahalli, which bears his
pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her.[142] These texts include the name.[139][2]
Dasavatthuppakarana, the so-called Cambodian or Extended Mahavamsa (possibly
from 9th–10th centuries), and the Trai Bhumi Katha (15th century).[142] These texts
narrate another story: one day, Ashoka mocked Asandhamitta was enjoying a tasty piece of
sugarcane without having earned it through her karma. Asandhamitta replied that all her
enjoyments resulted from merit resulting from her own karma. Ashoka then challenged her
to prove this by procuring 60,000 robes as an offering for monks.[142] At night, the guardian
gods informed her about her past gift to the pratyekabuddha, and next day, she was able to
miraculously procure the 60,000 robes. An impressed Ashoka makes her his favourite
empress, and even offers to make her a sovereign ruler. Asandhamitta refuses the offer, but
still invokes the jealousy of Ashoka's 16,000 other women. Ashoka proves her superiority by
having 16,000 identical cakes baked with his imperial seal hidden in only one of them. Each
wife is asked to choose a cake, and only Asandhamitta gets the one with the imperial
seal.[143] The Trai Bhumi Katha claims that it was Asandhamitta who encouraged her
husband to become a Buddhist, and to construct 84,000 stupas and 84,000 viharas.[144]

According to Mahavamsa, after Asandhamitta's death, Tissarakkha became the chief Ashoka with his empress
empress.[80] The Ashokavadana does not mention Asandhamitta at all, but does mention Tishyarakshita, at
Kanaganahalli near
Tissarakkha as Tishyarakshita.[145] The Divyavadana mentions another empress called
Sannati, 1st–3rd century
Padmavati, who was the mother of the crown-prince Kunala.[80] CE. The relief bears the
inscription "Rāya Asoko" (𑀭𑀸
As mentioned above, according to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka fell in love with Devi (or 𑀬 𑀅𑀲𑁄 𑀓𑁄 , "King Ashoka") in
Vidisha-Mahadevi), as a prince in central India.[66] After Ashoka's ascension to the throne, the Brahmi script. It depicts
Devi chose to remain at Vidisha than move to the imperial capital Pataliputra. According to the emperor with his
the Mahavmsa, Ashoka's chief empress was Asandhamitta, not Devi: the text does not talk of empress, two attendants
any connection between the two women, so it is unlikely that Asandhamitta was another bearing fly-whisks, and one
attendant bearing an
name for Devi.[146] The Sri Lankan tradition uses the word samvasa to describe the
umbrella.[139][2]
relationship between Ashoka and Devi, which modern scholars variously interpret as sexual
relations outside marriage, or co-habitation as a married couple.[147] Those who argue that
Ashoka did not marry Devi argue that their theory is corroborated by the fact that Devi did
not become Ashoka's chief empress in Pataliputra after his ascension.[64] The Dipavamsa
refers to two children of Ashoka and Devi – Mahinda and Sanghamitta.[148]

Sons
Tivara, the fourth son of Ashoka and Karuvaki, is the only of Ashoka's sons to be mentioned
by name in the inscriptions.[80]

According to North Indian tradition, Ashoka had a second son named Kunala.[20] Kunala had
a son named Samprati.[80]

The Sri Lankan tradition mentions a son called Mahinda, who was sent to Sri Lanka as a
Buddhist missionary; this son is not mentioned at all in the North Indian tradition.[19] The
Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang states that Mahinda was Ashoka's younger brother (Vitashoka or Emperor Ashoka and his
Vigatashoka) rather than his illegitimate son.[149] Queen Devi
(Shakyakumari) at the Deer
The Divyavadana mentions the crown-prince Kunala alias Dharmavivardhana, who was a Park. Sanchi relief.[2]
second son of Ashoka and empress Padmavati. According to Faxian, Dharmavivardhana was
appointed as the governor of Gandhara.[80]

The Rajatarangini mentions Jalauka as a third son of Ashoka.[80]

Daughters
According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka had a daughter named Sanghamitta, who became a Bhikkhunī.[108] A section of
historians, such as Romila Thapar, doubt the historicity of Sanghamitta, based on the following points:[150]

The name "Sanghamitta", which literally means the friend of the Buddhist order (sangha), is unusual, and the
story of her going to Ceylon so that the Ceylonese queen could be ordained appears to be an
exaggeration.[146]
The Mahavamsa states that she married Ashoka's nephew Agnibrahma, and the couple had a son named
Sumana. The contemporary laws regarding exogamy would have forbidden such a marriage between first
cousins.[149]
According to the Mahavamsa, she was 18 years old when she was ordained as a nun.[146] The narrative
suggests that she was married two years earlier, and that her husband as well as her child were ordained. It
is unlikely that she would have been allowed to become a nun with such a young child.[149]
Another source mentions that Ashoka had a daughter named Charumati, who married a kshatriya named Devapala.[80]

Brothers
According to the Ashokavadana, Ashoka had an elder half-brother named Susima.[41]

According to Sri Lankan tradition, this brother was Tissa, who initially lived a luxurious life, without worrying
about the world. To teach him a lesson, Ashoka put him on the throne for a few days, then accused him of
being an usurper, and sentenced him to die after seven days. During these seven days, Tissa realised that
the Buddhist monks gave up pleasure because they were aware of the eventual death. He then left the
palace, and became an arhat.[77]
The Theragatha commentary calls this brother Vitashoka. According to this legend, one day, Vitashoka saw a
grey hair on his head, and realised that he had become old. He then retired to a monastery, and became an
arhat.[132]
Faxian calls the younger brother Mahendra, and states that Ashoka shamed him for his immoral behaviour.
The brother then retired to a dark cave, where he meditated, and became an arhat. Ashoka invited him to
return to the family, but he preferred to live alone on a hill. So, Ashoka had a hill built for him within
Pataliputra.[132]
 The Ashoka-vadana states that Ashoka's brother was mistaken for a non-Buddhist Jain, and killed during a
massacre of the Jains ordered by Ashoka.[132]

Imperial extent
The extent of the territory controlled by Ashoka's predecessors is not
certain, but it is possible that the empire of his grandfather Chandragupta
extended across northern India from the western coast (Arabian Sea) to
the eastern coast (Bay of Bengal) covering nearly two-thirds of the
Indian subcontinent. Bindusara and Ashoka seem to have extended the
empire southwards.[152] The distribution of Ashoka's inscriptions
suggests that his empire included almost the entire Indian subcontinent,
except its southernmost parts. The Rock Edicts 2 and 13 suggest that
these southernmost parts were controlled by the Cholas, the Pandyas, the
Keralaputras, and the Satiyaputras. In the north-west, Ashoka's kingdom
extended up to Kandahar, to the east of the Seleucid Empire ruled by
Antiochus II.[2] The capital of Ashoka's empire was Pataliputra in the
Magadha region.[152]

Ashoka's empire stretched from Afghanistan to

Bengal to southern India. Several modern maps
Religion and philosophy depict it as covering nearly all of the Indian
subcontinent, except the southern tip.[151]

Relationship with Buddhism

The Buddhist legends state that Ashoka converted to Buddhism,[153] although this
has been debated by a section of scholars.[154] The Minor Rock Edict 1 leaves no
doubt that Ashoka was a follower of Buddhism. In this edict, he calls himself an
upasaka (a lay follower of Buddhism) and a sakya (i.e. Buddhist, after Gautama
Buddha's title Shakya-Muni).[155] This and several other edicts are evidence of his
The word Upāsaka (𑀉𑀧𑀸 𑀲𑀓,
Buddhist affiliation:[156] "Buddhist lay follower", in the
Brahmi script), used by Ashoka in
In his Minor Rock Edict 1, Ashoka adds that he did not make much his Minor Rock Edict No.1 to
progress for a year after becoming an upasaka, but then, he "went to" the describe his affiliation to Buddhism
Sangha, and made more progress. It is not certain what "going to" the
(c. 258 BCE).
Sangha means – the Buddhist tradition that he lived with monks may be
an exaggeration, but it clearly means that Ashoka was drawn closer to
Buddhism.[157]
In his Minor Rock Edict 3, he calls himself an upasaka, and records his faith in the Buddha and the
Sangha.[158][159]
In the Major Rock Edict 8, he records his visit to Sambodhi (the sacred Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya), ten years
after his coronation.[159]
In the Lumbini (Rumminidei) inscription, he records his visit to the Buddha's birthplace, and declares his
reverence for the Buddha and the sangha.[82]
In the Nigalisagar inscription, he records his doubling in size of a stupa dedicated to a former Buddha, and
his visit to the site for worship.[121]
Some of his inscriptions reflect his interest in maintaining the Buddhist sangha.[121]
The Saru Maru inscription states that Ashoka dispatched the message while travelling to Upunita-vihara in
Manema-desha. Although the identity of the destination is not certain, it was obviously a Buddhist monastery
(vihara).[160]

Other religions
A legend in the Buddhist text Vamsatthapakasini states that an Ajivika ascetic invited to interpret a dream of Ashoka's
mother had predicted that he would patronise Buddhism and destroy 96 heretical sects.[76] However, such assertions are
directly contradicted by Ashoka's own inscriptions. Ashoka's edicts, such as the Rock Edicts 6, 7, and 12, emphasise
tolerance of all sects.[161] Similarly, in his Rock Edict 12, Ashoka honours people of all faiths.[162] In his inscriptions,
Ashoka dedicates caves to non-Buddhist ascetics, and repeatedly states that both Brahmins and shramanas deserved respect.
He also tells people "not to denigrate other sects, but to inform themselves about them".[157]

In fact, there is no evidence that Buddhism was a state religion under Ashoka.[163] None of Ashoka's extant edicts record his
direct donations to the Buddhists. One inscription records donations by his Queen Karuvaki, while the emperor is known to
have donated the Barabar Caves to the Ajivikas.[164] There are some indirect references to his donations to Buddhists. For
example, the Nigalisagar Pillar inscription records his enlargement of the Konakamana stupa.[165] Similarly, the Lumbini
(Rumminidei) inscription states that he exempted the village of Buddha's birth from the land tax, and reduced the revenue
tax to one-eighth.[166]

Ashoka appointed the dhamma-mahamatta officers, whose duties included the welfare of various religious sects, including
the Buddhist sangha, Brahmins, Ajivikas, and Nirgranthas. The Rock Edicts 8 and 12, and the Pillar Edict 7, mandate
donations to all religious sects.[167]

Ashoka's Minor Rock Edict 1 contains the phrase "amissā devā". According to one interpretation, the term "amissā" derives
from the word "amṛṣa" ("false"), and thus, the phrase is a reference to Ashoka's belief in "true" and "false" gods. However,
it is more likely that the term derives from the word "amiśra" ("not mingled"), and the phrase refers to celestial beings who
did not mingle with humans. The inscription claims that the righteousness generated by adoption of dhamma by the humans
attracted even the celestial gods who did not mingle with humans.[168]

Dharma
Ashoka's various inscriptions suggest that he devoted himself to the propagation of "Dharma" (Pali: Dhamma), a term that
refers to the teachings of Gautama Buddha in the Buddhist circles.[169] However, Ashoka's own inscriptions do not mention
Buddhist doctrines such as the Four Noble Truths or Nirvana.[82] The word "Dharma" has various connotations in the Indian
religions, and can be generally translated as "law, duty, or righteousness".[169] In the Kandahar inscriptions of Ashoka, the
word "Dharma" has been translated as eusebeia (Greek) and qsyt (Aramaic), which further suggests that his "Dharma"
meant something more generic than Buddhism.[154]

The inscriptions suggest that for Ashoka, Dharma meant "a moral polity of active social concern, religious tolerance,
ecological awareness, the observance of common ethical precepts, and the renunciation of war."[169] For example:

Abolition of the death penalty (Pillar Edict IV)[157]

Plantation of banyan trees and mango groves, and construction of resthouses and wells, every 800 metres
(1⁄2 mile) along the roads. (Pillar Edict 7).[162]
Restriction on killing of animals in the imperial kitchen (Rock Edict 1); [162] the number of animals killed was
limited to two peacocks and a deer daily, and in future, even these animals were not to be killed.[157]
Provision of medical facilities for humans and animals (Rock Edict 2).[162]
Encouragement of obedience to parents, "generosity toward priests and ascetics, and frugality in spending"
(Rock Edict 3).[162]
He "commissions officers to work for the welfare and happiness of the poor and aged" (Rock Edict 5)[162]
Promotion of "the welfare of all beings so as to pay off his debt to living creatures and to work for their
happiness in this world and the next." (Rock Edict 6)[162]
Modern scholars have variously understood this dhamma as a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a "sort of
universal religion", or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it has also been interpreted as an essentially political
ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse empire.[11]

Ashoka instituted a new category of officers called the dhamma-mahamattas, who were tasked with the welfare of the aged,
the infirm, the women and children, and various religious sects. They were also sent on diplomatic missions to the
Hellenistic kingdoms of west Asia, in order to propagate the dhamma.[167]

Historically, the image of Ashoka in the global Buddhist circles was based on legends (such as those mentioned in the
Ashokavadana) rather than his rock edicts. This was because the Brahmi script in which these edicts were written was
forgotten soon and remained undeciphered until its study by James Prinsep in the 19th century.[170] The writings of the
Chinese Buddhist pilgrims such as Faxian and Xuanzang suggest that Ashoka's inscriptions mark the important sites
associated with Gautama Buddha. These writers attribute Buddhism-related content to Ashoka's edicts, but this content does
not match with the actual text of the inscriptions as determined by modern scholars after the decipherment of the Brahmi
script. It is likely that the script was forgotten by the time of Faxian, who probably relied on local guides; these guides may
have made up some Buddhism-related interpretations to gratify him, or may have themselves relied on faulty translations
based on oral traditions. Xuanzang may have encountered a similar situation, or may have taken the supposed content of the
inscriptions from Faxian's writings.[171] This theory is corroborated by the fact that some Brahmin scholars are known to
have similarly come up with a fanciful interpretation of Ashoka pillar inscriptions, when requested to decipher them by the
14th century Muslim Tughlaq emperor Firuz Shah Tughlaq. According to Shams-i Siraj's Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi, after the king
had these pillar transported from Topra and Mirat to Delhi as war trophies, these Brahmins told him that the inscriptions
prophesied that nobody would be able to remove the pillars except a king named Firuz. Moreover, by this time, there were
local traditions that attributed the erection of these pillars to the legendary hero Bhima.[172]

According to scholars such as Richard Gombrich, Ashoka's dharma shows Buddhist influence. For example, the Kalinga
Separate Edict I seems to be inspired by Buddha's Advice to Sigala and his other sermons.[157]

Animal welfare
Ashoka's rock edicts declare that injuring living things is not good, and no animal should be slaughtered for sacrifice.[173]
However, he did not prohibit common cattle slaughter or beef eating.[174]

He imposed a ban on killing of "all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible", and of specific animal species
including several birds, certain types of fish and bulls among others. He also banned killing of female goats, sheep and pigs
that were nursing their young; as well as their young up to the age of six months. He also banned killing of all fish and
castration of animals during certain periods such as Chaturmasa and Uposatha.[175][176]

Ashoka also abolished the imperial hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the imperial
residence.[177] Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays,
the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as "one of the very few instances in world history of a government
treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents".[178]

Foreign relations
It is well known that Ashoka sent dütas or emissaries to convey messages or letters,
written or oral (rather both), to various people. The VIth Rock Edict about "oral
orders" reveals this. It was later confirmed that it was not unusual to add oral
messages to written ones, and the content of Ashoka's messages can be inferred
likewise from the XIIIth Rock Edict: They were meant to spread his dhammavijaya,
which he considered the highest victory and which he wished to propagate
everywhere (including far beyond India). There is obvious and undeniable trace of
cultural contact through the adoption of the Kharosthi script, and the idea of Territories "conquered by the
installing inscriptions might have travelled with this script, as Achaemenid influence Dhamma" according to Major Rock
Edict No.13 of Ashoka (260–218
is seen in some of the formulations used by Ashoka in his inscriptions. This indicates
BCE).[179][180]
to us that Ashoka was indeed in contact with other cultures, and was an active part in
mingling and spreading new cultural ideas beyond his own immediate walls.[181]

Hellenistic world
In his rock edicts, Ashoka states that he had encouraged the transmission of Buddhism to the Hellenistic kingdoms to the
west and that the Greeks in his dominion were converts to Buddhism and recipients of his envoys:

Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest. And it (conquest by
Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king Antiochos
rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the
south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni. Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the
 Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamktis, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere
people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. Even where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys
have not been, these people too, having heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances and instructions in
Dhamma given by Beloved-of-the-Gods, are following it and will continue to do so.

— Edicts of Ashoka, Rock Edict (S. Dhammika)[182]

It is possible, but not certain, that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the Hellenistic royal
orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, given the presence of ambassadors
of Hellenistic kings in India (as well as the dütas sent by Ashoka himself).[181] Dionysius is reported to have been such a
Greek ambassador at the court of Ashoka, sent by Ptolemy II Philadelphus,[183] who himself is mentioned in the Edicts of
Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka. Some Hellenistic philosophers, such as Hegesias of Cyrene,
who probably lived under the rule of King Magas, one of the supposed recipients of Buddhist emissaries from Ashoka, are
sometimes thought to have been influenced by Buddhist teachings.[184]

The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of
Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in spreading
Buddhism (the Mahavamsa, XII).[185]

Some Greeks (Yavana) may have played an administrative role in the territories ruled by Ashoka. The Girnar inscription of
Rudradaman records that during the rule of Ashoka, a Yavana Governor was in charge in the area of Girnar, Gujarat,
mentioning his role in the construction of a water reservoir.[186]

It is thought that Ashoka's palace at Patna was modelled after the Achaemenid palace of Persepolis.[187]

Legends about past lives

Buddhist legends mention stories about Ashoka's past lives. According to a Mahavamsa
story, Ashoka, Nigrodha and Devnampiya Tissa were brothers in a previous life. In that life,
a pratyekabuddha was looking for honey to cure another, sick pratyekabuddha. A woman
directed him to a honey shop owned by the three brothers. Ashoka generously donated honey
to the pratyekabuddha, and wished to become the sovereign ruler of Jambudvipa for this act
of merit.[188] The woman wished to become his queen, and was reborn as Ashoka's wife
Asandhamitta.[141] Later Pali texts credit her with an additional act of merit: she gifted the
pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her. These texts include the Dasavatthuppakarana,
the so-called Cambodian or Extended Mahavamsa (possibly from 9th–10th centuries), and
the Trai Bhumi Katha (15th century).[142]

According to an Ashokavadana story, Ashoka was born as Jaya in a prominent family of

Statue of the emperor
Ashoka the Great at
Rajagriha. When he was a little boy, he gave the Gautama Buddha dirt imagining it to be
Rangkut Banasram food. The Buddha approved of the donation, and Jaya declared that he would become a king
Pilgrimage Monastery in by this act of merit. The text also state that Jaya's companion Vijaya was reborn as Ashoka's
Ramu, Cox's Bazar District, prime-minister Radhagupta.[189] In the later life, the Buddhist monk Upagupta tells Ashoka
Bangladesh that his rough skin was caused by the impure gift of dirt in the previous life.[131] Some later
texts repeat this story, without mentioning the negative implications of gifting dirt; these
texts include Kumaralata's Kalpana-manditika, Aryashura's Jataka-mala, and the Maha-
karma-vibhaga. The Chinese writer Pao Ch'eng's Shih chia ju lai ying hua lu asserts that an insignificant act like gifting dirt
could not have been meritorious enough to cause Ashoka's future greatness. Instead, the text claims that in another past life,
Ashoka commissioned a large number of Buddha statues as a king, and this act of merit caused him to become a great
emperor in the next life.[190]

The 14th century Pali-language fairy tale Dasavatthuppakarana (possibly from c. 14th century) combines the stories about
the merchant's gift of honey, and the boy's gift of dirt. It narrates a slightly different version of the Mahavamsa story, stating
that it took place before the birth of the Gautama Buddha. It then states that the merchant was reborn as the boy who gifted
dirt to the Buddha; however, in this case, the Buddha his attendant to Ānanda to create plaster from the dirt, which is used
repair cracks in the monastery walls.[191]

Last years

Tissarakkha as the empress

Ashoka's last dated inscription - the Pillar Edict 4 is from his 26th regnal year.[119] The only source of information about
Ashoka's later years are the Buddhist legends. The Sri Lankan tradition states that Ashoka's empress Asandhamitta died
during his 29th regnal year, and in his 32nd regnal year, his wife Tissarakkha was given the title of empress.[119]

Both Mahavamsa and Ashokavadana state that Ashoka extended favours and attention to the Bodhi Tree, and a jealous
Tissarakkha mistook "Bodhi" to be a mistress of Ashoka. She then used black magic to make the tree wither.[192] According
to the Ashokavadana, she hired a sorceress to do the job, and when Ashoka explained that "Bodhi" was the name of a tree,
she had the sorceress heal the tree.[193] According to the Mahavamsa, she completely destroyed the tree,[194] during
Ashoka's 34th regnal year.[119]

The Ashokavadana states that Tissarakkha (called "Tishyarakshita" here) made sexual advances towards Ashoka's son
Kunala, but Kunala rejected her. Subsequently, Ashoka granted Tissarakkha emperorship for seven days, and during this
period, she tortured and blinded Kunala.[145] Ashoka then threatened to "tear out her eyes, rip open her body with sharp
rakes, impale her alive on a spit, cut off her nose with a saw, cut out her tongue with a razor." Kunala regained his eyesight
miraculously, and pleaded for mercy for the empress, but Ashoka had her executed anyway.[192] Kshemendra's Avadana-
kalpa-lata also narrates this legend, but seeks to improve Ashoka's image by stating that he forgave the empress after
Kunala regained his eyesight.[195]

Death
According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka died during his 37th regnal year,[119] which suggests that he died around 232
BCE.[196]

According to the Ashokavadana, the emperor fell severely ill during his last days. He started using state funds to make
donations to the Buddhist sangha, prompting his ministers to deny him access to the state treasury. Ashoka then started
donating his personal possessions, but was similarly restricted from doing so. On his deathbed, his only possession was the
half of a myrobalan fruit, which he offered to the sangha as his final donation.[197] Such legends encourage generous
donations to the sangha and highlight the role of the emperorship in supporting the Buddhist faith.[48]

Legend states that during his cremation, his body burned for seven days and nights.[198]

Legacy
During his reign, the Maurya Empire became one of the biggest empires in the world in terms of area, economy, and
military. The achievements in the fields of science and education made the Maurya period the Golden Age of India.

Architecture
Besides the various stupas attributed to Ashoka, the pillars erected by him survive at various places in the Indian
subcontinent.

Ashoka is often credited with the beginning of stone architecture in India, possibly following the introduction of stone-
building techniques by the Greeks after Alexander the Great.[199] Before Ashoka's time, buildings were probably built in
non-permanent material, such as wood, bamboo or thatch.[199][200] Ashoka may have rebuilt his palace in Pataliputra by
replacing wooden material by stone,[201] and may also have used the help of foreign craftmen.[202] Ashoka also innovated
by using the permanent qualities of stone for his written edicts, as well as his pillars with Buddhist symbolism.

The Ashokan pillar at The Diamond throne Front frieze of the Mauryan ringstone,
Lumbini, Nepal, at the Mahabodhi Diamond throne with standing
Buddha's birthplace Temple, attributed to goddess. Northwest
Ashoka Pakistan. 3rd century
BCE. British Museum

Rampurva bull
capital, detail of the
abacus, with two
"flame palmettes"
framing a lotus
surrounded by small
rosette flowers.

Symbols
Ashokan capitals were highly realistic and used a characteristic polished Symbols of Ashoka
finish, Mauryan polish, giving a shiny appearance to the stone
surface.[203] Lion Capital of Ashoka, the capital of one of the pillars
erected by Ashoka features a carving of a spoked wheel, known as the
Ashoka Chakra. This wheel represents the wheel of Dhamma set in
motion by the Gautama Buddha, and appears on the flag of modern India.
This capital also features sculptures of lions, which appear on the seal of
India.[152]

Inscriptions Ashoka's pillar Ashoka Chakra, "the wheel of

capital of Righteousness" (Dharma in
The edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of
Sarnath. This Sanskrit or Dhamma in Pali)",
Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, issued during his reign.[203] sculpture has has been adopted in the
These inscriptions are dispersed throughout modern-day Pakistan and been adopted National Flag of India.
India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts as the National
describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the Emblem of
sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history, offering India.
more information about Ashoka's proselytism, moral precepts, religious
precepts, and his notions of social and animal welfare.[205]
Before Ashoka, the royal communications appear to have been written on perishable
materials such as palm leaves, birch barks, cotton cloth, and possibly wooden boards.
While Ashoka's administration would have continued to use these materials, Ashoka
also had his messages inscribed on rock edicts.[206] Ashoka probably got the idea of
putting up these inscriptions from the neighbouring Achaemenid empire.[157] It is
likely that Ashoka's messages were also inscribed on more perishable materials, such
as wood, and sent to various parts of the empire. None of these records survive
now.[14]

Scholars are still attempting to analyse both the expressed and implied political ideas
of the Edicts (particularly in regard to imperial vision), and make inferences
pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems and political realities of a
"virtually subcontinental, and culturally and economically highly variegated, 3rd
century BCE Indian empire.[10] Nonetheless, it remains clear that Ashoka's Distribution of the Edicts of Ashoka,
Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of royal inscriptions in the Indian and location of the contemporary
subcontinent, and therefore prove to be a very important innovation in royal Greek city of Ai-Khanoum.[204]
practices."[205]

Most of Ashoka's inscriptions are written in a mixture of various Prakrit dialects, in

the Brahmi script.[207]

Several of Ashoka's inscriptions appear to have been set up near towns, on important
routes, and at places of religious significance.[208] Many of the inscriptions have
been discovered in hills, rock shelters, and places of local significance.[209] Various
theories have been put forward about why Ashoka or his officials chose such places,
including that they were centres of megalithic cultures,[210] were regarded as sacred
spots in Ashoka's time, or that their physical grandeur may be symbolic of spiritual
dominance.[211] Ashoka's inscriptions have not been found at major cities of the
Maurya empire, such as Pataliputra, Vidisha, Ujjayini, and Taxila. [209] It is possible
that many of these inscriptions are lost; the 7th century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang The Kandahar Edict of Ashoka, a
refers to some of Ashoka's pillar edicts, which have not been discovered by modern bilingual inscription (in Greek and
researchers.[208] Aramaic) by King Ashoka,
discovered at Kandahar (National
It appears that Ashoka dispatched every message to his provincial governors, who in Museum of Afghanistan).

turn, relayed it to various officials in their territory.[212] For example, the Minor
Rock Edict 1 appears in several versions at multiple places: all the versions state that
Ashoka issued the proclamation while on a tour, having spent 256 days on tour. The number 256 indicates that the message
was dispatched simultaneously to various places.[213] Three versions of a message, found at edicts in the neighbouring
places in Karnataka (Brahmagiri, Siddapura, and Jatinga-Rameshwara), were sent from the southern province's capital
Suvarnagiri to various places. All three versions contain the same message, preceded by an initial greeting from the arya-
putra (presumably Ashoka's son and the provincial governor) and the mahamatras (officials) in Suvarnagiri.[212]

Coinage
The caduceus appears as a symbol of the punch-marked coins of the Maurya Empire in India, in the 3rd–2nd century BCE.
Numismatic research suggests that this symbol was the symbol of Emperor Ashoka, his personal "Mudra".[214] This symbol
was not used on the pre-Mauryan punch-marked coins, but only on coins of the Maurya period, together with the three
arched-hill symbol, the "peacock on the hill", the triskelis and the Taxila mark.[215]
 Caduceus symbol on a A punch-marked coin A Maurya-era silver coin of 1
Maurya-era punch-marked attributed to Ashoka[216] karshapana, possibly from
coin Ashoka's period, workshop of
Mathura. Obverse: Symbols
including a sun and an animal
Reverse: Symbol Dimensions:
13.92 x 11.75 mm Weight: 3.4
g.

Modern scholarship

Rediscovery
Ashoka had almost been forgotten, but in the 19th century James Prinsep contributed in the revelation of historical sources.
After deciphering the Brahmi script, Prinsep had originally identified the "Priyadasi" of the inscriptions he found with the
King of Ceylon Devanampiya Tissa. However, in 1837, George Turnour discovered an important Sri Lankan manuscript
(Dipavamsa, or "Island Chronicle" ) associating Piyadasi with Ashoka:

Two hundred and eighteen years after the beatitude of the Buddha, was the inauguration of Piyadassi, .... who, the
grandson of Chandragupta, and the son of Bindusara, was at the time Governor of Ujjayani.

— Dipavamsa.[30]

Since then, the association of "Devanampriya Priyadarsin" with Ashoka was

confirmed through various inscriptions, and especially confirmed in the Minor Rock
Edict inscription discovered in Maski, directly associating Ashoka with his regnal
title Devanampriya ("Beloved-of-the-Gods"):[217][218]

[A proclamation] of Devanampriya Asoka.

Two and a half years [and somewhat more] (have passed) since I am a
Buddha-Sakya.
[A year and] somewhat more (has passed) [since] I have visited the
The Minor Rock Edict of Maski
Samgha and have shown zeal. mentions the author as
Those gods who formerly had been unmingled (with men) in Jambudvipa, "Devanampriya Asoka", definitively
have how become mingled (with them). linking both names, and confirming
This object can be reached even by a lowly (person) who is devoted to Ashoka as the author of the famous
morality. Edicts.

One must not think thus, – (viz.) that only an exalted (person) may reach
this.
Both the lowly and the exalted must be told : "If you act thus, this matter
(will be) prosperous and of long duration, and will thus progress to one and
a half.[219]

— Maski Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka.

Another important historian was British archaeologist John Hubert Marshall, who was director-General of the
Archaeological Survey of India. His main interests were Sanchi and Sarnath, in addition to Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir
Alexander Cunningham, a British archaeologist and army engineer, and often known as the father of the Archaeological
Survey of India, unveiled heritage sites like the Bharhut Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple. Mortimer
Wheeler, a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the Taxila.

Perceptions and historiography

The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as
well as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily
Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion from the Vedic religion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in
sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. Thapar
writes about Ashoka that "We need to see him both as a statesman in the context of inheriting and sustaining an empire in a
particular historical period, and as a person with a strong commitment to changing society through what might be called the
propagation of social ethics."[220] The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan
Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the
major religions of his time: Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism, and his edicts addressed to the population at
large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on
moral themes members of all the religions would accept. For example, Amartya Sen writes, "The Indian Emperor Ashoka in
the third century BCE presented many political inscriptions in favor of tolerance and individual freedom, both as a part of
state policy and in the relation of different people to each other".[221]

However, the edicts alone strongly indicate that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles rituals, and he banned Vedic
animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, many
edicts are expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an "upasaka", and in another he demonstrates
a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, but did not do so for the sites of other
religions. He also used the word "dhamma" to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action; this was an
exclusively Buddhist use of the word. However, he used the word more in the spirit than as a strict code of conduct. Thapar
writes, "His dhamma did not derive from divine inspiration, even if its observance promised heaven. It was more in keeping
with the ethic conditioned by the logic of given situations. His logic of Dhamma was intended to influence the conduct of
categories of people, in relation to each other. Especially where they involved unequal relationships."[220] Finally, he
promotes ideals that correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated discourse.[222]

Much of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from the several inscriptions that he had carved on pillars and rocks
throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate and loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses
his people as his "children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good.[223]

Impact of pacifism
After Ashoka's death, the Maurya dynasty declined rapidly. The various Puranas provide different details about Ashoka's
successors, but all agree that they had relatively short reigns. The empire seems to have weakened, fragmented, and suffered
an invasion from the Bactrian Greeks.[139]

Some historians, such as H. C. Raychaudhuri, have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of
the Maurya empire. Others, such as Romila Thapar, have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been
"grossly exaggerated".[224]

In art, film and literature

Ashoka the Great is a fictional biography of the emperor, which was originally written in Dutch in the form of a
trilogy by Wytze Keuning in 1937–1947.
Jaishankar Prasad composed Ashoka ki Chinta (Ashoka's Anxiety), a poem that portrays Ashoka's feelings
during the war on Kalinga.
Ashoka, a 1922 Indian silent historical film about the emperor produced by Madan Theatres.[225]
 The Nine Unknown, a 1923 novel by Talbot Mundy about the "Nine
Unknown Men", a fictional secret society founded by Ashoka.
Samrat Ashok, a 1928 Indian silent film by Bhagwati Prasad Mishra.[225]
Ashok Kumar is a 1941 Indian Tamil-language film directed by Raja
Chandrasekhar. The film stars V. Nagayya as Ashoka.
Samrat Ashok is a 1947 Indian Hindi-language film by K.B. Lall.[226]
Uttar-Priyadarshi (The Final Beatitude), a verse-play written by poet
Agyeya depicting his redemption, was adapted to stage in 1996 by
theatre director, Ratan Thiyam and has since been performed in many
parts of the world.[227][228]
In 1973, Amar Chitra Katha released a graphic novel based on the life of
Ashoka.
In Piers Anthony's series of space opera novels, the main character
mentions Ashoka as a model for administrators to strive for.
Samrat Ashok is a 1992 Indian Telugu-language film about the emperor
by N. T. Rama Rao with Rao also playing the titular role.[226] A c. 1910 painting by Abanindranath
Aśoka is a 2001 epic Indian historical drama film directed and co-written Tagore (1871–1951) depicting
by Santosh Sivan. The film stars Shah Rukh Khan as Ashoka. Ashoka's empress standing in front
of the railings of the Buddhist
In 2002, Mason Jennings released the song "Emperor Ashoka" on his
monument at Sanchi (Raisen
Living in the Moment EP. It is based on the life of Ashoka.
district, Madhya Pradesh)
In 2013, Christopher C. Doyle released his debut novel, The
Mahabharata Secret, in which he wrote about Ashoka hiding a dangerous
secret for the well-being of India.
2014's The Emperor's Riddles, a fiction mystery thriller novel by Satyarth Nayak, traces the evolution of
Ashoka and his esoteric legend of the Nine Unknown Men.
In 2015, Chakravartin Ashoka Samrat, a television serial by Ashok Banker, based on the life of Ashoka,
began airing on Colors TV where Siddharth Nigam and Mohit Raina played the role of Ashoka.
Bharatvarsh is an Indian television historical documentary series, hosted by actor-director Anupam Kher on
Hindi news channel ABP News. The series stars Aham Sharma as Ashoka.[229]
In 2024, Pracchand Ashok, a television serial by Ekta Kapoor, based on the love life of the Ashoka, began
airing on Colors TV where Adnan Khan played the role of Ashoka.[230]
Civilization features Ashoka as a playable leader for India, being replaced by Gandhi in later iterations of the
series.[231]

See also
List of people known as the Great

Notes
1. The North Indian sources indicate Subhadrangi as the name of Ashoka's mother, while the Sri Lankan
sources mention her as Dharma.

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FkAAAAMAAJ). M. Verma. p. 150. ISBN 978-81- racchand-ashok-is-all-set-to-launch-soon-watch-pr
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20211002175530/https://books.google.com/books? 231. Oloman, Jordan (26 August 2024). "Civilization 7 is
id=suFkAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 2 October making bold changes to a familiar formula" (https://
2021. Retrieved 5 February 2021. www.polygon.com/gamescom/443918/civilization-7
-hands-on-preview). Polygon. Retrieved 27 August
2024.

Works cited
Allen, Charles (2012). Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor (https://books.google.com/books?id=K4v
HjbUtf_4C). Hachette. ISBN 978-1-408-70388-5.
Fitzgerald, James L., ed. (2004). The Mahabharata (https://books.google.com/books?id=p9SzCuLIlQ0C).
Vol. 7. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-25250-7.
Gombrich, Richard (1995). "Aśoka – The Great Upāsaka". In Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.). King Aśoka and
Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies (https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ). Buddhist
Publication Society. ISBN 978-955-24-0065-0.
Guruge, Ananda W. P. (1993). Aśoka, the Righteous: A Definitive Biography (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=dwjjAAAAMAAJ). Central Cultural Fund. ISBN 978-955-9226-00-0.
 Guruge, Ananda W. P. (1995). "Emperor Aśoka and Buddhism: Unresolved Discrepancies between Buddhist
Tradition & Aśokan Inscriptions". In Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.). King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and
Literary Studies (https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ). Buddhist Publication Society.
ISBN 978-955-24-0065-0.
Guruge, Ananda W. P. (1995b). "Emperor Aśoka's Place in History: A Review of Prevalent Opinions". In
Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.). King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies (https://books.google.
com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ). Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 978-955-24-0065-0.
Hultzsch, E. (1925). Inscriptions of Asoka: New Edition (https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewE
ditionByE.Hultzsch). Government of India.
Kosmin, Paul J. (2014). The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=9UWdAwAAQBAJ). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72882-0.
Lahiri, Nayanjot (2015). Ashoka in Ancient India (https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ_XCgAAQBAJ).
Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674057777.
Mookerji, Radhakumud (1962). Aśoka (https://books.google.com/books?id=uXyftdtE1ygC) (3rd revised ed.).
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0582-8.
Singh, Upinder (2008). A history of ancient and early medieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century
(https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC). New Delhi: Pearson Education. ISBN 978-81-317-
1120-0.
Singh, Upinder (2012). "Governing the State and the Self: Political Philosophy and Practice in the Edicts of
Aśoka". South Asian Studies. 28 (2). University of Delhi: 131–145. doi:10.1080/02666030.2012.725581 (http
s://doi.org/10.1080%2F02666030.2012.725581). S2CID 143362618 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:143362618).
Singh, Upinder (2017). Political Violence in Ancient India (https://books.google.com/books?id=t6A4DwAAQB
AJ&pg=PA162). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-97527-9.
Strong, John S. (1989). The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=Kp9uaQTQ8h8C&pg=PA232). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0616-0.
Strong, John S. (1995). "Images of Aśoka: Some Indian and Sri Lankan Legends and their Development". In
Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.). King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies (https://books.google.
com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ). Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 978-955-24-0065-0.
Thapar, Romila (1961). Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas (https://books.google.com/books?id=pwJuAA
AAMAAJ). Oxford University Press. OCLC 736554 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/736554).
Thapar, Romila (1995). "Aśoka and Buddhism as Reflected in the Aśokan Edicts". In Anuradha Seneviratna
(ed.). King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies (https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAA
AAMAAJ). Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 978-955-24-0065-0.

Further reading
Bentley, Jerry (1993). Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times
(https://archive.org/details/oldworldencounte00jerr). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
507640-0.
Falk, Harry (2006). Aśokan Sites and Artefacts: A Source-book with Bibliography. Von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-
8053-3712-0.
MacPhail, James Merry (1918). Asoka (https://archive.org/details/asokaheritage00macpiala). London: Oxford
University Press.
Nikam, N. A.; McKeon, Richard (1959). The Edicts of Aśoka (https://archive.org/details/TheEdictsOfAsokaNik
amMcKeon). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Olivelle, Patrick (2024). Ashoka: Portrait of a Philosopher King. New Haven: Yale University Press.
ISBN 978-0-300-27490-5.
Olivelle, Patrick; Leoshko, Janice; Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2012). Reimagining Asoka: Memory and History.
Oxford University Press India. ISBN 978-0-19-807800-5.
Sen, Colleen Taylor (2022). Ashoka and the Mauraya Dynasty: the history and legacy of ancient India's
greatest empire. Dynasties. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78914-596-0.
Rongxi, Li (1993). The Biographical Scripture of King Aśoka: Translated from the Chinese of Saṃghapāla.
Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. ISBN 978-0-9625618-4-9.
Thapar, Romila (2015) [1961]. Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-807724-4. OCLC 964509329 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/964509329).
External links
Media related to Ashoka at Wikimedia Commons
BBC Radio 4: Sunil Khilnani, Incarnations: Ashoka. (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b05tpy82)
BBC Radio 4: Melvyn Bragg with Richard Gombrich et al., In Our Time, Ashoka the Great (https://www.bbc.c
o.uk/programmes/b0511tm1).
Edicts of Ashoka
(Ruled 269–232 BCE)

Regnal
years Type of Edict
Geographical location
of (and location of the inscriptions)
Ashoka
Year 8 End of the Kalinga War and conversion to the "Dharma"

Minor Rock Edicts

Kandahar Bilingual Rock
Inscription
(in Greek and Aramaic, Related events:
Year 10 Kandahar) Visit to the Bodhi tree in Bodh
Gaya
Minor Rock Edicts in Construction of the
Aramaic: Mahabodhi Temple and
Laghman Inscription, Diamond throne in Bodh
Taxila inscription Gaya
Ai Khanoum
Predication throughout India. (Greek city)
Minor Rock Edicts (n°1, Dissenssions in the Sangha
n°2 and n°3) Third Buddhist Council Shahbazgarhi
(Panguraria, Maski, Mansehra
In Indian language: Sohgaura Laghman
(Aramaic)Taxila
Palkigundu and Gavimath, Khalsi
Year 11 inscription (Aramaic) Lumbini
Bahapur/Srinivaspuri, Bairat, Kandahar Topra Nigali Sagar
and Erection of the Pillars of (Greek and Meerut
Ahraura, Gujarra, Sasaram, Bahapur
Araraj,Rampurva
later Ashoka Aramaic) Bairat
Kosambi Nandangarh
Rajula Mandagiri, Yerragudi, Bhabru
Pataliputra
Barabar
Udegolam, Nittur, Brahmagiri, Gujarra
Mahasthan
Sanchi Sarnath
Siddapur, Jatinga- Ujjain Rupnath Ahraura
Sasaram
Girnar Saru Maru
Rameshwara) Dhauli
Sopara
Sannati Jaugada
Barabar Caves Maski
Major Rock Edicts Palkigundu
inscriptions Gavimath
Jatinga/Rameshwara
Yerragudi
Rajula/Mandagiri
Brahmagiri
Major Rock Edicts in Greek: Udegolam
Siddapur
Minor Pillar Edicts Edicts n°12-13 (Kandahar) Nittur

Major Rock Edicts in Indian

Year 12 language:
Location of the Minor Rock Edicts (Edicts 1, 2 & 3)
and Edicts No.1 ~ No.14
later (in Kharoshthi script: Other inscriptions often classified as Minor Rock
Schism Edict, Queen's
Edict Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra Edicts) Edicts.
(Sarnath Sanchi Allahabad) (in the Brahmi script: Kalsi, Girnar, Location of the Major Rock Edicts.
Lumbini inscription, Nigali Sopara, Sannati, Yerragudi, Delhi Location of the Minor Pillar Edicts.
Sagar inscription Edicts)
Original location of the Major Pillar Edicts.
Major Rock Edicts 1–10, 14,
Capital cities
Separate Edicts 1&2:
(Dhauli, Jaugada)

Major Pillar Edicts

In Indian language:
Major Pillar Edicts No.1 ~ No.7
Year (Allahabad pillar Delhi-Meerut Delhi-Topra Rampurva Lauria
26, 27 Nandangarh Lauriya-Araraj Amaravati)
and
later Derived inscriptions in Aramaic, on rock:
Kandahar, Edict No.7 and Pul-i-Darunteh, Edict
No.5 or No.7
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ashoka&oldid=1255871064"