ANS221(

ANATOMYANDPHYSI
OLOGYOFFARM ANI
MAL)

THECI
RCULATORYSYSTEM
Themai
nfeat
uresoft
heci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem ar
e:
(
i) Hear
t–t
heor
ganwhi
chpumpst
hebl
ood
(
ii
) Bl
oodv
essel
s–t
hechannel
sinwhi
cht
hebl
oodi
scar
ri
edr
oundt
he
body
(
ii
i) Bl
ood–t
hemedi
um i
nwhi
cht
ranspor
tedmat
eri
alsar
ecar
ri
ed.
Hence t
he ci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem i
s al
so known as t
he t
ranspor
tsy
stem and
mat
eri
alsar
etr
anspor
tedi
nwel
ldef
inechannel
sorv
essel
s;i
nmammal
sit
f
ormsacl
osedci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem.
TheAnat
omyoft
heCi
rcul
ator
ySy
stem
TheHear
tisahol
l
owmuscul
aror
ganpar
ti
all
ycov
eredbyt
heper
icar
dialsac(
i.
e.
per
icar
dium)
,thehear
twal
lconsi
stoft
hreel
ayer
s,namel
ytheepi
car
dium whi
ch
i
stheout
ermostl
ayerandact
ual
l
ythev
iscer
all
ayeroft
heper
icar
dialsac;t
he
My
ocar
dium andt
heEndocar
dium whi
chi
sthei
nnerl
i
nni
ngoft
hehear
tandt
his
cont
inueast
hei
nnerl
i
nni
ngoft
hebl
oodv
essel
scal
l
edendot
hel
i
um.
I
nmammal
sandbi
rdst
hehear
tisi
nter
nal
l
ydi
vi
dedi
ntof
ourchamber
s,
t
wobei
ngoneachsi
deofal
ongi
tudi
nal
wal
lcal
l
edt
hesept
um.
Thet
wouppert
hin–wal
l
edi
sknownast
heat
ri
aoraur
icl
esandt
het
wol
ower
t
hick–wal
l
edi
sknownast
hev
ent
ri
cles.
Theat
ri
arecei
vebl
oodt
hrought
hel
argev
einsandt
hev
ent
ri
clespump
bl
oodawayf
rom t
hehear
tbywayofl
argear
ter
ies;bet
weent
hecor
respondi
ng
at
ri
um andt
hev
ent
ri
clet
her
eisav
alv
ecal
l
edt
heat
ri
o-v
ent
ri
cul
arv
alv
e(i
.e.t
he
t
ri
cuspi
dandBi
cuspi
dval
ves)whi
chi
scl
osedwhent
heat
ri
aar
ebei
ngf
il
ledwi
th
bl
oodorwhent
hev
ent
ri
clesar
epumpi
ngbl
ood.Thesemi
-l
unarv
alv
esatt
he
begi
nni
ngoft
heaor
taandt
hepul
monar
yar
ter
yal
soensur
ethatbl
oodonce
pumpedi
ntot
hev
essel
sdonotf
lowbacki
ntot
hehear
t.

1
St
ruct
ureofMammal
i
anHear
t

2
Bl
oodVessel
s:Thebl
oodv
essel
sresembl
ethebr
anchi
ngofat
ree,t
hel
argest
ar
ter
yi.
e.t
heaor
tabr
anchesi
ntosmal
l
erar
ter
ies,t
hesmal
l
estoft
hisbr
anches
ar
ecal
l
edar
ter
iol
eswhi
chal
sobr
anchesi
ntot
hecapi
l
lar
ies,
whi
char
eof
tenone-
cel
lthi
ck.Thecapi
l
lar
iesi
ntur
nuni
tet
ofor
mvenul
es,andv
einswhi
chcar
ryt
he
bl
oodt
owar
dst
hehear
t.
Ar
ter
ies:Thesear
ethev
essel
swhi
chcar
ryox
ygenat
edbl
oodawayf
rom t
he
hear
twi
tht
heexcept
ionoft
hepul
monar
yar
ter
ieswhi
chcar
rydeoxy
genat
ed
bl
oodawayf
rom t
hehear
tst
othel
ung.
Ar
ter
iesbl
oodi
srel
ati
vel
yoxy
genat
ed.Thel
argestar
ter
iesar
eel
ast
ic
becauset
hei
rwal
l
sar
emadeofmai
nly
,el
ast
icconnect
ivet
issues.Thi
sel
ast
ici
ty
i
simpor
tanti
nmai
ntai
ningbl
oodpr
essur
ewhent
hehear
tisi
nthest
ateof
3
r
elaxat
ion(
diast
ole)
.Sy
stol
emeanscont
ract
ionoft
hehear
t.Thesmal
l
erar
ter
ies
cont
ainal
arge amountofsmot
h muscl
ein pl
ace ofel
ast
ict
issues,t
he
cont
ract
ionandr
elaxat
ionoft
hesesmoot
hmuscl
escanbecont
rol
l
edbyt
he
cent
ral
ner
veoussy
stem.
Capi
ll
ari
es:Thi
sar
eti
nyonecel
lthi
ckv
essel
s(endot
hel
i
um t
ube)
,whi
char
e
wi
deenought
oal
l
owasi
ngl
efi
l
eofr
edbl
oodcel
l
.Capi
l
lar
iesactasasel
ect
ivel
y
per
meabl
emembr
anet
hatper
mit
swat
er,O2 andnut
ri
ent
stol
eav
ethebl
ood
st
ream i
ntot
hesur
roundi
ngt
issuesandal
sowast
epr
oductt
oent
ert
hebl
ood
st
ream.Mostoft
hef
lui
dorwat
erwhi
chl
eav
ethebl
oodi
ntot
het
issuer
e-ent
er
t
hecapi
l
lar
iesatt
heendbutsomear
eret
ainedast
issuef
lui
d.
Vei
n:capi
l
lar
iesuni
tet
ofor
mvenul
eswhi
chf
orml
argerandl
argerv
eins.Vei
ns
ar
ebi
ggeri
nsi
zet
hant
hear
ter
ies,t
heyaccompany
.Vei
nshav
ethi
nnerl
ayerof
el
ast
ict
issues,
theyal
sohav
eval
ueswhi
chpr
eventt
hebackf
lowofbl
ood.Bl
ood
pr
essur
eint
hev
eini
smuchl
owert
hani
nthear
ter
y.
Ly
mphat
icv
essel
s:Thesev
essel
sar
esi
mil
art
ovei
nint
hatt
heyhav
ethi
nywal
l
andt
heyal
sohav
eval
ues.Ly
mphat
icv
essel
sbegi
nfr
om t
hei
ntr
acel
l
ularspace
andf
ormv
essel
s.Thesi
zeofwhi
char
eli
kecapi
l
lar
ies.Thi
sjoi
ntoget
hert
ofor
m
l
argerl
ymphat
icv
essel
s,t
hebi
ggestl
ymphat
icv
essel
sev
ent
ual
l
yempt
ythei
r
cont
enti
ntot
heant
eri
orv
enaecav
ae.

ThePhy
siol
ogyofBl
oodAndI
t’
sCi
rcul
ati
on
Bl
oodi
scomposedofaf
lui
dcal
l
edpl
asmai
nwhi
char
esuspendedcel
l
s.
Mostoft
hebl
oodcel
l
sremai
nint
hebl
oodv
essel
sbutsomeoft
hewhi
tebl
ood
cel
l
smaymi
grat
ethr
ought
hewal
loft
hev
essel
stof
ighti
nfect
ion.
Thecel
l
ularcomponent
sar
emadeupof
:
(
i) RedBl
oodCel
l
s(Er
ythr
ocy
tes)R.
B.C’
s
(
ii
) Whi
teBl
oodcel
l
s(Leucocy
tes)W.
B.C’
sand
(
ii
i) Bl
oodpl
atel
ets(
thr
ombocy
tes)
Mat
urer
edbl
oodcel
landpl
atel
etdonothav
enucl
ei,t
heyar
ether
efor
enot
t
ypi
cal
cel
lbutt
her
edbl
oodcel
loft
heav
iani
snucl
eat
edandal
sor
ept
il
e.
RedBl
oodCel
l:t
heyar
emor
enumer
ousabout7–11mi
l
li
onperml
.Echr
edcel
l

4
cont
ainapi
gmentcal
l
edhaemogl
obi
nwhi
chi
sresponsi
blef
ort
heabi
l
ityt
ocar
ry
O2andal
sot
hispi
gmentgi
vest
hebl
oodar
edcol
our
.
Haemogl
obi
n consi
sts ofpr
otei
n cal
l
ed gl
obi
n at
tached t
oaf
our
mol
ecul
es ofpi
gment
scal
l
ed Haeme and t
hisf
orm t
he Haemogl
obi
n.The
pi
gmentcont
ainI
ron(
Fe)t
owhi
cht
heO2i
sat
tached;
wit
hint
hecel
lhaemogl
obi
n
i
ssuppor
tedbyaspongynet
wor
k.R.
B.C’
sar
edi
scl
i
kebutwhenl
ookedf
rom t
he
edgei
tisbi
concav
e.

Theyar
epr
oducedi
nthebonemar
rowandaf
terabout3mont
hst
heyar
ewor
n
outanddest
roy
edi
nthel
i
verorspl
een.

Whi
teBl
oodCel
ls:
-Thesear
efarl
essnumer
ousbutl
argert
hant
her
edcel
l
s.
Theyof
tenhav
eir
regul
arout
li
nesandhav
eroundorl
obednucl
ei.Theyar
e
pr
oducedi
nthebonemar
row,l
ymphgl
andsandspl
een.Theyl
i
vef
orabout3
weeks.Whenwbcar
eint
hebl
oodv
essel
stheyar
enotact
ive,
thosef
oundi
nthe
bl
oodar
eact
ual
l
yont
hei
rwayt
othet
issuewher
etheycanbeact
ivei
nbody
def
ensi
vemechani
smsagai
nsti
nvasi
onofhar
mful
organi
sms.

Bl
oodpl
atel
ets:Thesear
efr
agmentofl
argecel
lfoundi
nthebonemar
row,
they

5
appeari
nvar
iousshapei
nbl
oodsmear
s.Thei
rfunct
ionmai
nlyi
stopr
oduce
f
act
orswhi
chi
nit
iat
ethebl
oodcl
othi
ngpr
ocess.

Pl
asma:Whenbl
oodi
str
eat
edwi
thanant
ico-
agul
antandi
tiscent
ri
fuget
heRbc
andwbcar
esepar
atedf
rom t
hef
lui
dcomponentt
hef
lui
disknownaspl
asma
andi
tfor
m 55–68%ofbl
oodv
olume.
The maj
orconst
it
uent
s ar
e,90% wat
erand 8% pr
otei
n;t
he r
esti
s
+ -
di
ssol
ved subst
ance,most
lysol
ubl
efood nut
ri
ent
s,mi
ner
alsal
tasNa,Cl
,
HCO3+,
Ca++,
HPO4+i
ons,
hor
mones,
enzy
mes,
ant
ibodi
es,
ureaandgases.

FUNCTI
ONOFBLOOD
1. I
tcar
ri
esO2 f
rom t
hel
ungst
othet
issueandCO2 f
rom t
het
issuest
o
t
hel
ungs.
2. I
tcar
ri
esnut
ri
entf
rom t
hedi
gest
ivet
ractt
othebodyt
issuesand
wast
epr
oduct
sfr
om t
het
issuest
otheki
dney
sforexcr
eti
on.
3. I
tconv
eyhor
monesf
rom endocr
imegl
andst
othei
rtar
getor
gans
4. Bl
oodhel
psi
nthebodyt
emper
atur
econt
rolbyt
ranspor
ti
ngheatf
rom
deeperst
ruct
urest
othesur
faceoft
hebody
.
5. I
thel
psi
nthemai
ntenanceofconst
antpHoft
het
issuesandoft
he
bodyf
lui
dbyt
hepr
esentofbuf
fersuchasbi
car
bonat
ioni
nthebl
ood.
6. Thecl
othi
ngabi
l
ityofbl
oodpr
eventexcessi
vel
ostofbl
oodf
rom
i
njur
ies.
7. I
mpor
tantf
act
orssuchast
hewhi
tebl
oodcel
landant
i-
bodi
esar
e
cont
ainedi
nbl
oodt
odef
endt
hebodyagai
nstdi
seasesandi
nfect
ion.

6
Gener
alpl
anofBl
oodci
rcul
ati
on

Ther
ightat
ri
um r
ecei
vesdeoxy
genat
edbl
oodf
rom t
hebodyandpumpsi
t
t
other
ightv
ent
ri
cle,whi
chpumpsi
ttot
hel
ungs.Thel
eftat
ri
um r
ecei
ves
oxy
genat
ebl
oodf
rom t
hel
ungsandpumpsi
ttot
hel
eftv
ent
ri
clewhi
chi
ntur
n
pumpsi
tthr
ought
heaor
tat
othebody
.Val
uespr
esentbet
weent
heat
ri
aand
v
ent
ri
clespr
eventbackf
lowofbl
oodi
ntot
heat
ri
awhent
hev
ent
ri
clescont
ract
.

7
Thewal
loft
hel
eftv
ent
ri
clei
sfur
thert
hickenedt
oenabl
eitt
opumpbl
oodwi
th
suf
fi
cientpr
essur
eroundt
hebody
.
Thepumpi
ngofbl
oodi
sat
wophasepr
ocess.I
nthef
ir
stphase(
diast
ole)
t
heat
ri
um cont
ractandv
ent
ri
cl
erel
ax;i
nthesecondphase(
syst
ole)t
oat
ri
a
r
elaxandt
hev
ent
ri
clescont
ract
.

REPRODUCTI
VESYSTEM
I
nfar
m ani
mal
s,whi
ch ar
emai
nlymammal
sand bi
rdst
hemodeof
r
epr
oduct
ioni
sident
icali
nmanyr
espect
.Forexampl
e,t
heyhav
emal
eand
f
emal
esexes,
fer
ti
li
zat
ioni
sint
ernal
,theygener
all
ytakecar
eoft
hei
ryoungones
af
terbi
rt
handt
hehor
monesofr
epr
oduct
ionar
ethesame,
howev
er,
theydi
ff
eri
n
t
hatmammal
spr
oducet
hei
ryoungonesal
i
veandsuckl
ethem y
oungones.
Wher
eas;
bir
dsl
ayeggsanddonotsuckl
ethei
ryoungones.

8
TheMal
eGeni
talsy
stem
Anat
omi
cal
l
ythemal
egeni
talsy
stem i
nfar
m ani
mal
sconsi
stoft
he
f
oll
owi
ng
(
a) Thegonadsort
est
is
(
b) Theduct
sandaccessor
ysexgl
ands
(
c) Theext
ernal
geni
tal
i
aort
hepeni
s

The t
est
es ar
ethe pr
imar
ysex or
gan pr
oduci
ng mal
e sex hor
mone
(
test
ost
erone)andsper
m.I
nmammal
sther
ear
etwot
est
essi
tuat
edi
nasacl
i
ke
st
ruct
urecal
l
ed t
hescr
otalsac.Thesear
elocat
edout
sidet
hebodycav
ity
,
dangl
i
ng,
inmostani
mal
s,l
i
keapendul
um bet
weent
het
highs.
Thet
esti
sit
sel
fisdi
vi
dedi
ntosev
eralcompar
tment
sbysept
a.I
nthe
t
est
isar
emanysemi
nif
eroust
ubul
es,whi
chi
ntur
ncont
ainmanyst
agesof
sper
m dev
elopment
,the f
inalone bei
ng t
hat of t
he sper
mat
ozoa.The
semi
nif
erous t
ubul
es j
oint
ofor
m l
argert
ubul
es whi
ch ev
ent
ual
l
yfor
m t
he
epi
didy
mis.
Thet
est
isl
acksubcul
taneousf
actgl
andsandal
sor
ichl
yendow wi
th
sweatgl
andst
her
ebyenhanci
ng sweat
ing dur
ing hotweat
herf
oref
fect
ive
ev
apor
ati
vecool
i
ng.
I
tsmuscul
arcomponentenabl
esi
ttoal
tert
het
hicknessoft
hescr
otum
andt
hesur
facear
eav
ari
esi
nvol
umesoast
omai
ntai
nconst
antt
emper
atur
e
necessar
yforsper
m pr
oduct
ion.
Cl
osel
yassoci
atedt
othebodyoft
het
est
isi
sanel
ongat
edductcal
l
edt
he
epi
didy
mis,consi
sti
ngoft
hreemai
npar
ts,namel
ythecaputepi
didy
mis(
head)
,
t
he cor
pus epi
didy
mis(
body
)and t
he cauda epi
didy
mis(
tai
l
).The maj
or
f
unct
ions of t
he epi
didy
mis ar
e concent
rat
ion of sper
mat
ozoa,st
orage,
mat
urat
ion,and t
ranspor
tat
ion ofsper
mat
ozoa.Att
he cauda end oft
he
epi
didy
misi
tuni
teswi
tht
hev
asdef
erenswhi
chi
ntur
nmer
geswi
tht
heur
ethr
a
ati
tsor
igi
nneart
heopeni
ngt
othebl
adder
.Theenl
argedendoft
hev
asdef
erens
neart
he ur
ethr
aist
he ampul
l
a.I
tsi
ngul
arf
unct
ion i
str
anspor
tat
ion of
sper
mat
ozoa.

9
 Theur
ethr
aisasi
ngul
arductwhi
chext
endsf
rom t
hej
unct
ionoft
he
ampul
l
atot
heendoft
hepeni
s.I
tser
vesasanexcr
etor
yductf
orbot
hur
ineand
semen.
Thepeni
sisl
i
keaspongecont
aini
ngspaceswhi
char
efi
l
ledwi
thbl
ood
andi
tst
ipi
swel
lsuppl
i
edwi
thner
veendi
ngs.Whent
hemal
eisst
imul
ated,t
he
spongywal
lti
ssueoft
hepeni
sbecomesdi
stendedwi
thbl
oodandt
heor
gan
becomesexpandedandst
if
fened,r
eadyt
ocar
rysper
msi
ntot
hebodyoft
he
f
emal
e.
At
tachedt
othesi
deoft
heur
ethr
aar
ethesemi
nalv
esi
cle,pr
ost
rat
e
gl
andsandbul
bour
ethr
agl
ands(
i.
e.cowper
’sgl
ands)
.Theseaccessor
ysex
gl
andspr
oducesemi
nal
flui
dswhi
chmi
xwi
thsper
mst
ofor
m semen.
I
tisi
mpor
tantt
onot
ethatatbi
rt
hint
hemal
eani
malt
het
est
esar
e
si
tuat
edi
nsi
det
hebodyneart
heki
dney
s.Thet
est
isdescendsi
ntot
hescr
otum
l
ateratbi
rt
h.I
ntheav
ishowev
ert
het
est
isr
emai
nundescendedt
hroughoutl
i
fe
butconnectwi
tht
hecl
oacabyanar
rowt
ubewhi
cht
ermi
nat
esi
nthecl
oacaasa
smal
lrai
sedpapi
l
la,
wit
htheexcept
ionofdr
akei
nwhi
cht
hepapi
l
ladev
elopi
nto
aner
ect
il
est
ruct
uresi
mil
art
othatoft
hemammal
i
anpeni
s.

10
TheFemal
eGeni
talSy
stem
Thef
emal
erepr
oduct
ivesy
stem consi
stsoft
woov
ari
es,
(gonads)andt
he
f
emal
eductsy
stem.Theductsy
stem i
ncl
udest
heov
iduct
s,ut
erus,cer
vix,
v
agi
naandv
ulv
a.
Themaj
ordi
ff
erencebet
weent
hemal
eandf
emal
egeni
talsy
stem i
sthat
t
hef
emal
egeni
tal
syst
em ar
elocat
edi
nsi
det
hebodycav
ity
.
Theov
ari
esar
econsi
der
edt
hepr
imar
ysexor
gani
nthef
emal
e.Theyar
e
pr
imar
ybecauset
heypr
oducet
hef
emal
egamet
e(t
heov
um)andt
hef
emal
esex
hor
mones(
est
rogenandpr
ogest
in)
.Theappear
anceoft
heov
arydependsont
he
age,
repr
oduct
ivecy
cleandspeci
esoft
heannual
.Iti
scomposedoft
hemedul
l
a
andi
tsout
ershel
l
,thecor
tex.
The medul
l
ais composed pr
imar
il
y ofbl
ood v
essel
s,ner
ves,and
connect
ivet
issue.Thecor
texcont
ainst
hosecel
landt
issuel
ayer
sassoci
ated
wi
thov
um andhor
monespr
oduct
ion.I
tisaccept
edt
hatal
lpr
imar
yfol
l
icl
esar
e
f
ormed,
dur
ingt
hepr
enat
alper
iodoft
hef
emal
e.Thef
oll
i
clesar
epot
ent
ialov
um
sur
roundedbyl
ayer
soff
oll
i
cul
arcel
l
s.Al
lthesecel
l
sremai
nint
heov
aryunt
il
puber
tywhent
heyst
artt
odev
elop.
Thef
ormat
ionofov
um cont
inuesi
nacy
cli
cmanner
.Iti
sint
err
upt
edonl
y
bypr
egnancy
.Thi
scy
clei
sknownasoest
ruscy
cle.Thecy
clest
art
swi
tht
he
dev
elopmentoft
heegg(
ovum)andt
hepr
epar
ati
onoft
hegeni
talt
ractt
orecei
ve
t
heov
um orov
a.I
tcont
inueswi
thoest
ruswi
thoest
rus,whi
chi
stheper
iodi
n
f
arm ani
mal
sdur
ingwhi
cht
her
ear
emar
kedsi
gnsofwi
l
li
ngnesst
oacceptt
he
mal
edur
ingmat
ingcal
l
edheat
.
I
nmostani
mal
sov
ulat
ionoccur
sei
thert
owar
dst
heendordur
ingt
hemi
d-
par
tofDest
rus.(
Insomeani
mal
sli
kecatandr
abbi
t,i
trequi
rest
hest
imul
usof
coi
tus.
)
Ov
ulat
ioni
sther
upt
ureoft
hemat
uref
oll
i
cle(
Graf
ianf
oll
i
cle)Cel
lwhi
ch
l
eads t
othe r
elease of t
he ov
um i
ntot
he ov
iduct t
hrough t
he f
unnel
(
inf
undi
bul
um)
.Thef
lui
drel
easedcont
ainst
hehor
monesest
rogenwhi
chent
ers
t
hebl
oodst
ream,causi
ngdev
elopmentofal
lpar
tsoft
hegeni
talt
ract
,and
i
ncr
easi
ngt
hebl
oodsuppl
ytoi
t.Af
terov
ulat
ion,t
heot
hercel
l
swhi
chcannot

11
dev
elopt
omat
ureoneswi
l
ldegener
ate.
Cel
l
sofanot
hert
ypet
hengr
owi
nsi
zeandnumber
s,f
il
li
ngt
hewhol
ear
ea,
andconv
ert
ingi
tint
oasol
i
dbodycal
l
edt
hecor
pusl
uteum.Thi
sgr
owsf
rom t
he
f
ir
stt
o second weekaf
terov
ulat
ion and st
artt
o degener
atei
fther
eisno
f
ert
il
izat
ion.Howev
er,i
ffer
ti
li
zat
ion occur
s,t
he cor
pus l
uteum i
sret
ained
t
hroughoutpr
egnancy
.Itbecomesanendocr
inegl
andpr
oduci
ngahor
mone
cal
l
edpr
ogest
eronewhi
chassi
stsi
nov
um i
mpl
ant
ati
onandt
hedev
elopmentof
mammar
ygl
ands.
Theov
iduct
sal
socal
l
edf
all
opi
ant
ubesar
eapai
rofconv
olut
edt
ubes
ext
endi
ngf
rom neart
heov
ari
est
oandbecomi
ngcont
inuouswi
tht
het
ipoft
he
ut
eri
nehor
ns.Thei
rfunct
ioni
ncl
udest
ranspor
tat
ionofov
aandsper
mat
ozoai
n
opposi
tedi
rect
ions.I
naddi
ti
ont
heyar
ethesi
teoff
ert
il
izat
ionandt
heear
lycel
l
di
vi
sionoft
heembr
yo.
Theut
erusext
endsf
rom t
heut
erot
ubalj
unct
iont
othecer
vix.Themaj
or
f
unct
ion oft
he ut
erus i
stor
etai
n and nour
ish t
he embr
yo orf
etus.Af
ter
at
tachmentt
otheut
erus,nut
ri
ent
sandwast
epr
oduct
sar
econv
eyedbet
ween
mat
ernal
andembr
yoni
corf
etal
,bl
oodbywayoft
hepl
acent
a.
Thecer
vixt
echni
cal
l
yisapar
toft
heut
erusi
tismadeupofat
hickwal
l
ed
whi
char
einel
ast
ic,
theant
eri
orendbei
ngcont
inuouswi
tht
hebodyoft
heut
erus
whi
l
ethepost
eri
orendpr
ecl
udesi
ntot
hev
agi
na.Thepr
imar
yfunct
ionoft
he
cer
vixi
stopr
eventmi
crobi
alcont
ami
nat
ionsoft
heut
erus;howev
er,i
tal
somay
ser
veasasper
mreser
voi
raf
termat
ing.Semeni
sdeposi
tedi
ntot
hecer
vix
dur
ingnat
ural
mat
ing.
Thev
agi
nai
stubul
ari
sshape,t
hin–wal
l
edandqui
teel
ast
ic.I
tist
he
f
emal
eor
ganofcopul
ati
on.Thev
agi
naj
oinst
hev
est
ibul
eatt
heext
ernalur
ethr
al
or
if
iceandext
endsi
ntot
hev
ulv
awhi
chi
stheex
ter
nal
geni
tal
i
sinf
emal
eani
mal
.

12
 DI
GESTI
VESYSTEM
Thedi
gest
ivesy
stem compr
isesoft
ubul
aror
ganandsomeassoci
ated
gl
ands.Themai
nfunct
ionoft
hissy
stem i
stobr
eakdowni
ngest
edf
oodi
nto
smal
l
eruni
tswhi
chcanbeabsor
bedi
ntot
heci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem.Thet
ubes
consi
stoft
hef
oll
owi
ngl
ayer
sfr
om i
nwar
dtoout
war
di.
emucosa,submucosa,
muscul
ari
sandser
ousl
ayer
s.

13
TRANSVERSESECTI
ONOFTHECASTRO-
INTESTI
NALTRACT

14
 Themucousmembr
aneconsi
stsoft
hreel
ayer
s:
1. Epi
thel
i
um l
ayer
2. Connect
ivet
i edLami
ssuescal
l naPr
obr
ia
3. Muscul
arl
ay edMuscul
ercal
l ari
sMuscosa
TheMuscul
arl
ayeri
smadeupofsmoot
hmuscl
esbuti
npar
tofoesophagusi
tis
st
ri
ated.I
nsomear
easoft
hedi
gest
ivet
ractt
her
ear
esomegl
andsi
nthel
ami
na

15
pr
obr
iawhi
chhi
sbet
weent
hemucousmembr
aneandt
hemuscul
arl
ayer
.In
bet
weent
hist
her
eisaconnect
ivet
issuesl
ayerwhi
chcont
ainsdi
gest
ivegl
ands.
Thedi
gest
ivet
ract
sincl
ude
a. Themout
h
b. Thephar
ynx
c. Theoesophagus
d. Thest
omach
e. Thesmal
li
ntest
ine
f
. Thel
argei
ntest
ine
g. Ther
ect
um andt
heanus
Thel
argei
ntest
inei
smadeupofcol
onandcaecum f
rom t
hest
omachdown
war
discal
l
edgast
ro-
int
est
inalt
ract
.Ot
heror
gansassoci
atedwi
tht
hedi
gest
ive
t
ract
sar
ethet
eet
h,t
ongueandt
hesal
i
var
ygl
and.Theaccessor
ydi
gest
ive
gl
andsar
ethePancr
eas,
li
verandt
hegal
lbl
adder
.

DI
GESTI
VESYSTEM OFANONRUMI
NANT

Theoesophagus:I
tisamuscul
art
ubet
hemuscl
ety
pei
sof
tenst
ri
ated,t
he
oesophagusi
nthenon-
rumi
nantent
erst
hest
omachatapoi
ntcal
l
edt
hecar
diac
andf
orm aki
ndofsphi
nct
er(
val
ve)whi
chcont
rol
stheent
eri
ngoff
oodi
ntot
he

16
st
omach.Thest
omachcont
entar
eempt
iedt
hroughanot
hersphi
nct
ercal
l
edt
he
py
lor
ic-
sphi
nct
er.Thest
omachi
tsel
fisl
i
keasacandi
tsmucousmembr
anei
s
di
vi
ded i
nto di
ff
erentzones,dependi
ng upon t
het
ypeofsecr
eti
on t
hatar
e
pr
oducedi
nthezone.Thesecr
eti
onar
epr
oducedbygl
andsi
tuat
edi
nthel
ami
na
pr
obr
ia,
thezonesar
e
(
a) Car
diaczone–pr
oduci
ngmucous
(
b) Fundi
czone– pr
oducesmucous,Hy
drochl
ori
aci
d(HCl
)pepsi
nogen.
Thi
sregi
oni
sknownast
hegast
ri
cgl
andsbecausei
tsecr
eti
oni
s
empt
iedi
ntot
hegast
ri
cpi
t.
(
c) Py
lor
icZone–pr
oducesmucousandhor
monescal
l
edgast
ri
ns

DI
GETI
VESYSTEM OFRUMI
NANT

17
 Ther
umi
nantst
omachi
scompl
exandspeci
ali
zedt
oper
mitt
hedi
gest
ion
ofcel
l
ulose.I
thasf
ourst
omachcompar
tment
snamel
y
a. Ther
umen
b. Ther
eti
cul
um
c. TheOmasum
d. TheAbomasum
Atbi
rt
hther
umenandr
eti
cul
um ar
esmal
lbutt
heydev
elopast
heani
malgr
ows
andconsumemor
eandmor
eofcel
l
ulosemat
eri
alssot
hati
ntheadul
tthe
r
umenf
orm about80%oft
hest
omachcapaci
ty,
ther
eti
cul
um 5%,
theomasum 7
–8%andt
heAbomasum 7%.

THESMALLI
NTESTI
NE
Thesmal
lint
est
inei
smadeupoft
heduodenum,j
ejunum andi
l
eum.The
f
ir
standt
hir
dar
eshor
tandt
hesecondi
sthel
ongestbutt
her
ear
edi
sti
nct
ion
bet
weent
het
hreesect
ions.
Thepancr
eat
icandt
hebi
l
eductempt
yint
otheduodenum.

THELARGEI
NTESTI
NE
Thel
argei
ntest
ineconsi
stofcaecum whi
chi
sabl
i
ndsacandt
hecol
on
whi
chconsi
stoft
heascendi
ng,t
ransv
erseandt
hedescendi
ngpar
tandt
his
l
eadst
othel
astt
ubul
arpar
toft
hel
argei
ntest
inecal
l
edt
her
ect
um,t
hedi
stal
endi
sguar
dedbyanal
sphi
nct
erwhi
chopenout
sidet
hrought
heanus.
Thel
argei
ntest
ineoft
hehor
sei
sthemostcompl
exandv
olumi
nous
r
epl
aci
ngt
her
umeni
not
herani
mal
s.
DI
GESTI
VEGLANDS
A. Thi
sincl
udet
hesal
i
var
ygl
andsandt
her
ear
ethr
eepai
rst
hesear
ethe
Par
oti
c,Sub-
li
ngual
,Mandi
bul
ar
Theduct
soft
hisgl
andsopeni
ntot
hemout
handal
lpr
oducesal
i
va
whi
chconsi
stmai
nlyofwat
er,
mucusandi
ons.
B. Oesophagealgl
andsi
nthesubmucosalandt
heypr
oducemucus
secr
eti
on.
C. Gast
ri
cgl
andsoccupymostoft
hel
ami
napr
obr
iai
nthepy
lor
icr
egi
on.

18
 Mucosall
ayerar
e al
so pr
esent
.The gl
and oft
he car
diac r
egi
on
pr
oduce mai
nlymucous t
hose i
nthe f
undi
cregi
on,pr
oduce HCl
,
pepsi
nogenandot
herhor
moneswhi
char
emai
nlynonadr
enal
i
ne.
Gl
andsi
nthepy
lor
icr
egi
onpr
oducemai
nlymucousbutal
sopr
oduces
hor
monecal
l
edgast
ri
n.
D. I
ntest
inalgl
ands:
Thesear
epr
esenti
nbot
hlami
nepr
obr
iaandal
sot
he
submucosal
lay
er.Theypr
oducet
hef
oll
owi
ng
(
i)Mucous(
2)pept
idasesgr
oupofenzy
mest
hatactspeci
fi
cal
l
yon
st
arch.
(
2) Ot
herdi
gest
ivegl
andsassoci
atedwi
tht
hedi
gest
ivesy
stem knownast
he
accessor
ydi
gest
ivegl
andsi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:
(
i)ThePancr
eas:Thi
sgl
andconsi
stsofbot
hanendocr
ineandexocr
inepar
ts.
Theexocr
inegl
andspr
oducesodi
um bi
car
bonat
e(Na2HCO3)andpancr
eat
ic
di
gest
ive enzy
mes.The endocr
ine componentconsi
sts ofgr
oups ofcel
l
s
scat
ter
edt
hroughoutt
hepancr
eas.Thi
sgr
oupofcel
l
sar
ecal
l
edt
heI
sletof
l
anger
hans andt
heypr
oducei
nsul
i
nandgl
ucagon,bot
hhor
monesar
ever
y
i
mpor
tantf
orgl
ucosemet
abol
i
sm.

(
ii
)Thel
iv
er:
-Thi
sor
gani
slocat
edi
mmedi
atel
yaf
tert
hedi
aphr
agm ont
her
ight
.
I
tisl
obul
ated.Absor
bednut
ri
ent
sfr
om t
hei
ntest
inear
ecar
ri
edi
ntot
hel
i
ver
t
hrought
heHepat
icpor
talv
ein.Mi
croscopi
cal
l
ythel
i
verconsi
stofsheat
hsof
cel
l
sbet
weenwhi
char
espacecal
l
edSi
nusoi
ds,t
hecel
l
soft
hel
i
verar
ecal
l
ed
hepat
ocy
te.Bl
oodf
rom t
hepor
talv
einandt
hehepat
icar
ter
ypassest
hrought
his
spaceandar
ecol
l
ect
edi
ntot
hehepat
icv
ein,
excepti
nthehor
seal
lfar
m ani
mal
hav
eagal
lbl
adderwhi
chst
orebi
l
efor
medbyt
hel
i
ver
.Bi
l
eempt
yint
othe
duodenum t
hrought
hecommonbi
l
educt
.

PHYSI
OLOGYOFDI
GESTI
ON
The sal
i
var
y gl
ands ar
e suppl
i
ed wi
th bot
h par
asy
mpat
het
ic and
sy
mpat
het
icner
vef
iber
.Thepr
esenceoff
oodi
nthemout
hst
imul
atesr
efl
ex
secr
eti
onofsal
i
vai
nthemout
hthr
ought
hepar
asy
mpat
het
icner
ve.Si
mil
arl
ythe
si
ghtandi
nsomeani
mal
sthesmel
loff
oodcausesr
efl
exsal
i
vat
ion.Thet
ypeof

19
sal
i
vasecr
eti
ondependsupont
hedr
ynessoft
hegood,
whent
hef
ood,
isdr
ye.
g.
br
ead.Thesal
i
vai
swat
eryandcopi
ous;i
fthef
oodi
smoi
storwett
hesal
i
vai
s
mucoi
dandl
i
ttl
e.
Themaj
orconst
it
uent
sofsal
i
vaar
emucous,wat
er,enzy
mesl
i
kept
yal
i
n,
ami
noaci
d,ur
ea,ci
tr
i dandK+,Na+,HCO3-,PO43.ThepHr
caci angesf
rom 6.
2–
7.
4.Foodnor
mal
l
yremai
nsf
ort
ooshor
tat
imei
nthemout
htoal
l
ow any
di
gest
ionofst
archt
oact
ual
l
ytakepl
ace.
DI
GESTI
ONI
NSI
MPLESTOMACH
I
n non r
umi
nant
,the st
omach consi
stofonl
yone compar
tment
,it
s
f
unct
ionar
e:
(
i) St
ori
ngf
oodt
empor
ari
l
yandcont
rol
l
ingi
tsev
acuat
ioni
ntot
hesmal
l
i
ntest
ine.
(
ii
) Reduci
ngt
her
iskofswal
l
owi
ngpoi
sonousort
oxi
csubst
ances.
(
ii
i) I
nit
iat
ingpr
otei
nandf
atdi
gest
ion.
(
iv) Absor
pti
onofsomemat
eri
alsl
i
kev
itami
nB12andi
nmanal
cohol
.
Thespeci
alpr
oper
ti
esoft
hest
omachar
eduet
oit
smuscul
arnat
ureandal
soi
ts
mucosa.The muscul
arnat
ure cont
rolst
omach mov
ementwhi
ch i
sver
y
i
mpor
tanti
ndi
gest
ionandt
hemucosapr
oduceenzy
mes.
Gast
ri
cjui
cei
sthepr
oductofal
lthet
hreet
ypesofgl
andsi
nthest
omach
i
.e.t
hecar
diac,
thef
undi
candpy
lor
icgl
ands.
Pepsi
nogeni
sconv
ert
edt
opepsi
nwhi
chi
stheact
ivest
ate,
byt
heact
ivi
ty
ofHy
drochl
ori
caci
dandpepsi
ncat
aly
zedt
hehy
drat
ionofpr
otei
nint
opr
oteoses
andpept
ones.I
nyoungr
umi
nantr
enni
nint esenceofCa+ causest
hepr heco-
agul
ati
on ofmi
l
k,i
tist
her
efor
ever
yimpor
tantf
orsuckl
eyoung ani
mal
s
especi
all
yrumi
nant
s.The
pr
eci
pit
atewhi
chr
esul
tsf
rom t
heco-
agul
ati
onr
eact
ionenabl
eingest
edmi
l
kto
r
emai
nlongeri
nthest
omacht
oal
l
owdi
gest
ion.Renni
ncanal
sodi
gestpr
otei
n
andpepsi
niscapabl
eforcoagul
ati
ngmi
l
k.
Hy
drochl
ori
caci
disani
mpor
tantcomponentofgast
ri
cjui
ce.I
naddi
ti
ont
oit
s
di
gest
ivepr
oper
ti
esi
tal
soact
sasanant
isept
ic.Theamountofpr
otei
nint
he
st
omachcont
rol
sther
eleaseofgast
ri
n.Gast
ri
nint
urnst
imul
atest
hesecr
eti
on
ofHClwhi
chact
ivat
epepsi
nogent
opepsi
nandsubsequent
lypr
otei
ndi
gest
ion.

20
Thef
oll
owi
ngf
act
orscont
rol
gast
ri
csecr
eti
on
(
i) Thesi
ght
,smel
landev
ent
houghtoff
oodsaswel
last
ast
eoff
ood
(
ii
) The pr
esence off
ood i
nthe st
omach i
s anot
herf
act
orwhi
ch
st
imul
atesgast
ri
csecr
eti
on.
(
ii
i) Pr
esenceoff
oodi
ntheduodenum.
St
omachmov
ementi
scont
rol
l
edbybot
hner
vousandhor
monal
secr
eti
on.
The par
asy
mpat
het
ic ner
vef
iberi
ncr
eases and t
he sy
mpat
het
icr
educe
st
omachmov
ement
.Thehor
monecal
l
edent
erogast
ronepr
oducedi
nthesmal
l
i
ntest
iner
educesst
omachcont
ract
ion.
DI
GESTI
ONI
NRUMI
NATN(
RUMI
NATI
ON)
Rumi
nat
ion:I
stheabi
l
ityofr
umi
nantt
orumi
nat
e.I
tisapr
ocesswhi
chenabl
es
t
heani
malt
ogat
herf
oodr
api
dlyorgr
azer
api
dlyt
obef
oll
owedl
aterbymor
e
car
efulandt
hor
oughchewi
ng,t
hispr
ocessi
simpor
tantbecauset
henut
ri
ent
cont
entoft
hef
eedwhi
char
emai
nlygr
assi
slowandal
argequant
it
yhast
obe
consumedasr
api
dlyaspossi
ble.I
naddi
ti
onf
ibr
ousmat
eri
alssuchasgr
ass
hav
etobet
hor
oughl
ybr
okendown.
Rumi
nat
ion i
ncl
udes:Regur
git
ati
on,r
e-mast
icat
ion,r
e-ensal
i
vat
ion and r
e-
swal
l
owi
ng
Foodmat
eri
alsunder
gosev
eral
cir
cleofr
umi
nat
ion.Rumi
nat
ioni
sar
efl
ex
act
ionwhi
chi
sst
imul
atedbycont
actofcoar
ser
oughageswi
tht
her
umenoft
he
epi
thel
i
awal
l
.
Thepr
inci
palf
eat
uresi
nrumi
nantdi
gest
ionar
efer
ment
ati
onpr
ocess
whi
cht
hei
ngest
ionunder
goesi
nther
umenandr
eti
cul
um.Thi
spr
ocessi
smade
possi
blei
namassi
vescal
ebecauseoft
hepr
esenceofpr
otozoaandbact
eri
ain
t
her
umenandr
eti
cul
um.Thi
sor
gani
zat
ionpossesst
heenzy
mescel
l
uloseand
ar
eabl
etobr
eakdowncel
l
uloset
opr
ovi
demanynut
ri
ent
swhi
cht
her
umi
nant
needs,t
hisnut
ri
ent
sincl
udet
hev
olat
il
efat
tyaci
ds,whi
char
epr
opi
oni
caci
d,
but
yri
caci
dandacet
icaci
d.Theseaci
dsar
e
absor
bedi
nther
umenandr
eti
cul
um andal
sot
heomasum.Thi
sfor
mst
hemaj
or
sour
ceofener
gyf
orr
umi
nant
.Apar
tfr
om t
hecel
l
ulosemat
eri
aleat
ensome
st
archi
sal
sot
akeni
n,somei
susedbyt
hemi
croor
gani
smsbutsomeescape
i
ntot
heabomasum andsubsequent
lyt
hesmal
lint
est
ine.Themi
croor
gani
sms

21
t
hemsel
veswhent
heydi
ear
edi
gest
edi
ntheabomasum andt
hesmal
lint
est
ine
and t
hen pr
otei
n and car
bohy
drat
es because av
ail
abl
etot
he r
umi
nant
.
St
ruct
ural
l
yandf
unct
ional
l
y,t
heabomasum i
stheequi
val
entoft
he(
true)si
mpl
e
st
omachi
nnonr
umi
nant
.
Rumi
nantcanmakeuseofur
eat
osy
nthesi
zet
hei
rownpr
otei
nthi
sisbecause
t
hemi
croor
gani
smsi
nther
umencanagai
nbr
eakdownur
eai
ntoammoni
um
(
NH3)andt
heammoni
um i
ssubsequent
lymadei
ntomi
crobi
alpr
otei
n
NH2
C=O(2NH2
NH2
DI
GESTI
ONI
NTHESMALLI
NTESTI
NE
Di
gest
iveenzy
mespr
esenti
nbot
hint
est
inalandpancr
eat
icj
uices,
hel
pin
t
hedi
gest
ioni
nasmal
li
ntest
ine,
Bil
econt
ainsal
twhi
chemul
sif
yfat
,whent
aken
andt
heybr
eakf
atdowni
ntosmal
l
erdr
opl
etwhi
chcannowbehy
drol
yzed.The
smal
lint
est
inalj
uicepr
oducebyt
hei
ntest
inalgl
andscont
ainst
hef
oll
owi
ng
enzy
mes.
Ent
eropept
idases(
ent
eroki
nase)t
ypsi
nogen(
try
psi
n
Pept
idases Pept
ides ( Ami
noAci
d
Mal
tase Mal
tose ( 2mol
sofgl
ucose
Sucr
ase Sucr
ose ( Gl
ucose&f
ruct
ose
Lact
ase Lact
ose ( Gl
ucose+Gal
act
ose
I
ntest
inal
li
pase
I
ntest
inal
Amy
lase
Pancr
eat
icj
uicecont
ainsev
eralpr
oteol
yti
cenzy
mes,t
heybr
eakdownpr
otei
n
andpol
ypept
idei
ntopept
ideandami
noaci
d,t
heseenzy
mesi
ncl
ude
1. Tr
ypsi
nogen
2. Chr
ymot
rypsi
nogen
3. Car
boxypept
idase
4. Nucl
eases

5. Ami
noPept
idase
6. Li
pase

22
 7. Amy
lases
ABSORPTI
ONANDMETABOLI
SM
Pr
otei
naf
teri
thasbeenbr
eaki
ng downi
nto ami
no aci
d,t
hissi
mpl
e
subst
ance(
ami
noaci
d)ar
eabsor
bedt
hrought
hei
ntest
inev
il
li
,mostoft
he
ami
noaci
dar
eremov
efr
om t
hebl
oodbyt
hel
i
verandmuscl
e.Thebodyt
issues
hav
eli
tt
lecapaci
tyf
orst
ori
ngpr
otei
norami
noaci
d;somear
eusedt
obui
l
dup
bodypr
otei
n(l
i
kemuscl
es)par
ti
cul
arl
yiny
oungani
mal
sandr
estwhi
chi
snot
neededi
sbr
okendowni
mmedi
atel
ytopr
oduceur
ea.
CARBONHYDRATE:Mostoft
hecar
bohy
drat
eeat
ingbynon-
rumi
nanti
sdi
gest
ed
mai
nlyi
nthesmal
lint
est
ine,t
hepr
oductofdi
gest
ionar
egl
ucose,f
ruct
oseand
gal
act
ose.Theyar
eal
ltr
anspor
ted acr
osst
hev
il
liandt
akeni
ntot
hel
i
ver
;
f
ruct
oseandgal
act
osear
econv
ert
edi
ntogl
ucosebyt
hel
i
verbecausesugar
f
oundi
nthel
i
veri
snor
mal
l
yinf
orm ofgl
ucoseonl
y.Gl
ucosei
sused
a. Asani
mmedi
atesour
ceofener
gy
b. St
oreasgl
ycogeni
nthel
i
ver
c. Conv
ert
edi
ntof
at
Gl
ycogeni
sanener
gyr
esour
ceandwhengl
ucosei
sneededi
tisbr
okendown
i
nto gl
ucose and senti
nto ci
rcul
ati
on and used as sour
ce ofener
gy.The
hor
monegl
ucagoni
sresponsi
blef
ort
hisbr
eaki
ngdown.Ont
heot
herhandt
he
hor
monei
nsul
i
nensur
ethei
ntakeofgl
ucosebybodycel
lformet
abol
i
sm,bot
h
hor
monear
epr
oducebyt
heendocr
inepar
toft
hepancr
ease.
FAT:Theendpr
oductoff
atdi
gest
ioni
sfat
tyaci
d;t
heycanonl
ydi
ssol
vei
nH2O
onl
yint
hepr
esenceofbi
l
e,soapar
tfr
om t
hei
mpor
tsi
nfatdi
gest
ionbi
l
eisal
so
essent
ialf
orf
att
yaci
dabsor
pti
on.Dur
ingt
hei
rtr
anspor
tat
iont
hef
att
yaci
d
r
ecombi
ne t
ofor
m t
ri
gly
cer
ide whi
ch appearas smal
ldr
opl
etknown as
chy
lomi
cronspr
esenti
nthel
act
eal
sfati
sei
theroxi
dizedi
mmedi
atel
yint
hel
i
ver
andmuscl
esf
orener
gyori
tisst
oredunt
ilr
equi
red.Notal
lfatdeposi
tedi
nthe
bodyi
sofdi
etar
yor
igi
ncar
bohy
drat
eandami
noaci
dcaneasi
l
ybeconv
ert
edt
o
f
at.Her
biv
oroussy
nthesi
zemustoft
hei
rfatf
rom v
olat
il
efat
tyaci
ds.

LARGEI
NTESTI
NE
Thef
unct
ionofl
argei
ntest
inei
ncar
niv
orousar
emai
nlyt
o:(
1)Absor
bed

23
wat
erandel
ect
rol
yte(
2)t
oactasar
eser
voi
rforwast
epr
oductbuti
nrumi
nant
di
gest
ioncont
inuesi
nthel
argei
ntest
ine.I
ntheSi
mpl
est
omachher
biv
orouse.
g.
hor
se,
rabbi
t,gui
neapi
gs,
itf
unct
ionsast
her
umeni
nrumi
nant(
caecot
rophy
).
FUNCTI
ONOFTHELI
VER
(
1) I
tisasecr
etar
yor
gant
hathel
psi
ndi
gest
ioni
tdoest
hist
hrought
he
pr
oduct
ionofbi
l
e.
(
2) I
tisanexcr
etor
yor
ganwhi
chpr
oducewast
epr
oductsuchasbi
l
e
pi
gmente.
g.
(
3) I
tisr
esponsi
blef
ort
hemet
abol
i
sm ofCHO,
prot
einandf
at.
(
4) I
tpr
ovi
desdef
ensemechani
smst
opr
otectt
hebodyagai
nsti
nfect
ion
becauset
hel
i
versi
nusoi
dsar
ebyphy
gocy
tes.
(
5) I
tst
oresnut
ri
entl
i
kegl
ucogen,
fat
,vi
tami
nandi
ron.
(
6) I
tcont
ri
but
est
othecoagul
ati
onofbl
oodbecausei
tfor
msf
ibr
inogen
andpr
othr
ombi
n.
(
7) I
tpr
oducesot
herpl
asmapr
otei
ne.
g.ot
heral
bumenandgl
obul
i
n.
(
8) I
tisi
mpor
tanti
nhor
monemet
abol
i
sm,i
tbr
eakdownandr
emov
ethe
st
eroi
dhor
mones.
(
9) I
tregul
atest
hebl
oodv
olumebecausei
thast
hecapaci
tyt
ost
ore
bl
oodi
nit
’ssi
nusoi
ds
(
10) I
tdet
oxi
fi
edpoi
son
(
11) I
tassi
sti
nthedest
ruct
ionofR.
B.C.
s

DI
GESTI
ONI
NCHI
CKENS

24
 Thecr
op oft
hechi
cken i
sdi
ver
ti
cul
um oft
heoesophagousand i
ts
f
unct
ioni
smai
nlyt
ost
oref
oodandt
omakei
tmoi
stbef
orei
tispassedi
ntot
he
pr
ovent
ri
cul
um.Thepr
ovent
ri
cul
uscont
ainsgl
andswhi
chpr
oducet
hegast
ri
c
j
uiceandi
tissi
tuat
edj
ustt
otheant
eri
oroft
hegi
zzar
ds.Thegl
andspr
oduce
bot
hHCl
aidandpepsi
nogen.
Thegi
zzar
disamuscul
aror
ganandi
tsf
unct
ioni
stogr
indt
hei
ngest
a.
Thi
sact
ioni
shel
pedbyt
hepr
esenceofgr
it
,foropt
imum di
gest
iongr
iti
s
essent
ial
.Di
gest
ioni
nthesmal
lint
est
inei
tissi
mil
art
othatofmammal
s.The
l
argei
ntest
inei
sshor
tandl
i
ttl
edi
gest
iont
akenpl
acet
her
e.

25
 ENDOCRI
NOLOGY
Theendocr
inesy
stem i
scomposedofv
ari
ousendocr
inegl
andswhi
char
e
l
ocat
edi
nvar
iousposi
ti
onsoft
hebodyi
nmammal
s(f
arm ani
mal
s).Ther
e
secr
eti
ondi
ff
usedi
rect
lyi
ntot
hebl
oodst
ream andar
etr
anspor
tedt
owher
eev
er
t
heyar
eneeded,
ther
esecr
eti
onsar
eknownashor
mones.Thesegl
andsmaybe
di
scr
etel
i
ket
het
hyr
oidandadr
enal
sorgr
oupsofcel
l
swi
thot
heror
gans,
li
ket
he
cel
l
sint
hepancr
east
hatpr
oducesi
nsul
i
n.Eachendocr
inegl
andmaypr
oduce
oneormor
ehor
mones.Thepi
tui
tar
yisknownast
hemast
erendocr
inegl
and
si
ncemanyofi
tshor
monesi
nfl
uencest
heact
ivi
ti
esofot
hergl
andsi
ncl
udi
ng
manyendocr
inegl
ands.Thepi
tui
tar
ygl
andsar
eundert
hei
nfl
uenceoft
he
Hy
pot
hal
amuswhi
chpassesont
henecessar
yinf
ormat
iont
othegl
andswhi
ch
t
henr
egul
atet
heact
ivi
ti
esdi
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
lyofot
hergl
ands,i
ncl
udi
ngt
he
endocr
inegl
ands.Thus,t
heHy
pot
hal
amusact
sasal
i
nkbet
weent
hener
vous
sy
stem and t
he endocr
ine sy
stem.Byt
he bl
ood i
tpl
ays a cent
ralr
olei
n
hor
monesst
ati
cpr
ocesses.
Thepi
tui
tar
ygl
andconsi
stsofanant
eri
orpar
tandapost
eri
orpar
t.Bot
h
par
tsr
eleasehor
moneswhi
char
eei
therpol
ypet
idesorpr
otei
n.
Hor
monescanbedef
usedaschemi
calsubst
ancessecr
etedbyendocr
ine
gl
andsi
nresponset
ovar
iousst
imul
i(bot
hint
ernalandext
ernal
).Theyci
rcul
ate
i
nthebl
oodst
ream andexer
tthei
ref
fect
soncer
tai
nor
gansknownast
arget
or
gans.Thi
sispossi
blebecauset
argetor
ganshav
ecel
l
swi
thspeci
alr
ecept
or
mol
ecul
esont
hei
rsur
faces.Theappr
opr
iat
ehor
monescanf
iti
ntot
hisr
ecept
or
mol
ecul
esandbr
ingsabouti
tsef
fect
.Theseef
fect
smaybet
ospeedup(
exci
te)
orshow down (
inhi
bit
s oral
tert
he act
ivi
ti
esoft
he t
argetor
gans)
.A f
ew
hor
monesl
i
ket
hyr
oxi
nandgr
owt
hhor
monesexer
tthei
raf
fect
sonal
lbodycel
l
s.

26
 Thus,hor
mones ar
e usual
l
y def
ined as chemi
calmessengert
hati
s
pr
oducedi
nonepar
tofor
gani
smsandbr
ingsaboutaspeci
fi
cef
fecti
ntar
get
or
ganssomedi
stanceaway
.

HORMONES FUNCTI
ONS(
ANTERI
ORPI
TUATARY
1. Adr
enocor
ti
cot
ropi
c hor
mones St
imul
atet
he adr
enalcor
text
o pr
oduce i
ts
(
ACTH) hor
mone,
thecut
icl
est
eroi
ds
2. Thy
roi
d st
imul
ati
ng hor
mones St
imul
atest
het
hyr
oidgl
andst
opr
oducei
ts
(
TSH) hor
monesi
.et
hyr
oxi
ne
3. Fol
l
icl
e st
imul
ati
ng hor
mones a.
Causes f
oll
i
cles i
n or
gan t
o r
ipen and
(
FSH) pr
oducemat
uredeggs
b.
Ini
ti
atessper
mfor
mat
ioni
ntest
is
4. Lut
eini
zi
nghor
mones(
LH) a.
Causesov
ulat
ion
b.
Sti
mul
atesecr
eti
onoft
est
ost
eronei
ntest
is.
5. Gr
wot
hhor
mones(
GH) a.
Sti
mul
ategr
owt
hofl
ongbones
b.
Promot
e pr
otei
n sy
nthesi
s and i
ncr
ease
met
abol
i
crat
eincel
l
s
6. Pr
olact
in I
nducesmi
l
kpr
oduct
ioni
npr
egnantani
mal

Hor
mones Funct
ion(
Post
eri
orpi
tui
tar
y)
1. Ant
i-
diur
eti
chor
mone(
ADH) a.
Iti
ncr
easet
heabsor
pti
onofH2O byki
dney
t
ubul
es
b.
Ari
ses bl
ood pr
essur
e by const
ri
cti
ng
ar
ter
iol
es
2. Ox
ytoci
n a.
Induce bi
rt
hs by cont
ract
ion of ut
eri
ne
muscl
es
b.
Inducesmi
l
ksecr
etanf
rom ni
ppl
e(t
eat
)

Endocr
ine Hor
monepr
oduce Ef
fect
s
27
 gl
and
1. Thy
roi
d a.
Thy
roxi
ne 1.
Incr
easebasal
met
abol
i
crat
e
2.
Itr
egul
atesgr
owt
handdev
elopment
b.
Cal
cit
oni
n a.
Lower
sbl
oodcal
cium l
evel
2. Par
athy
roi
d Par
athy
roi
dhor
mone I
trai
sesbl
oodcal
cium l
evel
3. Pancr
eas (
a)I
nsul
i
n Lower
sbl
oodgl
ucosel
evelbypr
omot
ing
sy
nthesi
s.Ofgl
ycogenandabsor
pti
onof
gl
ucosebycel
l
s
(
b)Gl
ucagon Rai
sesbl
oodgl
ucosel
evelbypr
omot
ing
br
eakdownofgl
ycogen
4. Adr
enal
Cor
tex (
a)Gl
ucocor
ti
coi
de.
g. (
1)Rai
sesbl
oodsugarl
evelbypr
omot
ing
cor
ti
sol conv
ert
ionofnoncar
bohy
drat
etogl
ucose
(
b)Mi
ner
alo cor
ti
coi
d i
ncr
easer
eabsor
ptonofNa+byki
i dney
e.
g.al
dost
eri
ne
5. Adr
enal Adr
enal
i
ne I
taf
fect
smanyor
ganspr
epar
ingt
hebody
medul
l
a f
or i
mmedi
ate act
ion i
n emer
gency
si
tuat
ion
6. Mal
e Test
ost
erone (
1)St
imul
atesdev
elopmentofsecondar
y
r
epr
oduct
ive mal
echar
act
eri
sti
cs
or
gans, e.
g. (
2)st
imul
ates gr
owt
h and mat
urat
ion of
Test
es t
est
esandbr
ingaboutsper
m pr
oduct
ion
(
toget
herwi
thFSH)
7. Femal
e Oest
rogen (
1) St
imul
ates t
he dev
elopment of
r
epr
oduct
ive secondar
yfemal
esexchar
act
eri
sti
cs
or
gans e.
g. (
2)Causesi
ncr
easesi
nsi
zeofut
erusand
ov
ary v
agi
na and Regul
ate t
he f
emal
e
r
epr
oduct
ivecy
cle.
Pr
egest
erone I
nhi
bit
sov
ulat
ionandmai
ntai
npr
egnancy
.

HOMEOSTASI
S
Thecel
l
sofamul
ti
cel
l
ularor
gani
smsar
ebat
hedi
nbodyf
lui
dssuchas
bl
ood,l
ymphandi
ntr
acel
l
ularorbodyt
issuef
lui
d.Thesef
lui
dsmakeupt
he
28
 i
nter
nalenv
ironment
soft
heor
gani
sm.Thi
sint
ernalenv
ironmentmustbekept
const
ant
sfort
heheal
th,
growt
handef
fi
cientf
unct
ioni
ngoft
hebodycel
l
s.
Mai
ntai
ning a st
eady orconst
anti
nter
nalenv
ironmenti
s known as
homeost
asi
s.I
tisl
argel
ycont
rol
l
edbyt
hebr
ainspeci
all
ytheHy
pot
hal
amus.
Hor
mones,
kidney
s,l
i
verandski
npl
ayi
mpor
tantr
olesi
nhomeost
asi
s.Themost
i
mpor
tantf
eat
uresoft
hei
nter
nal
env
ironmentt
hatmustbekeptconst
antar
e:
(
i) I
tchemi
cal
const
it
uent
se.
g.gl
ucose,
ionset
c
(
ii
) I
t’
sosmot
icpr
essur
es,det
ermi
nebyt
her
elat
iveamountofH2Oand
sol
utes.
(
ii
i) Thel
evel
ofCO2(
Car
bondi
oxi
de)
(
iv) I
t’
stemper
atur
e.
I
naddi
ti
oncer
tai
nchemi
cali
ngr
edi
ent
smustbev
irt
ual
l
yel
i
minat
ed.Themost
i
mpor
tant of t
his,ar
e ni
tr
ogenous wast
e pr
oduct
s ar
isi
ng f
rom pr
otei
n
met
abol
i
sm andt
oxi
csubst
ancel
i
ber
atedbypat
hogeni
cmi
croor
gani
sms.The
i
mpor
tanceofaconst
anti
nter
nalenv
ironmentt
othewel
lbei
ngofcel
l
scanbe
shownbyr
emov
ingt
issuesf
rom t
hebodyi
ftheyar
esubj
ect
edt
ocondi
ti
ons
qui
tedi
ff
erentf
rom t
hosepr
evai
l
ingi
nthebodyt
heywi
l
ldi
e;buti
fmai
ntai
ned
undert
hecor
rectcondi
ti
onst
heywi
l
lsur
viv
e.
Regul
ati
onofgl
ucosei
nthebodydemonst
rat
eani
mpor
tantpr
inci
plesof
homeost
asi
s;t
hesequenceofev
ent
sissummar
izedbel
ow

PancreaseSecretesi
nsul
i
n
whichcauseslivert
oconver
t
(1)Sugart
oglycogen
(2)Sugart
oCO2+H2O Gl
ucose
(3)Sugartofat
s l
evel
fal
l
Toomuch
gl
ucose
Negat
ive
f
eedback
Corr
ectamount Corr
ectamount
ofgl
ucoseint
he ofgl
ucosei
nthe
body(nor
m) body

Negat
ive
f
eedback
Tooli
tt
le
gl
ucose Pancrasesecret
esl
essi
nsuli
n,
soli
vermetaboli
sesl
esssugar Gl
ucose
(r
ever
seabov e)
29
The homeost
asi
s schemat
ic di
agr
am f
or t
he cont
rolof gl
ucose i
nthe
mammal
i
anbody
.

30
Wat
erbal
ance
Wat
eri
sthemostabundantcomponentofor
gani
smsast
hecel
l
sofmammal
s
cont
ainappr
oxi
mat
ely18%H2Oandt
hewhol
ebodyi
smadeupofov
er60%H2O.
Ther
efor
eforani
malt
oremai
nin good condi
ti
on ofheal
thi
tmust
mai
ntai
naconst
antbodyH2Oast
hisf
ormst
hemai
nconst
it
utesoft
issuef
lui
d.
Whenwedr
inkal
otofH2Oonacol
dday
,whenwesweatl
essweexcr
etes
al
argeamountofdi
l
uteur
ine.Onhotday
swhenwel
osewat
erf
rom t
hebody
t
hrough sweat
ing we excr
etes smal
lamountofconcent
rat
ed ur
ine t
hisi
s
becauset
heki
dney
sregul
atest
heamountofH2Oexcr
etedi
ntheur
inei
not
hert
o
keept
heosmot
icpr
essur
eofbl
oodconst
ant
.
Thesol
uteconcent
rat
ionofbl
oodr
iseswhenweeatt
oomuchsal
tdr
ink
v
eryl
i
ttl
eH2Oorsweatpr
ofusel
yresul
ti
ngi
nani
ncr
easei
nosmot
icpr
essur
e.
Thi
sisdet
ect
edbyosmor
ecept
ori
nthehy
pot
hal
amusi
nthebr
aini
mmedi
atel
y
t
heysendner
vei
mpul
sest
ost
imul
atet
her
eleaseofAnt
idei
ret
ichor
mones(
ADH)
f
rom t
hepost
eri
orpi
tui
tar
ygl
ands.ADH i
scar
ri
edbyt
hebl
oodt
otheki
dney
wher
eitcausesani
ncr
easedr
e-absor
pti
onofH2Obyt
het
ubul
esi
ntot
hebl
ood
st
ream.I
tdoest
hisbyi
ncr
easi
ngt
heper
meabi
l
ityoft
hedi
stalt
ubul
esandt
he
col
l
ect
ing duct
sto H2O.The cr
ime because concent
rat
ed as i
tsv
olume
decr
easeswhi
l
ethebl
oodbecomesdi
l
utedandi
tsosmot
icpr
essur
edecr
eases.
Thi
spr
ocessgoesonunt
ilosmot
icpr
essur
eofbl
oodr
eachesi
tsnor
mall
evel
.
Whent
heosmor
ecept
ordet
ectanor
malosmot
icpr
essur
etheyst
opst
imul
ati
on
t
hepi
tui
tar
ygl
andsandt
hesecr
eti
onofADHdecr
easesorceases.LessH2Oi
s
r
eabsor
bedbyt
heki
dneyandt
heur
inepr
oducedi
sdi
l
uted.Thebl
oodv
olumei
s
keptconst
antbyt
hispr
ocess.
Thr
usti
sal
soasensat
iont
hei
ndi
cat
etheneedf
orH2Oi
ntaket
oregul
ate
t
heosmot
icpr
essur
eofbl
oodkeepi
ngt
heosmot
icpr
essur
econst
anti
san
exampl
eofanhomeost
ati
cpr
ocess.Theschemat
icdi
agr
am bel
ow showst
he
f
eedbackmechani
sm f
orcont
rol
l
ingt
heosmot
icpr
essur
eofbl
ood.

St
imul
at Pi
tui
tar
y Secr
etedmor
e Kidney
OSMORECEPTOR gl
and tubul
es
31
ADHint
othe
Det
ect
edby bl
oodstr
eam
Negat
ive
I
NCREASEDOSMOTI
C f
eedbackcause
32