Prepared by tds

Learning Objectives
After a thorough perusal of this unit, the students will be able to:
➢ recognize the basis of the modern periodic law and its development.
➢ list the features of groups and periods of the modern periodic table.
➢ explain the trend in periodic properties along the periods and groups.
➢ distinguish between ores and minerals .
➢ list out the types of separation of impurities from the ores.
➢ recall the various places of occurrences of minerals in the state of Tamil Nadu.
➢ put forth the properties of metals.
➢ identify the stages involved in metallurgical processes.
➢ think scientifically on alloys and their types.
➢ develop an idea on amalgam.
➢ understand the reason for corrosion and the methods of its prevention.
 INTRODUCTION
The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries witnessed a rapid
development in chemistry in all spheres of scientific activities. By 1860, scientists had
already discovered 60 elements and determined their atomic masses. They noticed that
some elements had similar properties and hence arranged them into groups. During this
period, several new elements were discovered. These elements were found to have
different properties. It was realized that instead of studying the properties of all these
elements individually, it would be more convenient to divide them into groups and periods
in such a way that each group contained a certain number of elements (like an array of
fruits and vegetables showing orderliness) with similar properties and periods showing a
regular gradation.
So, scientists made several attempts to arrange elements in a logical
way. You have studied about all these early attempts of arrangement of elements in
standard IX. In continuation of the knowledge gained in the topic periodic classification of
elements in standard IX with earlier concepts and their subsequent deliberations, you get
set to go ahead with the higher order of thinking to enhance your knowledge on the
properties of elements.
 MODERN PERIODIC LAW

Mendeleev’s periodic table had some discrepancies, which were

difficult to overcome. For example, the atomic mass of argon (39.95 amu) is greater
than that of potassium (39.10 amu), but argon comes before potassium in the
periodic table. If elements were arranged solely according to increasing atomic mass,
argon would appear in the position occupied by potassium in our modern periodic
table (see table). No chemist would place argon, a gas with no tendency to react, in
the same group as lithium and sodium,which are two highly reactive metals. This
kind of discrepancies suggested that some fundamental property other than atomic
mass must be the basis of periodicity. The fundamental property turned out to be
the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus, something that could not have been
known by Mendeleev and his contemporaries.
 Henry Moseley, a British scientist in 1912, discovered a new property of
elements called atomic number, which provided a better basis for the periodic
arrangement of the elements. It is a well-known fact that atomic number of an element
is equal to the number of protons or the number of electrons present in the neutral
atom of an element. The periodic law was, therefore, modified to frame a modern
periodic law, which states that
“The physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic
functions of their atomic numbers”.
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

With reference to the modern periodic law, the elements were arranged in
the increasing order of their atomic numbers to form the modern periodic table. The
modern periodic table is a tabular arrangement of elements in periods and groups,
highlighting the regular repetition of properties of the elements.Table shows the
modern periodic table of 118 elements discovered so far. As you have studied the
features of the modern periodic table in standard IX, here let us confine to the study of
the features of periods and groups.
Modern Periodic Table
Features of Periods

❖The horizontal rows are called periods. There are seven periods in the
periodic table.
❖First period (Atomic number 1 and 2): This is the shortest period. It contains
only two elements (Hydrogen and Helium).
❖Second period (Atomic number 3 to 10): This is a short period. It contains
eight elements (Lithium to Neon).
❖Third period (Atomic number 11 to 18): This is also a short period. It contains
eight elements (Sodium to Argon).
❖accommodates 32 elements. Recently 4 elements have been included by
IUPAC.
❖Fourth period (Atomic number 19 to 36): This is a long period. It contains
eighteen elements (Potassium to Krypton). This includes 8 representative
elements and 10 transition elements.
❖Fifth period (Atomic number 37 to 54): This is also a long period. It contains 18
elements (Rubidium to Xenon). This includes 8 representative elements and 10
transition elements.
❖Sixth period (Atomic number 55 to 86): This is the longest period. It contains 32
elements (Caesium to Radon). This includes 8 representative elements, 10
transition elements and 14 inner transition elements (Lanthanides).
❖Seventh period (Atomic number 87 to 118): Like the sixth period, this period also
 Features of Groups
✓ The vertical columns in the periodic table starting from top to bottom are called
groups. There are 18 groups in the periodic table.
✓ Based on the common characteristics of elements in each group, they can be
grouped as various families.
✓ The Lanthanides and Actinides, which form part of Group 3 are called inner
transition elements.
✓ Except 'group 18', all the elements present in each group have the same number of
electrons in their valence shell and thus have the same valency. For example, all the
elements of group 1 have one electron in their valence shells (1s1). So, the valency of
all the alkali metals is ‘1’.
✓ As the elements present in a group have identical valence shell electronic
configurations, they possess similar chemical properties.
✓ The physical properties of the elements in a group such as melting point, boiling
point and density vary gradually.
✓ The atoms of the 'group 18' elements have stable electronic configuration in their
valence shells and hence they are unreactive.
 PERIODIC TRENDS IN PROPERTIES

The electronic configurations of elements help us to

explain the periodic recurrence of physical and chemical properties. Anything
which repeats itself after a regular interval is called periodic and this
behaviour is called periodicity. Some of the atomic properties of the
elements are periodic.

Properties such as atomic radius, ionic radius, ionisation

energy, electronegativity, electron affinity, show a regular periodicity and
hence they are called periodic properties. The main significance of the
modern periodic table is that it gives a clear understanding of the general
properties and trends within a group or a period to predict with considerable
accuracy, the properties of any element, even though that element may be
unfamiliar to us. Let us discuss the periodic trend of some of the properties.
 Ionic Radii
It is defined as the distance from the centre of the nucleus of
the ion upto the point where it exerts its influence on the electron cloud of
the ion. You know that ions are formed when an atom lose or gain electrons.
When a neutral atom loses an electron, it becomes a positively charged ion
called cation, whereas the gain of an electron by a neutral atom forms a
negatively charged ion called anion. The size of the ions is important to
determine their behaviours in solutions and the structure of ionic solids. The
size of a cation is always smaller than its corresponding neutral atom. But,
the anion is larger than its neutral atom.

Note:
As the positive charge increases the size of the cation decreases
As the negative charge increases the size of the anion increases
 Ionisation Energy

Ionisation energy is the minimum energy required to

remove an electron froman isolated gaseous atom in its ground state to
form a cation. It is otherwise called ionisation enthalpy. It is measured in
kJ/mol. Higher the ionisation energy, it is more difficult to remove the
electron.

As the atomic size decreases from left to right in a

period, more energy is required to remove the electrons. So, the
ionisation energy increases along the period. But, down the group, the
atomic size increases and hence the valence electrons are loosely bound.
They require relatively less energy for the removal. Thus, ionisation
energy decreases down the group in the periodic table.
✓ Electronegativity is based on various experimental data such as bond energy,
ionization potential, electron affinity, etc.
✓ Pauling scale is the widely used scale to determine the electronegativity, which in
turn predicts the nature of bonding (ionic or covalent) between the atoms in a
molecule.
✓ Electronegativity of some of the elements are given below
F = 4.0, Cl = 3.0, Br = 2.8, I = 2.5, H = 2.1, Na = 1
✓ If the difference in electronegativity between two elements is 1.7, the bond has
50% ionic character and 50% covalent character.
✓ If the difference is less than 1.7, the bond is considered to be more covalent.
✓ If the difference is greater than 1.7, the bond is considered to be more ionic.
✓ Along the period, from left to right in the periodic table, the electronegativity
increases because of the increase in the nuclear charge which in turn attracts the
electrons more strongly. On moving down a group, the electronegativity of the
elements decreases because of the increased number of valence shells.
 METALLURGY
Human life is associated with various metals. We use metals in our day to
day activities. It is the utmost need to have some metals like sodium, potassium,
calcium, iron, etc. in the human body. Deficiency of these metals affects the
metabolic activities thereby causing diseases. So, metals play a vital role in our
life. In this section, let us discuss how metals are obtained from various sources
by the process of metallurgy.
 Metallurgy is a science of extracting metals from their ores and modifying
the metals into alloys for various uses, based on their physical and chemical
properties and their structural arrangement of atoms. A metallurgical process involve
three main steps as follows:
❖ Concentration or Separation of the ore: It is the process of removal of impuries
from the ore.
❖ Production of the metal: It is the convertion of the ore into metal.
❖ Refining of the metal: It is the process of purification of the metal.

Terminology in metallurgy
Minerals: A mineral may be a single compound or a complex mixture of various
compounds of metals found in the Earth.
Ore: The mineral from which a metal can be readily and economically extracted on a
large scale is said to be an ore
 Types of separation or concentration of an ore
There are four major types of separation of ores based on the nature of the ore. The
different kinds of ores of metals are given in periodic Table
Concentration of the crushed ore is done mainly by the following methods: -
(i) Hydraulic (Gravity Separation) method
Principle: The difference in the densities or specific gravities of the ore and the gangue is
the main principle behind this method. Oxide ores are purified by this method. e.g.,
Haematite Fe2O3 the ore of iron.
Note: When the ore is heavier than the impurity, this method can be used.
Method: The ore is poured over a sloping, vibrating corrugated table with grooves and a jet
of water is allowed to flow over it. The denser ore particles settle down in the grooves and
lighter gangue particles are washed down by water.
(ii) Magnetic separation method
Principle: The magnetic properties of the ores form the basis of separation. When either the
ore or the gangue is magnetic, this method is employed. e.g., Tinstone SnO2, the ore of tin.
 The ore is treated with a suitable reagent such that the ore is soluble in it
but the impurities are not. The impurities are removed by filtration. The solution of the
ore, ie., the filtrate is treated with a suitable reagent which precipitates the ore. E.g.
Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O, (the ore of aluminium).

OCCURRENCE OF ORES IN TAMIL NADU

❖ Lime stone: Coimbatore, Cuddalore, Dindugul

❖ Gypsum: Tiruchi and Coimbatore Distiricts
❖ Titanium minerals: Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli and Tuticorin.
❖ Chromite: Coimbatore and Salem district.
❖ Magnetite:. Dharmapuri, Erode, Salem, Thiruvannamalai.
❖ Tungsten: Madurai and Dindugal.
(Reference: mineral resources of Tamil Nadu-ENVIS Centre, Tamil Nadu)
 PROPERTIES OF METALS
Physical properties
➢ Physical state: All metals are solids at room temperature except mercury and gallium.
➢ Lustre: Metals possess a high lustre (called metallic lustre).
➢ Hardness: Most of the metals are hard and strong (exceptions: sodium and potassium can be
cut with a knife)
➢ Melting point and Boiling point: Usually, metals possess high melting and boiling points and
vaporize only at high temperatures (exceptions: gallium, mercury, sodium and potassium).
➢ Density: Metals have a high density (exceptions: sodium and potassium are less dense than
water).
➢ Ductility: Metals are usually ductile. In other words, they can be drawn into thin wires
without breaking.
➢ Malleability: Metals are usually malleable, i.e, they can be beaten into thin sheets without
cracking (except zinc and mercury).
➢ Conduction of heat and electricity: Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity; silver
and copper excel in this property (exception: tungsten)
➢ Solubility: Usually, metals do not dissolve in liquid solvents.
 Chemical Properties

Valence electrons: Atoms of metals usually have 1,2 or 3 electrons in their outermost shell.
Formation of ions: Metals form Positive ions by the loss of electrons and hence they are electro
positive.
Discharge of ions: Metals are discharged at the cathode during the electrolysis of their compounds.
Atomicity: Molecules of metals in their vapour state are usually monoatomic.
Nature of oxides: Oxides of metals are usually basic.

Ores of Aluminium Formula

METALLURGY OF ALUMINIUM
Aluminium is the metal found most abundantly in the Earth’s crust. Since
it is a reactive metal, it occurs in the combined state. The important ores of aluminium
are as follows
Bauxite is the chief ore of aluminium. The extraction of aluminium from bauxite involves
two steps
(i) Conversion of bauxite into alumina – Baeyer’s Process
The conversion of Bauxite into Alumina involves the following steps:
Bauxite ore is finely ground and heated under pressure with a solution of concentrated
caustic soda solution at 150° C to obtain sodium meta aluminate.

On diluting sodium meta aluminate with water, a precipitate of aluminium hydroxide is

formed.

The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried and ignited at 1000°C to get alumina.
 (ii) Electrolytic reduction of alumina – Hall’s Process
Aluminium is produced by the electrolytic reduction of fused alumina (Al2O3) in the
electrolytic cell.
Cathode: Iron tank lined with graphite
Anode: A bunch of graphite rods suspended in molten electrolyte.
Electrolyte: Pure alumina+ molten cryolite + fluorspar (fluorspar lowers the fusion temperature
of electrolyte)
Electrolytic process of manufacturing aluminum
Temperature: 900 - 950 °C
Voltage used: 5-6 V
Overall reaction: 2Al2O3 → 4Al + 3O2↑
Aluminium is deposited at the cathode
and oxygen gas is liberated at the anode.
Oxygen combines with
graphite to form CO2. Hall's Process
Physical Properties of Aluminium
✓ It is a silvery white metal
✓ It has low density (2.7) and it is light
✓ It is malleable and ductile
✓ It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
✓ Its melting point is 660 °C.
✓ It can be polished to produce a shiny attractive appearance.
Chemical Properties of Aluminium
i. Reaction with air: It is not affected by dry air. On heating at 800 °C, aluminium burns very
brightly forming it’s oxide and nitride.

❖ 4 Al + 3 O2 → 2 Al2O3(Aluminium oxide)
❖ 2 Al + N2 → 2 AlN (Aluminium nitride)
ii. Reaction with water: Water does not react with aluminium due to the layer of oxide on it.
When steam is passed over red hot aluminium, hydrogen is produced.

2 Al + 3 H2O → Al2O3 + 3 H2↑

(steam) (aluminium oxide)
iii. Reaction with alkalis: It reacts with strong caustic alkalis forming aluminates.
2 Al + 2 NaOH + 2 H2O → 2 NaAlO2 + 3 H2↑
(Sodium meta aluminate)
iv. Reaction with acids: With dilute and con. HCl it liberates H2 gas.
2 Al + 6 HCl → 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2↑
(Aluminium chloride)
Aluminium liberates hydrogen on reaction with dilute sulphuric acid and liberates sulphur
dioxide on reaction with hot concentrated sulphuric acid
2 Al+ 3 H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 3 H2 ↑
(Dilute)
2 Al + 6 H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 6 H2O + 3 SO2 ↑
(Con.)
v. As reducing agent: Aluminium is a powerful reducing agent. When a mixture of
aluminium powder and iron oxide is ignited, the latter is reduced to metal. This process is
known as aluminothermic process.
Fe2O3 + 2 Al → 2 Fe + Al2O3 + Heat.
 The chief ore of copper is copper pyrite. It yields nearly 76% of the world
production of copper. Extraction of copper from copper pyrites involves the following steps
i. Concentration of ore: The ore is crushed and the concentrated by froth floatation process.
ii. Roasting: The concentrated ore is roasted in excess of air. During the process of roasting,
the moisture and volatile impurities are removed. Sulphur, phosphorus, arsenic and antimony
are removed as oxides. Copper pyrite is partly converted into sulphides of copper and iron.
2 CuFeS2 + O2 → Cu2S + 2 FeS + SO2 ↑
iii. Smelting: The roasted ore is mixed with powdered coke and sand and is heated in a blast
furnace to obtain matte (Cu2S + FeS) and slag. The slag is removed as waste.
iv. Bessemerisation: The molten matte is transferred to Bessemer converter in order to obtain
blister copper. Ferrous sulphide from matte is oxidized to ferrous oxide, which is removed as
slag using silica.
 2 FeS + 3 O2 → 2 FeO + 2 SO2 ↑
FeO + SiO2 → FeSiO3 (slag)
(Iron silicate)
2 Cu2S + 3O2 → 2 Cu2O + 2 SO2 ↑
2 Cu2O + Cu2S → 6 Cu + SO2↑
(Blister copper)

v. Refining: Blister copper contains 98% of pure copper and 2% of impurities and is purified
by electrolytic refining. This method is used to get metal of a high degree of purity. For
electrolytic refining of copper, we use:

Cathode: A thin plate of pure copper metal.

Anode: A block of impure copper metal.
Electrolyte: Copper sulphate solution acidified with sulphuric acid.
When electric current is passed through the electrolytic solution, pure copper gets
deposited at the cathode and the impurities settle at the bottom of the anode in the form
of sludge called anode mud.
Physical Properties of Copper
Copper is a reddish brown metal, with high lustre, high density and high melting point
(1356°C).
Chemical Properties of Copper
i. Action of Air and Moisture: Copper gets covered with a green layer of basic copper
carbonate in the presence of CO2 and moisture.
2 Cu + O2 + CO2 + H2O → CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
ii. Action of Heat: On heating at different temperatures in the presence of oxygen, copper
forms two types of oxides CuO and Cu2O.

2 Cu + O2 below 1370K 2 CuO

(copper II oxide- black)
4 Cu + O2 above 1370K 2 Cu2O
(copper I oxide – red)
iii. Action of Acids:
a) With dilute HCl and dilute H2SO4:
Dilute acids such as HCl and H2SO4 have no action on these metals in the absence of air.
Copper dissolves in these acids in the presence of air.
2 Cu + 4 HCl + O2 (air) 2 CuCl2 + 2 H2O
b) With dil. HNO3:
Copper reacts with dil. HNO3 with the liberation of Nitric Oxide gas.
3 Cu + 8 HNO3 → 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 NO ↑ + 4H2O
iv) Action of Chlorine:
Chlorine reacts with copper, resulting in the formation of copper(II) chloride.
Cu + Cl2 → CuCl2
v) Action of Alkalis:
Copper is not attacked by alkalis.
 Uses of Copper:
❖ It is extensively used in manufacturing electric cables and other electric appliances.
❖ It is used for making utensils, containers, calorimeters and coins,
❖ It is used in electroplating.
❖ It is alloyed with gold and silver for making coins and jewels

METALLURGY OF IRON
Occurrence:
Iron is the second most abundant metal available next to aluminium. It occurs in nature
as oxides, sulphides and carbonates. The ores of iron are as follows:
Ores of iron Formula
Haematite Fe2O3
Magnetite Fe3O4
Iron pyrite FeS2
Iron is chiefly extracted from haematite ore (Fe2O3)
i. Concentration by Gravity Separation:
The powdered ore is washed with a steam of water. As a result, the
lighter sand particles and other impurities are washed away and the heavier ore
particles settle down.

ii. Roasting and Calcination:

The concentrated ore is strongly heated in a limited supply of air in a
reverberatory furnace. As a result, moisture is driven out and sulphur, arsenic and
phosphorus impurities are oxidized off.

iii. Smelting (in a Blast Furnace):

The charge consisting of roasted ore, coke and limestone in the ratio
8:4:1 is smelted in a blast furnace by introducing it through the hopper arrangement at
the top. There are three important regions in the furnace.
 Blast Furnace
(a)The Lower Region (Combustion Zone)-
The temperature is at 1500°C. In this
region, coke burns with oxygen to form
CO2 when the charge comes in contact
with a hot blast of air.

b) The Middle Region (Fusion Zone) – The temperature

prevails at 1000°C. In this region, CO2 is reduced to CO.

Limestone decomposes to calcium oxide and CO2.

 These two reactions are endothermic due to absorption of heat. Calcium oxide
combines with silica to form calcium silicate slag.
CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3
c) The Upper Region (Reduction Zone)- The temperature prevails at 400°C . In this region
carbon monoxide reduces ferric oxide to form a fairly pure spongy iron.
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2 ↑

The molten iron is collected at the bottom of the furnace after removing the slag.
The iron thus formed is called pig iron. It is remelted and cast into different moulds. This
iron is called cast iron.

Physical properties:
i. It is a lustrous metal, greyish white in colour.
ii. It has high tensility, malleability and ductility.
iii. It can be magnetized.
Chemical properties:
i. Reaction with air or oxygen: Only on heating in air, iron forms magnetic oxide.
3 Fe + 2 O2 → Fe3O4 (black)
ii. Reaction with moist air: When iron is exposed to moist air, it forms a layer of brown hydrated
ferric oxide on its surface. This compound is known as rust and the phenomenon of formation of
rust is known as rusting.
4 Fe + 3 O2 + x H2O → 2Fe2O3 . xH2O(rust)
iii. Reaction with steam: When steam is passed over red hot iron, magnetic oxide is formed.
3 Fe + 4H2O (steam) → Fe3O4 + 4 H2 ↑

iv. Reaction with chlorine: Iron combines with chlorine to form ferric chloride.
2Fe + 3Cl2 → 2FeCl3 (ferric chloride)
v. Reaction with acids: With dilute HCl and dilute H2SO4 it liberates H2 gas.
Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2 ↑
Fe + H2SO4 → FeSO4 + H2 ↑
With dilute HNO3 in cold condition it gives ferrous nitrate and ammonium nitrate.
4 Fe + 10 HNO3 → 4 Fe(NO3)2 + NH4NO3 + 3 H2O
With con. H2SO4 it forms ferric sulphate and liberates SO2.
2 Fe + 6 H2SO4 → Fe2(SO4)3 + 3 SO2 + 6 H2O
When iron is dipped in con. HNO3 it becomes chemically passive or inert due to the
formation of a layer of iron oxide (Fe3O4) on its surface.
Types and uses of iron
Pig iron (Iron with 2.0% - 4.5% of carbon): It is used in making pipes, stoves, radiators,
railings, manhole covers and drain pipes.
Steel (Iron with 0.25% - 2.0% of carbon): It is used in the construction of buildings,
machinery, transmission cables and T.V towers and in making alloys.
Wrought iron (Iron with < 0.25% of carbon): It is used in making springs, anchors and
electromagnets.
 ALLOYS
An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or of one or more
metals with certain non-metallic elements.
The properties of alloys are often different from those of its components. Pure
gold is brittle to be used. The addition of small percentage of copper enhances its strength
and utility.
Amalgam
An amalgam is an alloy of mercury with another metal. These alloys are formed
through metallic bonding with the electrostatic force of attraction between the electrons
and the positively charged metal ions. Silver tin amalgam is used for dental filling.

Reasons for alloying

❖ To modify appearance and colour
❖ To modify chemical activity.
❖ To lower the melting point.
❖ To increase hardness and tensile strength.
❖ To increase resistance to electricity.
 Method of making alloys

(a) By fusing the metals together. E.g. Brass is made by melting zinc and copper.
(b) By compressing finely divided metals. E.g. Wood metal: an alloy of lead, tin, bismuth and
cadmium powder is a fusible alloy.
Alloys as solid solutions:
Alloys can be considered as solid solutions in which the metal with high concentration is
solvent and other metals are solute.
For example, brass is a solid solution of zinc (solute) in copper (solvent).
Types of Alloys

Based on the presence of Iron, alloys can be classified into:

Ferrous alloys: Contain Iron as a major component. A few examples of ferrous alloys are
Stainless Steel, Nickel Steel etc.
Non-ferrous alloys: These alloys do not contain Iron as a major component. For example,
Aluminium alloy, Copper alloy etc.
 Rust is chemically known as hydrated ferric oxide (it is formulated as Fe2O3.xH2O).
Rusting results in the formation of scaling reddish brown hydrated ferric oxide on the
surface of iron and iron containing materials.

Types of Corrosion

i. Dry Corrosion or Chemical Corrosion:

The corrosive action in the absence of moisture is called dry corrosion. It is the
process of a chemical attack on a metal by a corrosive liquids or gases such as O2, N2, SO2,
H2S etc. It occurs at high temperature. Of all the gases mentioned above O2 is the most
reactive gas to impart the chemical attack.

ii. Wet Corrosion or Electrochemical Corrosion:

The corrosive action in the presence of moisture is called wet corrosion. It occurs
as a result of electrochemical reaction of metal with water or aqueous solution of salt or
acids or bases.
 Methods of preventing corrosion
✓ Alloying: The metals can be alloyed to prevent from the process of corrosion.
E.g: Stainless Steel
✓ Surface Coating: It involves application of a protective coating over the metal. It is of the
following types:

➢ Galvanization: It is the process of coating zinc on iron sheets by using electric current.

➢ Electroplating: It is a method of coating one metal over another metal by passing electric
current.

➢ Anodizing: It is an electrochemical process that converts the metal surface into a

decorative, durable and corrosion resistant. Aluminium is widely used for anodizing
process.

➢ Cathodic Protection: It is the method of controlling corrosion of a metal surface

protected is coated with the metal which is easily corrodible. The easily corrodible metal
is called Sacrificial metal to act as anode ensuring cathodic protection.