Database Principles:

Fundamentals of Design,
Implementation, and
Management
Tenth Edition

Introduction to Database
 Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn:
• The difference between data and information.
• What a database is, the various types of
databases, and why they are valuable assets for
decision making.
• How modern databases evolved from file systems.
• The importance of database design.
• About flaws in file system data management.
• The main components of the database system.
• The main functions of a database management
system (DBMS).
2
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 Introduction

• Good decisions require good information

derived from raw facts
• Data is managed most efficiently when stored
in a database
• Databases evolved from computer file systems
• Understanding file system characteristics is
important

3
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 Why Databases?

• Databases solve many of the problems

encountered in data management
– Used in almost all modern settings involving
data management:
• Business
• Research
• Administration
• Important to understand how databases work
and interact with other applications

4
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 Data vs. Information

• Data are raw facts

• Information is the result of processing raw data
to reveal meaning
• Information requires context to reveal meaning
• Raw data must be formatted for storage,
processing, and presentation
• Data are the foundation of information, which is
the bedrock of knowledge

5
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 Data vs. Information (cont’d.)

• Data: building blocks of information

• Information produced by processing data
• Information used to reveal meaning in data
• Accurate, relevant, timely information is the key
to good decision making
• Good decision making is the key to
organizational survival
• Data management: focuses on proper
generation, storage, and retrieval of data
6
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 Introducing the Database
• Database: shared, integrated computer structure
that stores a collection of:
– End-user data: raw facts of interest to end user
– Metadata: data about data
• Provides description of data characteristics
and relationships in data
• Complements and expands value of data
• Database management system (DBMS):
collection of programs
– Manages structure and
controls access to data
7
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 Role and Advantages of the DBMS
• DBMS is the intermediary between the user and the
database
– Database structure stored as file collection
– Can only access files through the DBMS
• DBMS enables data to be shared
• DBMS integrates many users’ views of the data

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 9
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Role and Advantages of the DBMS
(cont’d.)
• Advantages of a DBMS:
– Improved data sharing- eg: Faculty, Academic, Finance share
students data
– Improved data security – eg: password policies
– Better data integration – eg: Academic department data + Faculties
data
– Minimized data inconsistency – eg: less data appear in different
places
– Improved data access – eg: quick answers to ad hoc queries
– Improved decision making
– Increased end-user productivity
10
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 Types of Databases
• Databases can be classified according to:
– Number of users
– Database location(s)
– Expected type and extent of use

1. Number of users:
• Single-user database supports only one user at a time
– Desktop database: single-user; runs on PC
• Multiuser database supports multiple users at the same time
– Workgroup database (supports less than 50 users at the same time)
– Enterprise database (supports more than 50 users at the same time)

11
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 Types of Databases (cont’d.)
2. Database location(s):
• Centralized database: data located at a single site

• Distributed database: data distributed across several

different sites

3. Expected type and extent of use:

• Operational database: supports a company’s day-to-
day operations
– Transactional or production database
• Data warehouse: stores data used for tactical or
strategic decisions 12
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 13
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 File System Data Processing -
Modern End-User Productivity Tools
• Use of personal productivity tools can introduce
the same problems as the old file systems
• Microsoft Excel
– Widely used by business users
– Users have become so adept at working with
spreadsheets, they tend to use them to
complete tasks for which spreadsheets are not
appropriate – database substitute

14
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 15
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 16
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 Problems with File System Data
Processing
• Summary of file system limitations:
– Requires extensive programming
• Making changes to an existing file structure can be difficult
• Any change to a file structure, forces modifications in all of
the programs that use the data in that file
– Cannot perform ad hoc queries/quick answers
• Need to write programs to produce even the simplest
reports
– System administration is complex and difficult
• Each file must have its own file management programs that
allow the user to add, modify, and delete records, to list the
file contents and to generate report
17
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 Problems with File System Data
Processing
• Summary of file system limitations:
– Difficult to make changes to existing structures
• Structural dependence : access to a file is dependent on its
structure. Eg : adding a field to a file – all of the file
programs must be modified to conform to the new file
structure
• Data dependence : all data access programs are subject to
change when any of the file’s data storage characteristics
change. Eg: changing a field from integer to decimal
– Security features are likely to be inadequate
• Security features are difficult to program and are often
omitted from a file system environment
• Insufficient for robust data sharing among users 18
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 Data Redundancy
• File system structure makes it difficult to
combine data from multiple sources
– Vulnerable to security breaches
• Organizational structure promotes storage of
same data in different locations
– Islands of information (contain different versions of the same
data
• Data stored in different locations is unlikely to
be updated consistently
• Data redundancy: same data stored
unnecessarily in different places 19
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 Data Redundancy (cont'd.)

• Data inconsistency: different and conflicting

versions of same data occur at different places
• Data anomalies: abnormalities when all
changes in redundant data are not made
correctly
– Update anomalies
– Insertion anomalies / Insert anomalies
– Deletion anomalies

20
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 Data Redundancy (cont'd.)

– Update anomalies
• An Update Anomaly exists when one or more instances of duplicated data is updated,
but not all.
• For example, consider Jones moving address - you need to update all instances of
Jones's address.

21
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 Data Redundancy (cont'd.)

– Insertion anomalies / Insert anomalies

• An Insert Anomaly occurs when certain attributes cannot be inserted into the database
without the presence of other attributes.
• For example this is the converse of delete anomaly - we can't add a new course unless
we have at least one student enrolled on the course.

22
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 Data Redundancy (cont'd.)

– Deletion anomalies
• A Delete Anomaly exists when certain attributes are lost because of the deletion of
other attributes.
• For example, consider what happens if Student S30 is the last student to leave the
course - All information about the course is lost.

23
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 Why Database Design Is Important

• Database design focuses on design of

database structure used for end-user data
– Designer must identify database’s expected use
• Well-designed database:
– Facilitates data management
– Generates accurate and valuable information
• Poorly designed database:
– Causes difficult-to-trace errors

24
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 Lack of Design and Data-Modeling
Skills
• Most users lack the skill to properly design
databases
– Despite multiple personal productivity tools
being available
• Data-modeling skills
– Vital in the data design process
• Good data modeling facilitates communication
between the designer, user, and the developer

25
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 Database Systems

• Database system consists of logically related

data stored in a single logical data repository
– May be physically distributed among multiple
storage facilities
– DBMS eliminates most of file system’s problems
– Current generation stores data structures,
relationships between structures, and access
paths
• Also defines, stores, and manages all access
paths and components
26
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 27
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 The Database System Environment

• Database system: an organization of

components that defines and regulates (control)
the collection, storage, management, use of
data
• Five major parts of a database system:
– Hardware
– Software
– People
– Procedures
– Data
28
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 29
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 The Database System Environment
(cont'd.)
• Hardware: all the system’s physical devices
• Software: three types of software required
– Operating system software :
• Manage all hardware components and makes it possible for
all other software to run on the computers
– DBMS software
• Manage the database within the database system
– Application programs and utility software
• To access and manipulate data in the DBMS
• To manage the database system’s computer components

30
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 The Database System Environment
(cont'd.)
• People: all users of the database system
– System Administrator
• oversee the database system’s general operation
– database administrators
• manage the DBMS and ensure that the database is
functioning properly
– Database designers
• design the database structure
– Systems analysts and programmers
• design and implement the application programs
– End users
• people who use the application program 31
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 The Database System Environment
(cont'd.)
• Procedures: instructions and rules that govern
the design and use of the database system
• Data: the collection of facts stored in the
database

32
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 The Database System Environment
(cont'd.)
• Database systems are created and managed at
different levels of complexity
• Database solutions must be cost-effective as
well as tactically and strategically effective
• Database technology already in use affects
selection of a database system

33
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 DBMS Functions

• Most functions are transparent to end users

– Can only be achieved through the DBMS
1. Data dictionary management
– DBMS stores definitions of data elements and
relationships (metadata) in a data dictionary
– DBMS looks up required data component
structures and relationships
– Changes automatically recorded in the dictionary
– DBMS provides data abstraction and removes
structural and data dependency
34
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 35
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 DBMS Functions (cont'd.)

2. Data storage management

– DBMS creates and manages complex structures
required for data storage
– Also stores related data entry forms, screen
definitions, report definitions, etc.
– Performance tuning: activities that make the
database perform more efficiently
– DBMS stores the database in multiple physical
data files – can fulfill database requests
concurrently.
36
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 37
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 DBMS Functions (cont'd.)

3. Data transformation and presentation

– DBMS transforms data entered to conform to
required data structures
– DBMS transforms physically retrieved data to
conform to user’s logical expectations
4. Security management
– DBMS creates a security system that enforces
user security and data privacy
– Security rules determine which users can access
the database, which items can be accessed, etc.
38
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 DBMS Functions (cont'd.)

5. Multiuser access control

– DBMS uses sophisticated algorithms to ensure
concurrent access does not affect integrity
6. Backup and recovery management
– DBMS provides backup and data recovery to
ensure data safety and integrity
– Recovery management deals with recovery of
database after a failure
• Critical to preserving database’s integrity

39
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 DBMS Functions (cont'd.)

7. Data integrity management

– DBMS promotes and enforces integrity rules
• Minimizes redundancy
• Maximizes consistency
– Data relationships stored in data dictionary used
to enforce data integrity
– Integrity is especially important in transaction-
oriented database systems

40
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 DBMS Functions (cont'd.)

8. Database access languages and application

programming interfaces
– DBMS provides access through a query
language
– Query language is a nonprocedural language
– Structured Query Language (SQL) is the de
facto query language
• Standard supported by majority of DBMS vendors

41
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 DBMS Functions (cont'd.)

9. Database communication interfaces

– Current DBMSs accept end-user requests via
multiple different network environments/internet-
through web browser
– Communications accomplished in several ways:
• End users generate answers to queries by filling
in screen forms through Web browser
• DBMS automatically publishes predefined reports
on a Web site
• DBMS connects to third-party systems to
distribute information via e-mail
42
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 Managing the Database System:
A Shift in Focus
• Database system provides a framework in
which strict procedures and standards enforced
– Role of human changes from programming to
managing organization’s resources
• Database system enables more sophisticated
use of the data
• Data structures created within the database
and their relationships determine effectiveness

43
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 Managing the Database System:
A Shift in Focus (cont'd.)
• Disadvantages of database systems:
– Increased costs – hardware, software, highly skilled
personnel, training etc.
– Management complexity – many different technologies.
– Maintaining currency – must keep your system current.
– Vendor dependence – heavy investment in technology
and personnel training, companies might be reluctant to
change database vendors.
– Frequent upgrade/replacement cycles – DBMS vendors
frequently upgrade their products by adding new functionality.
Some of the versions require hardware upgrades. Cost money
to train database users and administrators to properly use and
manage the new features.
44
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 Preparing for Your Database
Professional Career

45
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 Summary
DBMS Functions

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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 ANSI-SPARC Three-Level
Architecture
(The American National Standards
Institute (ANSI)
Standards Planning and
Requirements Committee (SPARC))

Database Systems, 10th Edition 47

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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 ANSI-SPARC Three-Level Architecture
American Standards Institute – Committee on Computers and
Information Processing

48
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is intended © 2009
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 ANSI-SPARC Three-Level
Architecture
• External Level
– Users’ view of the database.
– Describes that part of database that is
relevant to a particular user.

• Conceptual Level
– Community view of the database.
– Describes what data is stored in database and
relationships among the data.

49
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is intended © 2009
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 ANSI-SPARC Three-Level
Architecture
• Internal Level
– Physical representation of the database on
the computer.
– Describes how the data is stored in the
database.

50
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 Differences between Three Levels
of ANSI-SPARC Architecture

51
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 Objectives of Three-Level
Architecture

• All users should be able to access same

data.
• A user’s view is immune to changes made in
other views.
• Users should not need to know physical
database storage details.

52
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 Objectives of Three-Level
Architecture
• Database Administrator (DBA) should be able
to change database storage structures without
affecting the users’ views.
• Internal structure of database should be
unaffected by changes to physical aspects of
storage.
• DBA should be able to change conceptual
structure of database without affecting all
users.

53
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly Education © 2009
website, in whole or in part.
 Summary

• Data are raw facts

• Information is the result of processing data to
reveal its meaning
• Accurate, relevant, and timely information is the
key to good decision making
• Data are usually stored in a database
• DBMS implements a database and manages its
contents

54
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 Summary (cont'd.)

• Metadata is data about data

• Database design defines the database
structure
– Well-designed database facilitates data
management and generates valuable
information
– Poorly designed database leads to bad decision
making and organizational failure
• Databases evolved from manual and
computerized file systems
55
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 Summary (cont'd.)

• Database management systems were

developed to address file system’s inherent
weaknesses
• DBMS present database to end user as single
repository
– Promotes data sharing
– Eliminates islands of information
• DBMS enforces data integrity, eliminates
redundancy, and promotes security

56
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