Name Date Class

Section
11.2 From DNA to Protein SC.F.1.4.1 The student knows that the body processes involve specific biochemical
reactions governed by biochemical principles. SC.F.2.4.2 The student knows that
every cell contains a “blueprint” coded in DNA molecules that specify how proteins

◗ Before You Read are assembled to regulate cells.

Have you ever seen a computer code? Computers understand a language called binary language. It
is made up of only two options—zero and one. 00001100100110010101000 is an example of a com-
puter code. From simple games to Web browsers, complex software is built by stringing together
zeros and ones into long computer codes. Think about this as you read this section.

◗ Read to Learn
Genes and Proteins
DNA contains information used to make proteins. Proteins
have many uses. Some proteins become structures and some con-
trol cell functions. Since DNA has the information for making
Identify Main proteins, DNA controls cells. Remember that all this information
Ideas Highlight the main is based on the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA molecule.
point under each head. State
each main point in your own
words. RNA
What is the role of RNA in a cell? Think of a car factory and

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

an assembly line. A car is a complicated piece of machinery. But
cars are built by following simple steps. Engineers tell workers
how to make the cars, and workers follow the directions to build
the cars on the assembly line. Suppliers bring parts to the assem-
bly line so they can be used to build the cars. This is similar to
the role of DNA and RNA in a cell. DNA gives the instructions
to make proteins. Workers build proteins. Other workers bring
the parts, in this case, amino acids, to the assembly line. In our
example the workers are the RNA.
1. What are the three types Just as in a typical factory, workers have specific tasks. So does
of RNA? RNA. There are three different kinds of RNA. One type is
messenger RNA (mRNA). It brings instructions from DNA to
________________________
the cytoplasm. A second type of RNA is called the ribosome, or
________________________ ribosomal RNA (rRNA). It binds to the mRNA and uses the
instructions to assemble the amino acids in the right order. The
________________________ third type of RNA is transfer RNA (tRNA). It delivers amino
acids to the ribosome to be made into a protein.

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Section
11.2 From DNA to Protein, continued

What does RNA look like?

RNA, like DNA, is a nucleic An RNA molecule usually consists of a
acid. But the structure of RNA is single strand of nucleotides, not a double
strand. This single-stranded structure is
quite different. RNA is a single closely related to its function.
strand. It looks like one half of a
zipper. DNA is a double strand.
The sugar in RNA is different
than the sugar in DNA. Finally,
both RNA and DNA have four
nitrogenous bases, but instead of G
thymine, RNA has uracil. Remem- P
R
ber that in DNA, guanine binds
R
with cytosine, and thymine binds U
with adenine. In RNA uracil (U)
binds with adenine. The structure C
of RNA helps it do all the work of
building proteins.

Transcription
In order to get the information to the cytoplasm, first messen-
ger RNA has to be made. In this process, called transcription
(trans KRIHP shun), RNA is made from part of a DNA strand.
Use the illustration on page 120 to help you understand the Identify Details
Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

process after you read the following description. Circle the parts of the diagram
on page 120 that illustrate
First, a portion of the DNA molecule unzips. Free RNA
each part of the transcription
nucleotides pair with the nucleotides on the DNA strand. The process.
mRNA strand is complete when the RNA nucleotides form a
strand by bonding together. The mRNA strand breaks away and
the DNA strands rejoin. The mRNA strand leaves the nucleus
and enters the cytoplasm. You can see that transcription is similar
to replication with one important difference—a single strand RNA
molecule is created rather than a double strand DNA molecule.
You can also see from the illustration that mRNA pairs guanine
with cytosine, but pairs uracil with adenine.

RNA Processing
Not all of a DNA strand carries information to make proteins.
There are long sequences of noncoding nucleotides on DNA
strands. Enzymes cut out any noncoding sequences that may have
been transcribed. In this way, the mRNA carries only information
it needs to make protein.

READING ESSENTIALS Chapter 11 119

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Section
11.2 From DNA to Protein, continued

A The process of transcription

begins as enzymes unzip the
molecule of DNA in the region
of the gene to be transcribed.

RNA
C strand
C
G
DNA
strand
G A
U U

RNA G G
T strand C
A

C C The mRNA strand

B Free RNA nucleotides breaks away, and

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

base pairs with their the DNA strands
complementary rejoin. The mRNA
T
nucleotides on the DNA strand leaves the
strand. The mRNA strand A
nucleus and enters
is complete when the the cytoplasm.
RNA nucleotides
bond together.

DNA
strand

The Genetic Code

The nucleotide sequence transcribed from DNA to a strand of
messenger RNA is a genetic message that has all the information
needed to build a protein. The message is in a special language
that uses nitrogenous bases as the alphabet. Remember that
proteins are made up of amino acid chains. There are 20 differ-
ent amino acids. These amino acids are made from only four

120 Chapter 11 READING ESSENTIALS

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Section
11.2 From DNA to Protein, continued

nitrogenous bases. Scientists wondered how four nitrogenous

bases could make a code for 20 amino acids.
Scientists were able to crack the genetic code when they dis-
covered that it takes a group of three nitrogenous bases in mRNA
to code for one amino acid. Each group of three nitrogenous
bases is known as a codon. For example, the codon for the amino
acid alanine is G-C-U. The codon for lysine is A-A-A. Every
amino acid has a three-letter codon, each letter representing one 2. What is a codon?
of the four nitrogenous bases. That is how four nitrogenous bases
________________________
can code for 20 amino acids. There is even a codon that tells the
mRNA that this is the start of the amino acid chain and another ________________________
codon that says this is the end. To simplify, those codons are
called start and stop. ________________________

Translation: From mRNA to Protein

Remember the factory example? Messenger RNA is the worker
that brings the instructions for making protein to the cytoplasm.
It takes two more kinds of RNA to actually make the protein. The
process of changing the information in mRNA into an amino acid 3. Analyze What is the dif-
chain in protein is called translation. ference between tran-
scription and translation?
Here is how it works.
1. The mRNA moves to the cytoplasm. ________________________

2. A ribosome (rRNA) attaches itself to the start codon, A-U-G, ________________________

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

on the mRNA.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, carrying amino acids, ________________________
approach the ribosome. The nitrogenous base sequence
that is the complement to the mRNA sequence is the anti-
codon. If the mRNA codon is G-C-C, the tRNA anticodon
is C-G-G. For every codon on mRNA there is an anticodon
on tRNA.
4. The ribosome attaches the anticodon to the codon and the
amino acids bond. The ribosome then slides to the next codon.
5. Again the ribosome attaches the anticodon to the codon,
amino acids bond, and the ribosome slides over.
6. This translation process continues until the stop codon is
reached. At this point the amino acids have formed a chain
and when the stop codon is reached, the chain is released.
You can see from the illustration of the translation process on
page 122 that the tRNA does not stay attached during the whole
process. As soon as the amino acid bonds to the amino acid next
to it, the tRNA that brought it moves away to bring another
amino acid.

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Section
11.2 From DNA to Protein, continued

Ribosome

A U G G C A U A C A A C G A
G U U

mRNA codon

Alanine
Methionine
tRNA
anticodon Methionine
Peptide
bond

U A C C C G U
U A
A U G G C A U A C A A C G A G C A U A C A A C G A
G U U A U G G U U

Peptide bond
Alanine

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Stop
codon

C C G U A A C
U A
G C A U A C A A C G A A U G G C A U A C A A U U G U A A
A U G G U U

Amino acid chains become proteins when they are freed from
the ribosome. The amino acid chains twist and curl into complex
three-dimensional shapes. Each protein chain forms the same
shape every time it is produced. These proteins become enzymes
and cell structures.
4. Sequence The pathway
of information flows What is the central dogma?
from (Circle your choice.)
a. DNA to mRNA to If you were to summarize the process of replication, transcrip-
protein. tion, translation, and protein formation you might say simply that
b. mRNA to DNA to the pathway of information flows from DNA to mRNA to protein.
protein. This process is called the central dogma of biology. This means
c. protein to mRNA to that the same process occurs in every living thing, from the sim-
DNA.
plest bacteria to the most complex animal.

122 Chapter 11 READING ESSENTIALS

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Section
11.2 From DNA to Protein, continued

◗ After You Read

Mini Glossary
codon: group of three nitrogenous bases in transcription (trans KRIHP shun): process in the
mRNA that code for one amino acid cell nucleus where a copy of RNA is made
messenger RNA: RNA that carries information from part of a DNA strand
from DNA in the nucleus to the cell’s transfer RNA: RNA that delivers amino acids to
cytoplasm the ribosomes to be assembled into proteins
ribosomal RNA: RNA that makes up the ribo- translation: process of changing the informa-
somes; binds to mRNA and uses its infor- tion in mRNA into an amino acid chain in
mation to assemble amino acids in the a protein
right order

1. Read the key terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Then on the lines, write a
definition of transcription and translation using your own words.
____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Under each type of RNA, write the words or phrases that tell something about it.
mRNA → rRNA → tRNA
Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

codon connects codon to anticodon

moves along mRNA brings instructions
anticodon brings amino acid
transcription uses instructions to assemble amino acids
translation

Visit the Glencoe Science Web site at science.glencoe.com

to find your biology book and learn more about DNA to protein.

READING ESSENTIALS Chapter 11 123