Pharmaco G Nosy

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL, LAHORE
CHAPTER 1
PHARMACOGNOSY
Pharmacognosy is the study of crude drugs of plant and animal origin. The American
Society of Pharmacognosy defines Pharmacognosy as; "The study of the physical,
biochemical and biological properties of natural drugs and their chemical constituents. As
well as the search for new drugs from natural sources."
Introduction of Pharmacognosy `
The word "Pharmacognosy" is derived from the Greek words pharmakon “drug”,
and gnosis "knowledge”. The term Pharmacognosy was used for the first time by the
Austrian physician Schmidt in 1811 and 1815 by Seydler in a work.
Originally - during the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century -
"Pharmacognosy" was used to define the branch of medicine which deals with drugs in
their crude, or unprepared, form.
John Adam Schmidt Schmidt Cognosy
Scope of Pharmacognosy
Pharmacognosy is the branch of science which deals with the biological, biochemical and
economic features of natural drugs and their constituents. It also deals with the study of;
 Classification of Crude Drugs to know about the class of the Drug
 Cultivation, Collection, Drying, Storage, Preservation, Packing, Evaluation and

adulteration of Crude Drugs.
Gulshan-e-Farid Main Street, Goheer Town, Bahawalpur, Ph. 0306-07212627, 0333-9988833

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL, LAHORE 2
 Plant growth hormones, for rapid & better growth of plants.
 Allergens & allergic preparations, to overcome the problems of Allergy.
 Enzymes, to cure & manage the diseases caused by Enzymatic Deficiency.
 Poisonous Plants to prevent poison.
 Herbal drugs, used in traditional practice.

CHAPTER 2
Crude Drugs
A crude drug is any naturally occurring, unrefined substance derived from organic or
inorganic sources such as plant, animal, bacteria, organs or whole organisms intended for
use in the diagnosis, cure, treatment, or prevention of disease in man or other animals.
Classification Of Crude Drugs
Crude Drugs can be classified in following ways.
1. Morphological Method
2. Taxonomical Method
3. Pharmacological Method
4. Chemical Method
1- Morphological Method
In this method, drugs are classified according to their part used. e.g.
 Organized Drugs
These are the drugs obtained from direct parts of the plant and
containing cellular tissues are called as organized drugs. For example flowers, seeds,
leaves, rhizome, bark etc.

 Unorganized Drugs
The drugs which are prepared from plants by physical process

such as incision, drying or extraction with a solvent and
not containing any cellular plant tissues are called unorganized drugs. For example Latex,
Tragacanth, Gum acacia.
Table 1. Morphological Classification of Drugs
1.Organized Drugs
Plant Part Example of drugs
 Leaves Digitalis, Pudina, Senna, Squill

Hyoscyamus, Belladona
 Barks Cinchona, Cinnamon, Cascara
 Flowering Parts Clove, Saffron

Cardamom, Caraway, Fennel, Colocynth,

 Fruits Capsicum
Bitter Almond, Cardamom,
 Seeds Nux vomica, Strophanthus
 Roots & Rhizomes Ginger, Glycyrrhiza, Ipecac, Rauwolfia,

Rhubarb
2.Unorganized Drugs
 Dried Latex Opium, Papain
 Dried Juice Aloe
 Gums Acacia, Tragacanth
 Resins Asafeotida, Benzoin, Tolu Balsam
 Fixed oils Castor, Almond
 Waxes Bees wax, Carnauba wax
 Animal Products Gelatin, Cod liver oil, Cantharides
 Minerals Kaolin, Talc
Book follows this method;

 Pharmacognosy by Wallis
2- Taxonomical Method ;
In this method, drugs are classified according to their natural

relationship and distinguishing characteristics. They are grouped in phylum, order, family,
genus and species.
Table 2. Taxonomical Classification of Drugs
Phyllum Order Family Genus Species Drugs
Angiosperms Rosales Rosaceae Prunus amygdalus Almond
Rhodophyta Gelidiales Gelidiaceae Gelidium cartilagineum Agar
Gymnosperms Genetales Ephedraceae Ephedra sinica Ephedra

Taxonomical Classification
3- Pharmacological Method ;
In this method drugs are classified according to their therapeutic

effects.
Pharmacological Class Drugs
Anticancer Cinnamon bark,
Purgative Aloe, Senna, Castor oil
Antispasmodic Belladona, Hyoscyamus
Astringent Catechu, Tannic acid
Expectorant Glycyrrhiza, Tolu balsam

Digitallis, Strophanthus
Cardio tonic

Pharmacological Classification
4- Chemical Method ;
In this method drugs are classified according to their principle

constituents.
Sr.No. Chemical Constituents Drugs
1. Carbohydrates Agar, Acacia, Tragacanth, Starch
2. Glycosides Aloe, Senna, Glycyrrhiza, Digitalis
3. Volatile oils Cinnamon, Fennel, Clove, Caraway
4. Alkaloids Belladona, Hyoscyamus
5. Resins Ginger, Asafeotida, Benzoin,
6. Tannins Black catechu
7. Proteins Papain, Bromelain, Gelatin


CHAPTER 3
TERMINOLOGIES IN PHARMACOGNOSY
Following are the most frequent terminologies used in Pharmacognosy.
Acaulescent: stem less
Acerose: needle-shaped
Acicular: needle-shaped, as applied to some kinds of foliage
Acute: tapering to a sharp-pointed apex with more or less straight sides along the tip
Angular: having sharp angles or corners, generally used in reference to structures such as
stems to contrast them with rounded stems
Axis: the main stem
Basal: at or near the base, often describing leaves and where they attach
Basifixed: attached by the base (compare dorsifixed, versatile)
Capillary: very slender and hair like
Deltoid: broadly triangular in shape
Dense: congested, describing the disposition of flowers.
Dentate: with sharp, outward-pointing teeth on the margin
Exudate: a substance exuded or secreted from a plant
Gall: an abnormal growth on a plant that is caused by insects
Glabrous: smooth, without hairs
Gland: a depression or protuberance that exists for the purpose of secreting
Glandular: producing tiny globules of sticky or oily substance
Glans: a dry dehiscent fruit born in a cupule, such as aco n
Habit: the overall appearance of a plant
Leaflet: one segment of a compound leaf

Ovary: the basal portion of a pistil where female germ cells develop into seeds after
germination
Poly-: prefix meaning many
Rhizome: an underground stem capable of producing new stems or plants at its nodes
Vaginate: provided with or surrounded by a sheath
Xylem: the water-conducting tissue of vascular plants
Leaves :Flattened structures of a higher plant, typically green and blade-like, that are
attached to a stem are called leaves.
Stems :Stems do many things. Support the upper parts of plants, They act like the plant's
plumbing system, conducting water and nutrients from the roots and food in the form of
glucose from the leaves to other plant parts. All plants have stems. Stems grow up into
the air and towards the light. The leaves and flowers are on the stems.
Flowers:A flower is the reproductive structure found in plants. The flowers of plants have
always been popular in traditional medicine. Examples include clove and chamomile
flowers.
Fruit: A "fruit" is the seed-bearing part of a plant; Fruits have been heavily used for
medicinal purposes. Dried whole fruits or portions of fruits can be used. Many members
of the carrot family have fruits that are used in medicine including fennel fruit and anise.
Pulp: The soft, juicy, edible part of a fruit is called pulp.
Seeds: A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat,
usually with some stored food. The seeds of many plants are used for their medicinal
properties. Seeds may be contained within a fruit or are sometimes used on their own.
Roots: The part of a plant which attaches it to the ground or to a support, typically
underground, conveying water and nourishment to the rest of the plant via numerous
branches and fibers. The fleshy or woody roots are used for medicinal purposes. Roots
may be solid (ginseng), fibrous (stinging nettle), or fleshy (devil’s claw).
Bark:The protective outer layer of a tree trunk that is formed by layers of living cells
above the wood. Active ingredients are often found in higher concentrations in the bark.
Examples of bark used for medicinal properties are quinine bark, oak bark.
Wood: The hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the plant is called
wood. Thick stems or the wood of trees or shrubs are used for medicinal properties.
Bulb:A bulb is defined as a fleshy structure comprised of numerous layers of leaf bases
otherwise known as bulb scales. Onion species and garlic bulbs are popular for medicinal
uses.
Rhizomes: A rhizome is defined as a fleshy or woody elongated stem that usually grows
horizontally below the ground. Rhizomes often produce leaves above the ground and

roots into the ground. Several medicinal plants are used primarily for their rhizomes
including: ginger, wild columbine, and bloodroot.
Herb: Herb, in botany, is a plant that does not form a woody stem, and in temperate
climates usually dies, either completely (annual herb) or back to the roots (perennial
herb) by the end of the growing season.
Gum: Gums are solids that are mixtures of polysaccharides (sugars). They are water-
soluble and are in part digestible by humans.
Resins:Resins are a mixture of essential oils and terpenes that are usually not soluble in
water. They are excreted by specialized cells or in ducts of plants. Examples include
frankincense, myrrh, and mastic.

CHAPTER 4
EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
Identification of a drug and determination of its quality & purity is

called Evaluation of Drug. Following methods are frequently employed for the
determination of quality & purity of Crude Drugs.
 Organoleptic Evaluation
 Physical Evaluation
 Chemical Evaluation
 Biological Evaluation.
1- Organoleptic Evaluation
Organoleptic Evaluation refers to evaluate the crude drug by

using organ’s senses which include its external features & morphology.
 Study of Morphological Characters ;
To study morphology of drug, its shape & size, color, external

marking, fracture, odour and taste are examined. The organized drugs are
classified into;
 Barks e.g. Cinnamon

 Leaves e.g. Senna & Tulsi
 Flowers e.g. Clove
 Seeds e.g. Nux-Vomica
 Herbs e.g. Pudina

Morphology of plants
The external marking can be studied on the following mentioned terms;
 Annulations.
 Nodules.
 Projections
 Wrinkles.
.
Annulations (Ipecac) Wrinkles (Cinchona)
The drugs like Ginger & capsicum have pungent taste while glycyrrhizin & honey are
sweet in taste. Crude drugs belong to class fixed oils have bland taste

 Study of Microscopic Characters
Microscope is also used for a quantitative evaluation of drugs and adulterated powders.
This is done by counting specific features such as stomatal number.
 Stomatal Number;
The average number of stomata per square millimeter of epidermis is known as stomatal
number.
Microscope Stomata
2- Physical Evaluation
Physical constants are frequently applied to Alkaloids, Glycosides,

Volatile Oils, Fixed oils, Tannins & Sugar drugs to check their quality & purity.
Physical Constants such as;
 Elasticity in fibers
 Viscosity of drugs containing gums
 Swelling factor of mucilage
 Melting & Boiling point of crude drugs
Spectroscopic Analysis (UV, IR, NMR, and MASS) and radioimmuno

assays are applied frequently to check the Physical constants of herbal drugs.
Chromatographic techniques such as Paper Chromatography, Thin Layer

chromatography, HPLC & Gas liquid Chromatography provide information about the
chemical constituents present in the Crude Drug.
Uv Spectrophotometer
3- Chemical Evaluation
Chemical Evaluation involves the determination of quality; quantity & purity of Crude
Drugs through Chemical Test. Chemical test for Alkaloids, Amino Acids,
Carbohydrates, Glycosides, Tannins, Volatile Oils and Fixed oils are performed to
ensure their quality.
Titrimmetric Assay, Ester Value, Saponification Value, Acid Value and Ash Value are
determined in chemical evaluation.
4- Biological Evaluation
Biological Evaluation (biological assay) is a type of scientific experiment carried out on

intact animals, animal preparation, isolated living tissues or micro-organisms.
Since living organisms are used the assays are called “biological assay”.
Techniques of Biological assay:
There are basically two types of Biological evaluations, Quantal & Graded. Following are
the Techniques which are used in Biological evaluation of Crude Drugs;

 Matching Biological Assay

 Interpolation Biological Assay
 Bracketing Biological Assay
 Multiple Biological Assay

CHAPTER 5
ENZYMES
Enzymes
The enzymes can be defined as “These are the catalysts of biological system that
are produced by the living cell which are capable of catalyzing the biological reaction.
OR
The enzymes are the organic catalysts produced by the living organisms that’s why
called as Biological Catalysts.
Catalysts
Catalyst is a chemical which is inorganic in nature used to boost up chemical

reaction but it is not utilized itself in the chemical reaction.
All enzymes are catalyst but all catalysts are not enzymes.
Organic substances
All the chemicals that contain mainly carbon are called organic substances.
Inorganic substances
All the chemicals that are not containing carbon are called inorganic substances.
Substrates
These are the molecules on which enzymes can act.

(Enzyme Substrate Complex)

Difference between Enzymes & Catalyst
Enzymes Catalysts
 All the enzymes are organic  All the catalysts are inorganic
substances. substances.
 Enzymes mostly destroyed  Catalysts are not destroyed in the

during the reaction. chemical reaction.
 Enzymes are more specific in  Catalysts are non-specific in Nature.

Nature.
 Catalysts are very simple
 Enzymes are very complex in compounds or substances.
nature.
 Speed of catalyst reaction will
 Speed of the enzyme reaction depends upon the concentration of
does not depend on the catalyst.
concentration of enzyme.
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
1. Catalytic Property
Small amount of enzymes can catalyzed the large amount of substrate in a

Biological reaction.
Example
Sucrase enzyme in its small amount easily catalyzed the hydrolytic reaction of
the sucrose.

Solubility
Enzymes are mostly soluble in water and dilute alcohol solution. The Enzymes can
precipitate in the following solvents.
1- Concentrated Alcohol
2- Ammonium Sulphate
3- Tricholro Acetic Acid.
2. Enzymatic Property
The velocity of the enzymatic reaction increases as the concentration of the

substrates increases up to certain maximum. But after certain period of time it decreases.
3. pH
Acids:
Acids deactivate those enzymes that act at alkaline PH e.g. Trypsin act at
alkaline PH 8.57. At acidic PH it will destroy. Trypsin is an enzyme that secreted by
Pancreas and very important for proper digestion of food.
Bases:
Bases deactivate the enzymes that act at acidic PH e.g. pepsin act at acidic PH
1-2. At alkaline PH, it will destroy.
4. Temperature
Optimum temperature is 96 F-to-99F
The optimum temperature for enzymatic activity is regard between

35 centigrade to 40 centigrade.

 At 0 °c ---------------- Inactive
 10° c to 20° c ---------------- Very little active
 35° c to 40° c ---------------- Maximum active
 50° c ---------------- Inactive
 60° c ---------------Destroy
 In solid Condition it may be stable up to 100 ° c.
Bromelain
It is a protolytic and milk clotting enzyme.
→ Biological Source
→ Molecular weight
→ Color
→ Solubility
→ Uses
(Pineapple)
1. Sources of Bromelein

It is obtained from juice and stem of “Ananas comosus”.
Family;
Bromeliaceae
2. Molecular weight:
2800 mmol
3. Color:
Light yellow color Or Buff Color.
4. Solubility:
It is very much soluble in;
 Water.
 Alcohol
 Chloroform
5. Uses:
 It is used as a Supporting agent in the treatment of inflammation and

edema.
 It is widely used in leather factory.
 It is used in the production of protein.
 It is very effective agent that can easily tenderize the meat.

Papain
It is a protolytic enzyme.
→ Source
→ Color
→ Solubility
→ Molecular weight
→ Uses
1. Source
Papain is dried latex obtained from green fruits and leaves of “Carica
papaya”
Family: Caricaceae
Preparation
The latex is obtained by making 2-4 longitudinal incisions, on the surface of

nearly mature but green fruits while still on the tree. The incisions are made early in the
morning, at intervals of 3-7 days. The exudate is collected in non-metallic container.

Papain Powder
2. Color
It has amorphous light whitish color powder.

3. Solubility
It is incompletely soluble in water But insoluble in alcohol, ether and acetone.

4. Molecular weight
25710 moles
5. Uses
 Tenderizing of meat.
 Used as protein digestant, as Antihelmintic (nematode)
 Clarification of beverages. (Soft & Hard drinks)
 It is used to remove the protein molecules from contact lenses.

Classification of Enzymes
 Old Method
 New Method
 Old Method
By using this method, the Enzymes are named by adding Suffix “Ase” to the
name of the substrate.
e.g.
Lipase _____________ Hydrolyzing the Fats
Cellulase ____________ Hydrolyzing the Cellulose.
1- Esterases
It is the group of enzymes that hydrolyzed the lipids.
e.g.
Lipase: It is present in pancreatic juice of animals and human body and oily seeds. Lipase
hydrolyses the fat Molecules to fatty acids & Glycerin.
2- Amindases

These are the enzymes that are present in liver and intestinal mucosa. They will
be catalyses the ammonia related break down reaction.
e.g.
Arginases:It converts Arginine to Urea.
Ureases: It is found in liver cells and soyabean seeds. It converts urea into
ammonia and carbon dioxide.
3- Nucleases
These are the group of enzymes that act on the nucleotides. e.g.
Ribonucleases → RNA
Deoxyribonucleases → DNA
4- Carbohydrases
This class is named after those enzymes that can catalyses breakdown of sugar
molecules in a biological reaction.
e.g.
Sucrase:It is present in yeast and intestinal juice. It causes hydrolyses of sucrose into
glucose and fructose.
Maltase: It is also present in Intestinal Juice. It converts maltose to glucose.

5- Proteolytic Enzymes
Proteolytic enzymes are the protein digestive enzymes. These

enzymes catalyses the protein breakdown reactions.
e.g.
Pepsin: It is found in gastric juice of animals. It digests the protein by converting then
into proteases and peptone.
Rennin: It is a milk coagulating enzyme found in the mucous membrane of fresh

stomach of mammals. It curdles protein of Milk.
 New Method
This method is also known as IEC Method (International Enzymes

Commission).In new method, the fundamental principals of giving the names to the
enzymes are their basic function in addition of “Ase”.

1. Dehydrogenase
It is an enzyme that acts on the substrates and remove their hydrogen molecule.
2. Oxidases
It is an enzyme that catalyses the oxidation reaction without any regard of the
substrate.
3. Hydrolases
These are the enzymes that boost up the speed of the hydrolysis reaction without
any regard of the substrate.
4. Ligase or Synthetase
It is an enzyme that promotes or boost up the speed of the reactions in which

new bonds are formed with the cleavage of ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate.)

CHAPTER 6
Hypersensitivity
Hypersensitivity (also called hypersensitivity reaction) refers to undesirable (damaging,

discomfort-producing and sometimes fatal) reactions produced by the normal immune
system.
Introduction
The term allergy was first defined by Von Pirquet in 1906. He

described that a change or altered reaction in the body is called allergy.
Allergy
Definition
According to British Immunological society. The allergy can be defined as;

“Allergy is a specific hypersensitivity of an individual to foreign particles usually a protein
to which a specific individual is exposed.”
OR
Allergy is a hypersensitivity disorder of the immune system.Allergic reactions occur to

normally harmless environmental substances known as allergens. Strictly, allergy is one
of four forms of hypersensitivity and is called type I (or immediate) hypersensitivity.
Antibody:
An antibody is a type of protein. The body's immune system produces

antibodies when it detects harmful substances, called antigens.
Sings & Symptoms Of Allergy
Common symptoms of allergy

Affected organ Symptom
Nose swelling of the nasal mucosa (allergic rhinitis)

Sinuses allergic sinusitis
Eyes redness and itching of the conjunctiva (allergic conjunctivitis)
Sneezing, coughing, bronchoconstriction, wheezing and dyspnea

Airways
(shortness of breath) , sometimes attacks of asthma,
Ears Feeling of fullness, possibly pain, and impaired hearing.
Skin rashes, such as eczema and hives (urticaria)
Gastrointestinal
abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, Diarrhoea
tract

Allergen
The allergen (the foreign substance that provokes a reaction), it is a substance that can
cause an allergic reaction. Allergens are particle that, in some people, the immune
system recognizes as "foreign" or "dangerous" but cause no response for most people.
Common allergens include:
 Pollen
 Dust
 Chemicals
 Drugs (such as antibiotics or medications you put on your skin)
 Foods (such as milk, chocolate, strawberries, wheat)
 Perfumes
 Plants
 Smoke
Types Of Allergen:
I n h a l a n t A l l e r g e n s

These allergens are dispersed in air .when we inhaled air these allergen are
also enter in our Respiratory tract and cause of allergy.
 Pollens
 Dust
 Smoke
 Perfumes
Pollen:
What is pollen?
Pollen is the cells of flowering plants, including trees, grasses, and weeds. Pollen is
microscopic in size.
Pollen is the most common cause of seasonal allergic rhinitis, sometimes known as "hay
fever."
Dust Mites:
Dust mites are microscopic organisms that can live and thrive throughout homes and
schools. The mites and their waste products present in the following:
 bedding and pillows

 upholstered furniture
 carpets
 clothes

Symptoms
Sneezing, swelling of nasal cavities & eyes lacrimation
Smoke:
The allergic attack due to bad environment is termed as Environmental Allergy. If a

person lives in a smoky, or in an industrial area we can easily examine that he is allergic
from smoke.
I n g e s t e d a l l e r g e n s
These allergens are present in our food stuff. When we eat that contaminated food
these allergen are also ingested with food particles
What is food allergy?
 A food allergy is an abnormal response of the body to a certain food. It is

important to know that this is different than a food intolerance, which does not
affect the immune system,

What foods most often cause food allergy?

Approximately 90 percent of all food allergies are caused by the following eight foods:
 Milk
 Eggs
 Wheat
 Soya beans
 Tree nuts
 Peanuts
 Fish
 Shellfish
Symptoms

Allergic symptoms may begin within minutes to an hour after ingesting the food. The
following are the most common symptoms of food allergy.
 vomiting
 diarrhea
 cramps
 hives
 swelling
 eczema
 itching or swelling of the lips, tongue, or mouth
 itching or tightness in the throat
 difficulty breathing
 wheezing
 lowered blood pressure
I n j e c t a b l e A l l e r g e n
 Injections of medication
 Insect sting
Symptoms
 itching and hives over most of the body

 Swelling of the throat and tongue
 Difficulty in breathing and tightness in the chest
 Dizziness
 Shock
 Loss of consciousness
 Hoarse voice or swelling of the tongue
C o n t a c t A l l e r g e n
 Jewelry
 Cosmetics
 Pets

Allergy by Jewelry Allergy by Cosmetic

What is an animal allergen?
Allergens found in animals are a common cause of allergic reactions.
They are caused by the protein found in an animal's:
 Skin.
 Dander.
 Saliva.
 Urine.

T y p e s O f H y p e r s e n s i t i v i t y
The four-group classification was expounded by P. H. G. Gell and Robin Coombs in 1963.
Coombs and Gell classification:
Comparison of hypersensitivity types

Type Alternative names Often mentioned disorders Mediators
 Hay fever
 Anaphylaxis  IgE
I Allergy (immediate)
 Asthma
 IgM or
II Cytotoxic, antibody-dependent IgG
 Erythroblastosis fetalis
 Serum sickness  IgG

III Immune complex disease
 Contact dermatitis
Delayed-type hypersensitivity  Chronic transplant
 T-cells
IV (DTH), cell-mediated immune rejection
response, antibody-independent  Multiple sclerosis

1. Immediate Hypersensitivities.
These occur quickly after exposure to the allergen. They are usually mediated by
antibodies of the IgE class.
IgE antibodies present on the surface of the basophils, these antibodies have no
effect until and unless they encounter allergens, when this occur the mast cell
discharge their granules. The granules contain a variety of active agents
including histamine etc.
Local
Anaphylaxis:
Release of these substances into the surrounding tissue causes local anaphylaxis:
swelling, redness, and itching.
Examples:
 Allergic rhinitis (hay fever) in which airborne allergens (pollen) react with IgE-
sensitized mast cells in the nasal mucosa and the tissues around the eyes, causing
runny nose also called “Rhinorea”

Pollen exposure Inflammation & Secretions
 Bronchial Asthma in which the allergen reaches the lungs either by inhalation or
in the blood; and cause bronchoconstriction.
 Hives (physicians call it urticaria) where the allergen usually enters the body by
food.
Systemic Anaphylaxis
Some allergens can cause life-threatening collapse of the circulatory and respiratory
systems.
Frequent causes:
 Insect (e.g., bee) stings

 Drugs (e.g., penicillin)

 Food.
Honey Bee
Penicillin allergy
2. Antibody-Mediated Cytotoxicity:
Cell damage caused by antibodies directed against cell surface antigens. In these
disorders, the person produces antibodies directed against antigens present on the
surface of his or her own cells.
Examples:
 Hemolytic disease of the newborn (Rh disease).

 Myasthenia gravis
Binding of antibodies to the surface of the cell can result in:

 Phagocytosis of the cell

 Lysis of the cell
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (Rh Disease)
Rh antigens are expressed at the surface of red blood cells. During pregnancy,
there is often a tiny leakage of the baby's red blood cells into the mother's circulation. If
the baby is Rh-positive (having inherited the trait from its father) and the mother Rh-
negative, these red cells will cause her to develop antibodies against the Rh antigen. The
antibodies, usually of the IgG class, may not develop fast enough to cause problems for
that child, but can cross the placenta and attack the red cells of a subsequent Rh + fetus.
Myasthenia Gravis (MG):
The hallmark of this autoimmune disorder is weakness of the skeletal muscles, especially
those in the upper part of the body.
3. Immune Complex Disorders:
In this type of hypersensitivity antibodies form complexes with antigens. Damage caused
by the deposition of these complexes in the tissues.
Examples:
 Serum sickness
Serum Sickness:
Serum sickness is caused by the many proteins present in the antiserum. Being foreign to
the recipient, an active immunity develops against these proteins. The resulting
antibodies bind to them forming immune complexes. These are carried by the blood and
deposited in the walls of blood vessels as well as in the glomeruli of the kidneys.
 fever
 hives
 arthritis and
 Protein in the urine.
4. Cell-Mediated Hypersensitivities:
Because it takes a day or two for the T cells to stimulate following exposure to the
antigen, these responses are called delayed-type hypersensitivities (DTH).
Cell-mediated hypersensitivities can occur with extrinsic antigens or with internal ("self")
antigens.

Extrinsic Antigens:
The most common example of cell-mediated hypersensitivity to external antigens is
the contact dermatitis caused in some people when their skin is exposed to a chemical to
which they are allergic. Some examples:
 The catechols found in poison ivy, poison oak

 Nickel (often used in jewelry)
 Dyes
 Organic chemicals used in industry
Intrinsic ("self") Antigens
Cell-mediated hypersensitivities to "self" cause autoimmune diseases. Examples:
 Type 1 diabetes mellitus

 Multiple sclerosis (MS)
 Organ Transplant Rejection
 Type 1 diabetes mellitus:
In this disease, T cells initiate the destruction of the insulin-producing beta cells of the
islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. The chief culprits are CD8+cytotoxic T
lymphocytes (CTL) also by CD4+ helper T cells of the Th1.
 Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
T cells —initiates an attack that destroys the myelin sheath of neurons.

Structure Of Neuron
M e c h a n i s m o f a l l e r g y
Three players of allergy:
Allergen, Antibodies, Inflamatory mediators
First Exposure to antigen:
A. When an allergen first enters the body, the B lymphocytes produce an antibody
called immunoglobulin E (IgE).
B. The IgE antibodies attach to mast cells, large cells that are found in connective
tissue and contain histamines along with a number of other chemical substances.

Role of Immune System
IInd Exposure to Antigen:

A. The second time any given allergen enters the body, it becomes attached to the
newly-formed Y-shaped IgE antibodies.
B. These antibodies, in turn, stimulate the mast cells to discharge its histamines and
other chemical substances.
C. Mast cell will burst up, Neurotransmitters present in mast cell will enter in
circulation & causes allergy.
I n f l a m a t o r y M e d i a t o r s
I) Histamine.
II) Bradykynin
III) Prostaglandin
IV) Interleukin I
V) Interleukin II
VI) Thromboxane.
VII) Leukotriene
Role of Mediators:

Diagnosis of Allergy
Medical Case History
Medical Case History is the backbone of Medical Diagnosis.
In Allergy the Medical Case History can be concluded on the following lines:
General Examination
Age, sex, type of environment where he work & live, occupation, any allergy symptoms.
Vital Signs
Some scientific tools are applied to prove the disease. By using following tools
the severity of allergy can be diagnose.
I) B.P
II) Temperature
III) Breathing Rate
IV) Pulse Rate.
V) Cardiac output.
VI) Heart Rate.
Allergy Testing
Allergy testing measures how a person reacts to specific allergens, such as tree pollen,
pet dander, foods, medications or molds. A "positive" allergy test means that a person
has a specific allergic antibody to the substance tested. This often means that the person
is allergic to the substance
 Skin Test

 Blood Test
Skin Test
 Scratch test/ Skin Prick test

 Patch test
 Intradermal test
 S c r a t c h t e s t O r S k i n P r i c k t e s t
Testing begins with a prick, puncture or scratch method, which involves the placing a
drop of the allergen on the skin. (Usually a commercially available extract of pollens,
molds, foods, pet dander,) the skin is then gently scratched through the small drop with a
special sterile needle. After the skin is scratched, the tests takes about 15 minutes to
develop. If the skin reddens and, more importantly, if it swells, then the test is read as
positive and allergy to that substance is considered probable. This test is used to
diagnose hay fever allergy (house dust mite, grass pollens).
P a t c h t e s t s ( c o n t a c t a l l e r g y t e s t i n g )

Dermatologists apply patch tests in patients with dermatitis, to find out

whether their skin condition may be caused by a contact allergy.
(Patch Test)
Intradermal Test
Encapture the allergen & prepared a solution in fat soluble solvent(Ether Acetone
Alcohols).Which is chemically inert & compatible with allergen. In this 0.1ml of
allergen solution is injected into the dermis or epidermis, If there is any kind of
allergic reaction occur than the patient is has +ve test for this particular Allergen.
BLOOD TESTING:
 RAST
 ELISA
What Is a RAST?

Radioallergosorbent testing (RAST) involves measuring specific allergic antibodies in a

person’s blood. RAST has recently become more useful in the diagnosis and
management of food allergies. Whether a person is truly allergic to the food, RAST
actually measures the amount of allergic antibody to the food.
ELISA:
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), also known as an enzyme

immunoassay (EIA), is a biochemical technique used mainly in immunology to detect the
presence of an antibody or an antigen in a sample. An unknown amount of antigen is
affixed to a surface, and then a specific antibody is applied over the surface so that it can
bind to the antigen. This antibody is linked to an enzyme, and in the final step a
substance is added that the enzyme can convert to some detectable signal, most
commonly a Colour change in a chemical substrate.
Treatment Of Allergy
Once a person has allergies, the best way to treat allergies is to prevent them from
occurring in the first place, by avoiding the allergic triggers.
There are three general approaches to the treatment of allergic diseases that are:
 Avoidance
 Pharmacotherapy
 Immunotherapy
 Avoidance
 Wear a pollen mask when mowing the grass or house cleaning.

 Stay indoors in the morning (when the pollen count is at its highest) and on windy
days.
 Read and understand food labels (for people with food allergies).
 Keep windows and doors closed during heavy pollination seasons.
 Use the air conditioner in the house and car.
 Don't allow dander-producing animals in the house.
 Change feather pillows, woolen blankets and clothing to cotton.

 Enclose mattress, and pillows in plastic barrier cloth.

 Wash sheets, mattress and blankets weekly in hot water.
 Remove carpets.
Pharmacotherapy
Medication:
When avoidance or control of an allergen isn't possible, medications may be necessary.

Common allergy medications are;
1. Antihistamines:
Drugs that block the action of histamine. First-generation antihistamines include;

 Diphenhydramine (Benadryl),
 Chlorpheniramine (Piriton).
Newer antihistamines, called second-generation antihistamines, include;
 Cetirizine (Regix),
 Fexofenadine (Fexet), &
 Loratadine. New to the market and available by prescription only, is an
antihistamine nasal spray called Azelastine (Astelin).
2. Leukotrienes inhibitors:
Montelukast (Singulair) antileukotriene medication.

Leukotrienes are chemicals released from a variety of allergic and immune cells,
and may cause allergy symptoms
Immunotherapy
When avoidance, environmental control measures and medications fail to control allergy
symptoms, the doctor may suggest allergy immunotherapy ("allergy shots").

Immunotherapy involves the injections of allergen extracts to "desensitize" the person.

Duration
Typically, the treatment begins with injections of solution of allergen given
one to five times a week, with the strength gradually increasing.
It usually takes about three to four years for the patient to be free of
symptoms.

CHAPTER 7
Chromatography
Chromatography is a process of chemistry in which mixture of different

compounds is separated on the basis of their relative polarity difference.
Difference extraction or chromatography
Extraction.
The compounds are separated on the basis of relative solubility.
Chromatography.
The compounds are separated on the basis of polarity.
Different techniques of chromatography
1. Ascending Chromatography
2. Descending Chromatography
3. Circular chromatography
4. Radial chromatography
Techniques of chromatography
1. Ascending chromatography
In ascending chromatography the solvent are tends to move upward and

the components of mixture are separated in the form of spot.
2. Descending chromatography
In descending chromatography the solvent tends to move downward. The

compounds of mixture separated in the form of spots.

In circular chromatography the solvent tends to move in circular form and the different
compounds of mixture are separated in the form of rings.
In radial chromatography the solvent or mobile phase tends to move in circular form and
the compounds of mixture will separate in the form of arch.
Stationary phase
This phase is a component of chromatographic procedure that is non_mobile or fixed is

known as stationary phase.
Stationary phases use is chromatography are.
1. Paper
2. Talc
3. Mg-oxide
4. Al-oxide
5. Activated charcoal.
Mobile phase
This phase is the components of chromatography procedure which has ability to move.
e.g. solvent used in paper chromatography.
The most popular mobile phase is used chromatography are.
1. Petroleum ether.
2. Propanol
3. Ethanol
4. Acetone.
Rf value
Rf value is the ratio between the distance covered by any substances to the distance
covered by the Mobile Phase / Solvent.
Rf = Distance covered by substance

Distance covered by solvent.
Types of Chromatography
1 Paper chromatography
2. Thin layer chromatography

3. Column chromatography
Paper chromatography
Paper chromatography is the technique of analytical chemistry in which different

compounds of mixture are separated by using chromatographic technique.
In this type of chromatographic technique those mixture are easily separated that have
color pigment.
Stationary Phase
Chromatographic paper is used as stationary phase in paper chromatography.
Mobile Phase
Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phase.

Procedure of paper chromatography
1. First of we will take chromatographic paper and cut it down according to the style
of chromatography e.g. redial , circular ascending descending
2. In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom side & in the case of
descending the line is drawn on upper of chromatographic paper. The line is
called baseline. The distance of this baseline from the final edge is 2.5cm.
3. The sample is applied in the center of baseline and the paper is applied into
mobile phase in a chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time the
components of sample will separate and finally Rf value of each component is
calculated
4. In case of circular chromatography the sample is applied in the center and thread
has been passed in through the center the mobile phase will move under the
capillary action and components of sample will separate in the form or rings
finally Rf value of all the components is calculated .
5. In case of radial chromatography the sample is applied across the center and like
wised dipped in the mobile phase and components of sample will separate in
form of arch. Finally the Rf value of the components is calculated.

Styles of paper chromatography
Paper chromatography can be done by following styles

.
1. Ascending chromatography:

2. Descending chromatography:
3. Circular chromatography:

4. Radial chromatography:
Application of paper chromatography
i. it is used in pharmaceutical industries to separate different kinds of (API)

ii. It is used to determine the polarity and evaporation power of any given
compound.
iii. It is used in the identification of poison.
iv. It is used in the analysis of different medicine
v. It is used in the separation of different body tissue.
vi. It is used in forensic medicine for investigational purpose.
Rf value


Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a chromatography technique used to

separate mixtures. Thin layer chromatography is performed on a sheet of glass, plastic, or
aluminium foil, which is coated with a thin layer of adsorbent material, usually silica gel,
aluminium oxide, or cellulose.
Stationary Phase
The layer of adsorbent is known as the stationary phase

.
Mobile Phase
Procedure of Thin Layer chromatography
1. First of we will take special thin layer chromatographic sheet coated with the
absorbent and cut it down according to the style of chromatography e.g. redial ,
circular ascending descending

2. In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom side & in the case of
descending the line is drawn on upper of chromatographic paper. The line is called
baseline. The distance of this baseline from the final edge is 2.5cm.
3. The sample is applied in the center of baseline and the sheet is applied into mobile
phase in a chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time the components of
sample will separate and finally Rf value of each component is calculated
4. In case of circular chromatography the sample is applied in the center and thread
has been passed in through the center the mobile phase will move under the capillary
action and components of sample will separate in the form or rings finally Rf value of
all the components is calculated .
5. In case of radial chromatography the sample is applied across the center and like
wised dipped in the mobile phase and components of sample will separate in form of
arch. Finally the Rf value of the components is calculated.
Styles of Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC):
Paper chromatography can be done by following styles

.
1. Ascending chromatography
2. Descending chromatography
Application of Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)

1. Determination of the components a plant contains.

2. Monitoring organic reactions.
3. Analyzing ceramides and fatty acids.
4. Detection of pesticides or insecticides in food and water.
5. Analyzing the dye composition of fibers in forensics Sciences.
6. Identifying compounds present in a given substance.
7. Assaying the radiochemical purity of radiopharmaceuticals.
Rf value

Column Chromatography
Column chromatography in chemistry is a method used to purify individual

chemical compounds from mixtures of compounds. It is often used for preparative
applications on scales from micrograms up to kilograms.

Stationary Phase
The stationary phase or adsorbent in column chromatography is a solid. The

most common stationary phase for column chromatography is silica gel, followed by
alumina. Cellulose powder has often been used.
Mobile Phase
Procedure of Column chromatography
The classical preparative chromatography column is a glass tube with a diameter from 50
mm and a height of 50 cm to 1 m with a tap at the bottom.
The stationary phase is a powdered adsorbent which is placed in a vertical glass column.
The mixture to be analyzed is loaded on top of this column.
The mobile phase is a solvent poured on top of the loaded column. The solvent flows
down the column, causing the components of the mixture to distribute between the
powdered adsorbent and the solvent, thus separating the components of the mixture so
that as the solvent flows out of the bottom of the column, some components elute with
early collections and other components elute with late fractions.

Application of Column Chromatography
1. It is used in the separation of benzodiazepines.

2. It is used in the Analysis of medicine.
3. It is used for the purification of Water & other organic solvents in pharmaceutical
industry.
4. It is used in the separation of different body tissue.

CHAPTER 8
EXTRACTION
It is the specialized type procedure of chemistry that involves the separation of

different compounds on the basis of their relative solubility in two different immiscible
solvent / liquids .
OR
The extraction is a complex pharmaceutical procedure in which the active
pharmaceutical ingredient (API) is removed from crude drug (animal or plant origin) by
using.
Menstrum
Any liquid that is used in the pharmacy for extractions procedure is called manstrum.
Marc
The waste material that left after extraction is called marc.
Need for extraction
With the advancement in medical treatment technologies the demand of herbal

medicine diminished. But still some glycosides alkaloids, resins, fixed oils volatile oils and
tannins have importance to us. So we use extraction process to purify them.
Advantages of extraction
i. Potency can be controlled

ii. Deterioration can be controlled
iii. Different dosage form e.g. tablets capsules, symptoms and injections can
easily synthesize.
iv. Dosage forms of purified compounds are more stable then the no purified
ones.
v. The compounds that are none purified can cause infections.
vi. If the drugs are used in raw form ADRs (adverse drug reactions) can affect
humans.
Theory of extraction
Any extraction procedure depends upon some fundamental principles and these are very
much common in all types of extraction.
i. Suitable size reduction of crude drug
ii. Selection of suitable solvent

iii. Penetration of solvent into the crude drug

iv. The cell should be at right position to collect to solution.
v. Supply of appropriate heat.
vi. Who apply pressing force?
vii. The separation of solvent from the raw crude drug the pressing Force
becomes more important.
viii. Separation of solvent from mark
ix. Evaporation technique is applied to get purified solid drug.
Extraction process or extraction techniques
1. Infusion
2. Decoction
3. Maceration
4. Percolation
5. Digestion
6. Continuous hot extraction
Infusion
It is a method of extraction in which hot manstrum (water) is used poured on crude drug
or crushed drug and allow them for suitable time.
Decoction
It is the techniques of extraction in which the drug is used in the form of powder or
coarse particles. These drug are together boiled with water for certain are given period of
time.
Maceration
It is the method that require prolong time in this method drug is powdered and cover up
in the porous cloth then it is dipped in the menstrum for
2 to 14 days as required.
Percolation
It is the extraction technique in which the fine powder of drugs are packed in to the
column are packed in to the column after suitable menstrum selection are allow the
menstrum to percolate through the column of packed drug.
Digestion
It is the extraction technique which resemble with the maceration in fact it is a

maceration procedure in the presence of gentle heat.

Continues hot extraction
It is the technique of extraction in which soxhelt apparatus is used .the drug is always
used in hot condition.
Infusion
Infusion is a process or technique of extraction which is usually used for soft

natured drugs. So that the menstrum (which is water) can easily diffuse into the drug b/c
of these drugs easily release their active constituents in the menstrum.
The extracts that are formulated through infusion process have shelf life of only 24 hours
so. It is recommended to use these kinds of extracts freshly.
Apparatus use in infusion
The main apparatus in infusion procedure is infusion pot . a simple beaker can also be
used instead of infusion pot.
 Burner (heat burner)

 Filter paper
 Beaker
Procedure
 First of all the nature of the drug is checked

 If the nature of the drug is soft you would not cut it into pieces.
 Although if drug has little harder nature then we cut in to pieces.
 If the drug is the soft nature of drugs are bound with the thread and we suspend it
into the infusion pot. If the drug is of harder nature then their pieces will be place
into the infusion pot.
 Now the menstrum will be warm to 200c to 250c.
 After that the hot menstrum will poured on the drug and allow is 15 minutes
 Finely filter it and the extract is ready to use
Decoction
It is the techniques of extraction in which the drug is used in the form of

powder or coarse particles. These drug are together boiled with water for certain are
given period of time.
 Decoction is the technique of extraction in which water is used as menstrum.

 The drug that have to undergo decoction should be heat stable
 The drug that are selected for decoction procedure should be hard

 The drug is cut into small pieces.

 Now put all the pieces of the drug in large beaker (1000ml) and poured the
menstrum on the drug as mentioned in the monograph.
 The heat burner should be opened and heat the drug and menstrum mixture to
boil.
 After the definite period of time the burner should be closed and allow the
mixture to cool down.
 After the cooling phase filter the mixture.
 The filter mixture is now ready to use as a extract.
 Due to evaporation a certain quantity of water is lost so final adjustment of
volume is very necessary
 Decoction preparation always used freshly because their half life is only 24 hours.
 There is no official example of decoction in I.P and B.P.
Maceration
It is the method that require prolong time in this method drug is powdered and cover up
in the porous cloth then it is dipped in the menstrum for
2 to 14 days as required.
 It is the process in which drugs are communicated to fine powders

 Now these powders will encaptured into pouch.
 A suitable menstrum is selected.
 After this the pouch containing drug powder is suspended in to the menstrum for
2 to 14 days b/c it is the demand of the procedure to soften the cellular structures
of all drug.
 The pouch is removed after the definite the extract if required .
 Finely adjust the volume as required.
Types of maceration
1. Maceration of organized drugs.

2. Maceration of unorganized drugs.
3. Multiple maceration
Maceration of Organized Drugs
Simple maceration involves the following steps.
1. Communication of the crude drug. The drug is converted into coarse powder
rather then fine.
2. Take a pouch of suitable material and captured the coarse particles of drug into it.
3. Selected the suitable menstrum according to the whole menstrum of drug.

4. Take a whole menstrum in a tank.

5. Suspended the pouch with the help of thread for at least 7 day.
6. Occasionally shake the pouch.
7. After 7 days the manstrum is separated.
8. Now combine the menstrum with the pressed solution/ liquid.
9. If required filter it and finally adjust the volume according to the requirement.
Maceration of Unorganized Drug
1. First of all the unorganized drug is selected.

2. Communication the drug into fine powder .
3. If the drug in the form of gum are aloe gum resin, their should be no need for
communication.
4. Enclosed the communicated or raw drug in a pouch.
5. The ¾ th volume of menstrum.
6. Dip the pouch in this volume of menstrum for at least 2__7 days.
7. After the specific time period the volume of menstrum is separated and filters it if
required.
8. Do not press the marc
9. Adjust the volume by using remaining ¼ th part of menstrum.
Multiple maceration (repeated maceration)
Multiple maceration is very important and effective procedure as for as its accuracy is
concern. The basis aim of this procedure is to remove the remaining (API) in to
menstrum
In multiple maceration we prefer the alcohol as menstrum on other menstrum like wise
water.
Double maceration
●Firstly selection of drug is done. After selection the drug is communicated.

● Enclosed the communicated drug into a pouch
● According to the nature of crude drug a suitable menstrum is selected
● The menstrum is divided into two portions A and B.
● The crude drug pouch is dipped into menstrum A for specific period of
time. After that time the menstrum A is separated and preserved the
Marc is pressed.
● The marc is again dipped into the menstrum B. for specific period of time.
 After that time the marc is pressed and menstrum B is separated
● The menstrum A and B is unite again and adjust the vol. to get the desire
product.

Triple Maceration
● First of all the selection of drug is done.

● Then the drug is communicated to fine powder
● Now enclose the powder drug in a pouch
● Now suitable menstrum is selected and divide the menstrum into
Three parts A, B, C
● A for specified period of time after that time the marc is pressed and
menstrum is labeled and preserved
● The marc again dipped into menstrum B for particular time after the
specific time.
● The marc is pressed and manstrum is pressed after labeling.
● The marc again dipped in menstrum C for specific time after that time the
marc is pressed and menstrum is preserved after labeling.
● Combine the menstrum A, B, and C and adjust their vol. to get your
desire product.
Percolation
It is an extraction technique in which a communicated drug is enclosed

in a vessel known as percolator and menstrum is allowed to pass through the
communicated drug. The extract that we obtained from the percolation and procedure is
called percolate. The percolation procedure can be properly explained under following
heading.
Communication of the Drug
The drug is subjected to a suitable size reduction by using technique usually the drug is
crushed moderately to fine powder depending upon the nature of drug.
Advantages
The basic advantages of size reduction in percolation are.

● To enhance the surface area of drug.
● Because of size reduction uniform packing of drug in percolation
become possible.
● Because of size reduction (powder form drug) the movement of
menstrum become slow.
Moistening of drug (imbibitions)
The moistening of crude drug is called imbibitions. The powdered drug is place with little
amount of menstrum for at least 4hours in a close container.

Advantages
The fundamental advantages of moistening the drug are as following

The dry powder may be swell up when it firstly have a contact with menstrum. This can
be overcome by moistening the powder drug.
Due to imbibitions of powder drug the entrapment of air can be minimized.
Open percolator
The upper surface of this percolator is open it mainly use for mainly non-volatile solvent.
Close percolator
The upper surface of this percolator is close and it mainly used for volatile menstrum e.g.
alcohol.
Packing
After imbibitions of powdered crude drug it would be evenly packed in suitable

percolation.
Maceration
After the selection of particular or specific solvent (menstrum). The larger portion of
menstrum is poured on the packed drug in a percolator when the drops of menstrum
trickle down then percolator should be preserved at soft place fro at least 24 hours.
Percolation
After 24 hours of maceration the lower tap is open and menstrum will collect into a
collector. When ¾ of the poured menstrum is collected the remaining menstrum will be
poured. When all the menstrum is received in the collector then marc is pressed.
Volume adjustment
Volume adjustment as we required
Continuous hot Extraction
In continuous hot extraction the drug is enclosed in a drug chamber and Menstrum is
placed in lower flask. A reflex condenser place at the upper portion. When heat is applied
to the Menstrum, it convert it self into vapours these vapours are condensed by reflux

condenser. The drops of Menstrum tickle down on the drug chamber and purified extract
is obtained from collection point.

CHAPTER 9
POISONOUS PLANTS
(With Special reference to Pakistan)

There are many plants available in northern areas & ground areas of
Pakistan. Theses plants have the ability to produce some drastic effects on the human
body.
These drastic plants can be classified as;

 Plants Causing GIT Toxicity
 Plants Causing CNS Toxicity
 Plants Causing CVS Toxicity
 Cyanogenetic Plants
A) Plants Causing GIT Toxicity
I) Mouth or, oral cavity Toxic Plants
Name of plants
(1) Arisaema triphyllum

(2) Colcasia esculanata
(3) Arum jacquemontii
Colcasia esculanata Arisaema triphyllum

Family “Araceae”
Habitat
Sindh ,Gilget ,Swat,Ayubia and Nathiagali
Toxicology The fundamental compound due to which mouth

or oral cavity toxicity occour is calcium oxalate.
Symptoms

● Intense burning sensation

● Mouth unless
● Dermatitis
● Blister on tongue
● Increase salivation
● Loss of voice is also reported
II) Plants toxic to Gastric Mucosa
Plant name
(1) Narcissus tazeeta

(2) Amaryllus vittae
(3) Crinum asiatcum
Crinum asiatcum Amaryllus vittae Narcissus tazeeta
Family
Amaryllideacea
Habitat
Narcissus tazette is widely found in Gilgat and Swat Wally Amarlllus vittae and
crinium asiaticum both widely found in Punjab, Sindh
Toxicology
There are various alkaloids in these plants but lycorine is the most dangerous
one, that cause multiple symptoms
Symptoms
● Inflammation and burning sensation o mouth

● Gastritis
● Headache
● Increase salivation nasal secretion

III) Gastro Enteric Irritant Plants
A) Plant name
B) Aseculus indica
Family
Hippocastanaceae
Habitat
Kasmir, Ziarat, Quetta,
Muree Swat.
A
seculus indica
Toxicology
This plant contain many chemical substances from which saponin (glycoride ) is
a toxic to our GIT.
Symptoms
● Inflammation of gastric mucosa
●Peptic ulcer
● Duodenal ulcer
● Inflammation eye. (Conjunctivitis)
● Vomiting
● Fever
● Headache
● Sever sneezing
(B) Plant name
Podophyllum emodi
Family
Berberidiaceae
Habitat
Kashmir, muree, swat and Gilgit. Podophyllum emodi
Toxicology
Podophyllum emodi contain many resinous compounds among them

podophyllin is the most toxic

Symptoms
● Abdominal or epigastric pain
● Persistent emesis
● Headache
●Dermatitis
● Fever
●Diarrhea
● Inflammation of eye
(C) Plant name
Abrus pectorius
Family
Leguminosae
Habitat
Sindh, and Kash mir .it found at 3000__5000 altitude.
Toxicology
The toxic substance of abrus pectorious is abrin.
Symptoms
● Even small amount of ingestion of seeds can cause cardiac Arrest especially in
children
. ●Severe gastroenteritis
● Nausea
● Vomiting
● Trembling of hands
●Muscular weakness
IV) Plants Causing Dryness of Mouth
(A) Plant name

Datura stramonium
Family
Solanaceae
Habitat
Datura stramonium
It is widely available in 5000 to 9000 feet altitude mainly in Swat, Gilgat
Chitral, Muree and Kashmir.

Toxicology
(1) There are different compound present in Datura stramonium mainly hyoscine and
hyosyamine if Any human ingested there raw plants they can cause Toxicity. (2) If leaves
and flowers of this plant eaten by Some animal and their meat is used by human can
Caused toxicity.
Symptoms
● dryness of mouth
● dyspnea
●Fatigue
● Eye sight weakness
● Muscular weakness
B) Plant name
Atropa belladona
Family
Solanaceae
Atropa belladona
Habitat
It is present at 6000___1000ft altitude. The place where It is found widely hills of Muree,
Hazara, Mansehra and Chitral.
Toxicology
The main chemical compound which is present in Atropa belladona is atropine.
Symptoms
●dryness of mouth
● Muscular relaxation
● Fever
● Nausea
● Vomiting
V) Plants Causing Intestinal Motility.
Plant name
Conium maculatum
Family
Umbelliferae
Habitat
Hazara, Abottabad and
hills of muree and Chitral.

Toxicology There are many alkaloids present in conium maculatum.

But the toxins that are harmful to humans are coniine, pseudo conohydrine ,N.Methyl
coniine.
Symptoms
● increase the intestinal motality

●paralysis of motor Nerve ending
●paralysis of spinal card
● respiratory Depression
● drowsiness
Plant name Nicotiana tobaccum
Family solanaceae
Nicotiana tobaccum
Habitat It is widely available in
Rural Sindh , Punjab and
N.W.F.P
Toxicology ● there are mainly alkaloids available in nicotiana tobaccum .But the
most effective is nicotine.
Symptom
● enhance the motality of Intestine
● Diarrhea
B) Plants Causing CVS Disturbances
Plant name
● Digitalis purpura
● Digitalis lanata
Family Scrophulariaceae
Habitat Hazara , Azad Kashmir
Toxicology these are two plants

contain many glycosides. In
which the
Digitalis purpura
most active are Digoxin, Digitoxin and
Gitatoxin
Symptom
● Ventricular tachycardia ● Vomiting
●Sinus arrythemia

● SOB(shortness of breath ● drowsinss
●fatigue
Plant name Nerium indicum
Family Apocynaceae
Habitat Chitral ,Muree and Digitalis lanata
Azad Kashmir
Toxicology
Root, barks and seeds contain toxins .the most active are
“nerodine” and karabin.
Symptom ●hypertenshion ●cardic arrtheimiya
● venticuler tacky cardia ● increase impulse rate
● nausea ●vomiting ● chest pain.
C) Plants Causing CNS Disturbances
Plant name Cannabis stiva
Family Cannabinacea
Habitat it is widely
available in
N.W.F.P and
Punjab.
Cannabis stiva
Toxicology The glandular trichome of cannabis stiva is
secreted a Resin which usually a waste material
called as Narcotic resin and also called tetra hydro
cannabinol.
Symptom ● shrinkage of mouth ●

dryness of mouth
● dry cough ●constipation ●
depression ● the addict
person will enjoy the color
of life ● vomiting
● headache ● hallucination
Plant name Cicuta virosa

Family Umblifeareae
Habitat hilly area of

Azad Kashmir.
Cicuta virosa
Toxicology
In cicuta virosa there is a mixture of toxic substances called cicutoxin is a slightly
alcoholic in nature the barks of the cicuta virosa is more toxic then the seeds and leaves
of this plant.
symptom
●depression ● tremor ●respiratory depression which ultimately leads to respiratory
failure ●increase salivation. ● nausea ●vomiting
D) Cyanogenetic Plants
plant name Manihot esulenta

family
Euphorbiaceae
habitat
it is easily available in the
forests of Northen area .
Manihot esulenta
Toxicology
there is a toxic substances name cyanogenocyte
which can produce harmful effect on the living systems.
Systems
●convulsion ●muscular weakness ●lever damage ● vomiting
Plant name
Prunus amygdalus
Family
Rosaceae
Habitat
It is widely available in the
Northren parts of Pakistan.
Prunus amgludus
Toxicology
It contain a toxic chemical name amygladin..
Symptoms

● convulsions ●vomiting ●liver damage ● headache

CHAPTER 10
Glycosides
These are organic compounds, abundantly present in plants; on hydrolysis

they yield a sugar component called Glycogen and non-sugar component called A-
glycogen.
Classes:
The glycosides are classified as follows;
1. Anthra-quinone Glycosides (example: Senna, Aloe, rhubarb)
2. Cardio tonic Glycosides (Example: Digitalis , Strophanthus)
3. Saponin Glycoside
Medically Important Glycoside Plants
1)
Drug;
Senna
Chemical Class;
Glycoside
Synonym;
Alexandrian Senna
Tinnevelly Senna
Biological Source;
It consist of dried leaflets of “Cassia acutifolia” (Alexandrian Senna)
and “Cassia angustifolia” (Tinnevelly Senna).
Family;
Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent;
Sennosides A, B, C, D
Aloe-emodine glycosides
Medicinal Uses;
 Cathartic
 Laxative

 Purgative
2)
Drug;
Cassia
Botanical Name;
Cassia fistula
Chemical Class ;
Glycoside
Family ;
Leguminosae
Sennosides
Medicinal Uses;
(Cassia fistula)
 Cathartic
 Anti Gout.
3)
Drug;
Aloe
Synonym;
Gwar Gandal
Chemical Class;
Glycoside
Biological source;
It is dried juice obtained from leaves of “Aloe barbadensis” (Aloe
vera).
Family ;
Liliaceae
Collection ;
V-shaped leaves contain spines on the margins. For collection of juice the
leaves are cut in March & April transversally and put a vessel below it and then heat the
juice in copper vessel on open fire. Poured the juice in canes and tins and solidify it.
Chemical Constituent ;
Aloin, Barbaloin, Emodine

Medicinal Uses ;
 Purgative
 Skin diseases
 Burns by heat, radiation &sun
 Wound
 Hair tonic
4)
Drug;
Glycyrrhiza
Chemical Class;
Glycoside
Synonym;
Liquorice, Mulethi
Biological source;
It is dried root and rhizome of “Glycyrrhiza glabra”
Family ;
Leguminoseae
Collection;

It is 1m high herb. It is cultivated by planting rhizome in well moist sandy

soil in March. It grows better near the bank of river under sun shine. Drug is collected
from 3-4 years old plant. Roots and rhizome are dug out and washed with water and
packed.
Glycyrrhizin, Glycyrrhizic acid
Medicinal Uses;
 Demulcent
 Expectorant
 Diuretic
 Emollient
 Flavoring agent
 In Food Industry
5)
Drug;
Digitalis
Chemical Class;
Glycosides
Synonym;
Foxglove, Purple Foxglove
Biological source;
Dried leaves of “Digitalis purpurea” and “Digitalis lanata”.
Family;
Scrophulariaceae

Collection;
For its cultivation stained seeds are sown into equal parts of clean sand
are garden soil. When seedlings arise they are transferred to the fields. The leaves are
collected from September to November in afternoon. The leaves are dried immediately
at 60 centigrade after collection. If drying is rapid it will retain it green colour. Dried
leaves are packed in air tight container having a desiccating substance that is silica gel or
calcium oxide.
Digitoxin, Gitoxin & Gitaloxin
Medicinal Uses;
 As cardiac stimulant
 In CHF (Congestive Heart Failure)
6)
Drug;
Strophanthus
Chemical Class;
Glycosides
Biological source;
It is dried ripe seeds of “Strophanthus kombe” and “Strophanthus hispidus”
Family;
Apocynaceae

Collection;
It is obtained from wild plants. Fruits are many seeded and consist of two
follicles. Mature fruit are collected in June and July Epicarp and Mesocarp are separated
and seeds are removed. The seeds are washed and then dried.
Strophanthin K, Choline, Kombic acid

Medicinal Uses;
 Cardio tonic
 Diuretic
 Arrow poison
Alkaloids
Alkaloids are naturally occurring, nitrogen containing compound. These are basic in
nature and are physiologically active.
Groups:
1. Pyridine-piperidine (Example: areca nut )
2. Tropane alkaloids (Example: Hyoscyamus leafs)

3. Quinoline alkaloids (Example: Cinchona bark)
4. Iso-quinoline alkaloids (Example: Ipecac, Opium)
5. Indole alkaloids (Example: Nux-vomica)
6. Alkaloidal amine (Example: Ephedra)
7. Steroidal alkaloids (Example: veratrum)
8. Purine alkaloids (Example: Tea , Coffee)
Medically Important Alkaloid Plants;
1)
Drug;
Rauwolfia
Synonym;
Snake root, Chota chandan
(Rauwolfia serpentina)
Chemical Class ;
Alkaloids
Biological source;
It is dried roots of “Rauwolfia serpentine”.

Family ;
Apocynaceae
Reserpine, Ajmaline (Rauwolfine), Ajmalicine (Yohimbine),
Serpentine, Serpentinine.

Medicinal Uses;
 Sedative
 Hypnotic
 As hypertensive
2)
Drug;
Catharanthus
Synonym;
Rattanjot
Chemical Class;
Alkaloids
Botanical Name;
It is dried whole plant of “Catharanthus roseus”

Family;
Apocynaceae
Vinblastine, Vincristine, Vindoline & Catharanthine
Medicinal Uses;
 Anti Neoplastic

 Used in Leukemia
3)
Drug;
Ephedra
Chemical Class;
Alkaloids
Biological source;
It consist of whole aerial parts of “Ephedra sinica”
Family;
Ephederacae
Ephedrine, Pseudo-ephedrine
Medicinal Uses;
 Anti asthmatic
 Bronchodilator
 Vasodilator
 Used in flu, fever and allergic conditions
 CNS stimulant
4)
Drug;
Opium
Synonym;
Post, Afim, Heroin, Poppy plant
Chemical Class;
Alkaloids
Biological source;
It is the air dried milky latex obtained by incision from the unripe
capsules of “Papaver somniferum”

Family;
Papaveraceae
Morphine, Codeine, Narcotine, Thebaine, noscapine,

Papaverine
Poppy Plant Capsule
Medicinal Uses;
 Narcotic
 Analgesic
 Sedative
 Antispasmodic
 Codeine is used as anti tussive
 Papaverine is smooth muscle relaxant
5)
Drug;
Nux-Vomica
Synonym;
Kuchla, Poison nut, Vomit nut
Biological source;
It is the dried ripe seeds of “Strychnus nux-vomica”

Family;
Loganiaceae
Strychnine, Brucine, Vomicine, Novacine, Colubrine
Medicinal Uses;
 Circulatory stimulant
 Bitter tonic
 Increase tone of intestine
 Used in alcohol poisoning
 Improve appetite and digestion
6)
Drug;
Cinchona bark
Biological source;
It is dried bark of stem and roots of “Cinchona succirubra”

Family ;
Rubiaceae
Quinine, Quinidine, Cinchonine, Cinchonidine.
Medicinal Uses;
 Antimalarial
 Anti pyretic
 Analgesic
 Arrythmia
 Dyspepsia
 Hay fever
 Tonsillitis
7)
Drug;
Hyoscyamus leaf
Synonym;
Khurasani-ajvayan
Biological source;
It consist of dried leaves and flowering tops of “Hyoscyamus niger”

Hyoscyamus
Family;
Solanaceae
Hyoscyamine (Atropine)
Hyoscine (Scopolamine)
Medicinal Uses;
 Smooth muscle relaxant

 Sedative
 Narcotic
 Mydriatic
 Used in Asthma
 CNS stimulant
8)
Drug;
Belladonna
Synonym;
Death herb
Biological source;
It consist of dried leaves and flowering tops of “Atropa belladonna”

Family;
Solanaceae
Atropine, Hyoscyamine, Asparagaline
Medicinal Uses;
 Muscle relaxant of respiratory tract

 Narcotic
 Sedative
 Antispasmodic
Volatile Oil
Rapidly evaporating oil, especially an essential oil that does not leave a
stain.

OR
Any organic oil present in plants, usually containing terpenes and esters and
having the odour or flavour of the plant from which they are extracted.
Medically Important Volatile Oil Plants
1)
Drug;
Fennel
Synonym;
(Saunf)
Chemical Class ;
Volatile oil
Biological source;
It is obtain from ripe fruit of “Foeniculum vulgare”
Family ;
Umbelliferae
Anethol, Fenchone, Phellandrene, Chavicol
Medicinal Uses
 Flavoring agent
 Carminative
 Stomachic
 Expectorant
 Stimulant

2)
Drug;
Caraway
Synonym;
(Zira)
Chemical Class;
Volatile oil
Biological source;
It is obtain from dried ripe food of “Carum carvi”

Family;
Umbelliferae
Carvone, Carveol, Limonene
Medicinal Uses;
 Flavoring
 Carminative
 Expectorant
3)
Drug;
Peppermint
Synonym;
Pudina
Biological source;
It is obtain from dried leaves &

flowering tops of “Mentha piperita”
Family;
Labiateae
Menthol, Menthone, Jasmine, Limonene, Phellandrene

Medicinal Uses;
 Flavoring agent
 Carminative

 Stomachic
 Expectorant
 vomiting
4)
Drug;
Cinnamon
Synonym;
Darchini
Chemical Class;
Volatile oil
Biological source;
It is obtained from dried bark of”Cinnamomum zeylanicum”
Family;
Lauraceae
Eugenol, Phellandrene, Pinene

Medicinal Uses ;
 vomiting
 Flavoring
 Carminative
 Stimulant
 Astringent
5)
Drug;

Cardamom
Synonym;
Ilayachi
Chemical Class;
Volatile oil
Biological source;
It is dried ripe seed of “Elettaria cardamomum”

Family ;
Zingiberaceae
Cineol, Borneol, Limonene

Medicinal Uses;
 Flavoring
 Stomachic
 Stimulant
 Diuretic
6)
Drug;
Clove
Synonym;
Long
Chemical Class;
Volatile oil

Biological source;
It is dried flower buds of “Eugenia caryophyllus”
Family;
Myrtaceae
Eugenin, Chromone, Vanillin

Medicinal Uses;
 Flavoring
 Carminative
 Anti-septic
 Dental preparation

7)
Drug;
Curcuma
Botanical Name;
Curcuma longa
Chemical Class;
Volatile Oil
Family ;
Zingiberaceae (Curcuma longa)
Curcumin
Medicinal Uses;
 Anti Inflammatory
 Use in Jaundice
 Use in Gall Stones
(Turmeric)
Resins
Resins are solid or semisolid plant exudates formed in schizogenous cavities.They are
complex mixtures of compounds like resin alcohols (resinols), resin acids, resinophenols.
Natural resins are usually transparent yellow to brown and can melt and burn. Most are
exuded from trees, especially pines.

Classification of Resins:
Resins are classified on the basis of their occurrence in combination with other
compounds as:
Balsams:
Balsams are resinous substances which contain large proportion of benzoic
acid or cinnamic acid either free or in combination with their esters.
Examples are Tolu balsam, Benzoin and Peru balsam.
Oleoresin:
When resin occurs with volatile oils the mixture is called Oleoresin.
Examples are; Ginger, Capsicum etc.
Gum Resins:
When resins are found in combination with gums then such resins are
known as gum resins. Examples include; Asafeotida.
Oleo-gum Resins:
These are associated with gums and volatile oils both. The volatile oil is
removed by steam distillation and gum is separated by dissolving in water.
Examples are; Myrrh, Ipomoea
1)
Drug;
Tolu balsam
Chemical Class;
Resins
Biological source;
It is obtain from by incision of stem of “Myroxylon balsamum”
Family;
Leguminoseae

Ferulic acid, Styrene, Vanillin

Medicinal Uses;
 Expectorant
 Anti-septic
 Flavouring in Pharmaceuticals
2)
Drug;
Sumatra Benzoin
Synonym;
Benjamin, Luban (Hindi)
Chemical Class;
Resins
Biological source;
It is obtain from by incision of stem of “Styrax benzoin”

Family;
Styraceae
Balsamic acid, Benzoin acid, Cinnamic acid
Medicinal Uses;
 Expectorant
 Anti-septic
 Carminative
 Diuretic
 In cosmetic
 compound benzoin tincture
3)
Drug;
Colocynth
Synonym;
Bitter apple, Bitter cucumber, Bitter gourd, Korh tuma (Punjabi)

Chemical Class;
Resins
Biological source;
It is obtain from dried pulp of unripe but fully grown fruit of

“Citrullus colocynthis”
Family;
Cucurbitaceae
Cucurbitacin-E
Medicinal Uses;
 In Cathartic
 Anti-cancer
4)
Drug;
Asafeotida
Synonym;
Food of god, Hing
Chemical Class;
Resins
Biological source;
It is obtain from Oleo-gum-resin from exudation by incision on roots

& rhizome “Ferula Asafeotida”
Family;
Umbellifereae
Ferulic acid, Umbelliferone

Medicinal Uses;
 Carminative
 Expectorant
 Anti-spasmodic(muscle relaxant)
 Laxative
 Hysteria & epilepsy (mental disorder)
Hing
5)
Drug;
Ginger
Synonym;
Zingiber, Saunth (Hindi), Adrak (Urdu)
Chemical Class;
Resins

Biological source;
It is obtain from dried rhizomes of “Zingiber officinale”
Family;
Zingiberaceae
(Fresh Ginger) (Dry ginger)
Resins constituents are;
Gingerol, Shogaols, Gingediols
Volatile oils are;
Zingerone, Zingiberene
The pungency of ginger is due to Gingerol. Dehydration of Gingerol produces shogaol

which is not present in fresh rhizome.
Medicinal Uses;
 Stimulant
 Carminative
 Condiment
 Used in Cold & Cough
 Used in Asthma

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are pollyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone, with at least three carbon atoms.
These compounds are produced by photosynthetic plants and contain only carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, usually in the ratio 1:2:1.
Example:
Glucose, sucrose and starch.
Source:
The source of carbohydrates is plants. They are widely distributed in plants.
Classification:
Carbohydrates are classified into 3 main classes.
1. Monosaccharides or simple sugars
2. Oligosaccharides
3. Polysaccharides

1. Monosaccharides:
These are the simple sugars and can not be hydrolyzed. Chemical formula is (C.H2o) n.
For example:
Glucose (C6H12O6) Blood Sugar
Fructose (C6H12O6) Fruit Sugar
Pentose (C5H10O5)
2. Oligosaccharide:
They contain the carbohydrates which formed by the combination of 2 or 3

monosaccharide units. And the range is (C1 to C10)
Such as;
 Disaccharides
 Tri-saccharides and so on….
Disaccharide:
In which 2 monosaccharide combine to form disaccharide with
a linkage called Glycosidic linkage
For example;
Sucrose (Table Sugar) it forms by the combination of D-glucose and D-
fructose
3. Polysaccharides:
In which large no. of monosaccharide combine to form polysaccharide and they are very
complex in structure and these are called non-sugar
For example starch, Agar, pectin etc.

Medically Important Carbohydrate Plants
1)
Drug;
Acacia
Synonym;
Gum Acacia, Gum Arabica
Chemical Class;
Carbohydrates
Biological source;
It is dried gum obtain from the stem and branches of “Acacia

senegal” and “Acacia arabica”
Family;
Leguminoseae
Collection;
Acacia tree is 6 m high when we cut stem transversely phloem cells come
out and by bacterial attack (Bacterium acaciae) the flume cells convert into gum and then
it is stored in lathery bags for 2-3 months.
Character:
Colour: Dark brown
Shape: 1-3 in diameter and round
Odour: odourless

Arabin (Magnesium, Potassium, Calcium salts of Arabic acid
Medicinal Uses ;
 As emulsifying agent
 As binder
 As demulcent
 As thickner in juices
2)
Drug;
Tragacanth
Synonym;
Gondkatera
Chemical Class;
Carbohydrate
Biological source;
It is dried gum obtain from exudates of the stem of “Astragallus

gummifer”
Family;
Leguminoseae
Collection;
The tree is 1 m high and thorny branches of shrubs and obtains
from plant when plant is 1-2 year old by a process called gummosis
When plant is injured the internal layer pith is converted into gum then the plant
absorbed water and swells up and throws the gum on the outer surface and by the
reaction with air it become hard due to the evaporation of water.

Character:
Colour: Pale yellow and off white
Shape: depend upon the type of incision
Odour: Odourless
Tragacanthin and bassorin

Medicinal Uses;
 As emulsifying
 As suspending agent
 As demulcent
 In cosmetics
 In food industry
2)
Drug;
Agar
Synonym;
Japan agar
Chemical Class;
Carbohydrates
Biological source;
It is dried hydrophilic complex obtain from of “Gelidium

cartilagineum”
Family;
Gelidiaceae
Collection;
Algae is cultivated on coast and washed for 24 hours in running water

then beaten and shaken to remove sand and shells. Then it is moved in steam heated
digester for 30 hours to extract chemical then a gel like material is obtain. To remove
water gel is freezes, ice block of agar is obtained crush and melt it and filter through a
vacuum rotary sieve agar flack is obtain.
Character:
Colour: Transparent
Shape: Flattened (tough when damp and brittle when dry)

Odour: Odourless
Agarose and Agaropectin

Medicinal Uses;
 As cathartic
 As demulcent
 As nutrient media for bacterial culture
 As laxative
4)
Drug;
Starch
Chemical Class;
Carbohydrates
Biological source;
It is a polysaccharide obtains from seed like grains of plants
Corn Starch
B.O: Zea mays

Family: Gramineae
Wheat Starch
B.O: Triticum aestrivum

Family: Gramineae

Rice Starch
B.O: Oriza sativa

Family: Gramineae
Potato starch
B.O: Solanum tuberosum

Family: Solanaceae
Collection and Preparation;
1. preparation of maize starch:
Firstly the grains are softened by soaking in the aqueous solution of

sulphuric acid at 500 c temperature for 3-4 days then the grains are crush to separate
the embryo and germ milky fluid is obtained (which have starch and protein). To
separate starch the dilute Alkali solution is added which absorb protein. Starch is
dried by flash dryer.
2. Preparation of rice starch:
Firstly broken rice are softened by adding in the aqueous solution

of NaOH then crushed it and mixed with water and to separate starch the solution
is kept on standing position then dried at the 50-60 c temp.
3. Preparation of wheat starch;
Firstly take wheat and add water to make dough. After that make
small bolls and add in water and shake it. Liquid starch is obtained then
centrifuges it and dried.

4. Preparation of potato starch:
Firstly potatoes are washed, crushed and separate cellular debris

by rotary sieves then add water and keep on standing position starch is separated
and then dried it.
Character:
Solubility: Insoluble in cold water and forms a colloidal solution on boiling
Colour: White mass
Shape: Irregular
Amylose and Amylopectin
Medicinal Uses ;
 As binder
 As nutritive
 As anti-dote in iodine poisoning
 In dusting powder
 As a filler in tablets
Tannins
These are complex organic, non-nitrogenous, pale yellow to light brown amorphous
substances widely distributed in plants and used chiefly in tanning leather, dyeing fabric,
and making ink. Their solutions are acid and have an astringent taste.

Medically Important Tannin Plants
1)
Drug;
Catechu
Synonym;
Katha
Chemical Class;
Tannin
(Acacia catechu)
Botanical Name;
It is dried aqueous extract prepared from “Acacia catechu”
Family;
Leguminoseae
Acacatechin, Quercitin, Tannic acid
Medicinal Uses;
 As Astringent, applied to boils and skin ulcers

 Digestive
 In cough
 In Diarrhoea

2)
Drug;
Nut gall
Botanical Name;
Quercus infectoria
Chemical Class ;
Tannin
Family ;
Fagaceae
Gallic acid (Quercus infectoria)
Medicinal Uses;
 Astringent
 Used in Burns.
Fixed Oils
These are esters of glycerol with long chain fatty acids. They are nonvolatile in nature
obtained from plants (Castor oil, Almond oil) or animals (Cod liver oil).
OR
Fixed Oils are most commonly used in aromatherapy oil blends, toiletries, food and
industry. Fixed Oils are not volatile, they do not evaporate.
Medically Important Fixed Oil Plants
1)
Drug;
Almond Oil

Chemical Class;
Lipids (Fixed Oil)
(Prunus amygdalus)
Biological source;
It is dried ripe seeds of “Prunus amygdalus”
Family;
Rosaceae
Sphingolipid
Medicinal Uses;
 Used for moisturizing skin

 Used in eczema
 As flavouring agent in the preparation of toilet articles
 As vehicle for oily injection
 Mild laxative

Pharmaco G Nosy

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pharmaco G Nosy

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pharmaco G Nosy

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL, LAHORE

John Adam Schmidt Schmidt Cognosy

 Classification of Crude Drugs to know about the class of the Drug

 Cultivation, Collection, Drying, Storage, Preservation, Packing, Evaluation and

Gulshan-e-Farid Main Street, Goheer Town, Bahawalpur, Ph. 0306-07212627, 0333-9988833

 Plant growth hormones, for rapid & better growth of plants.

 Allergens & allergic preparations, to overcome the problems of Allergy.

 Enzymes, to cure & manage the diseases caused by Enzymatic Deficiency.

 Poisonous Plants to prevent poison.

 Herbal drugs, used in traditional practice.

Gulshan-e-Farid Main Street, Goheer Town, Bahawalpur, Ph. 0306-07212627, 0333-9988833

Classification Of Crude Drugs

Crude Drugs can be classified in following ways.

Gulshan-e-Farid Main Street, Goheer Town, Bahawalpur, Ph. 0306-07212627, 0333-9988833

The drugs which are prepared from plants by physical process

Table 1. Morphological Classification of Drugs

Plant Part Example of drugs

 Leaves Digitalis, Pudina, Senna, Squill

 Flowering Parts Clove, Saffron

Gulshan-e-Farid Main Street, Goheer Town, Bahawalpur, Ph. 0306-07212627, 0333-9988833

Cardamom, Caraway, Fennel, Colocynth,

 Roots & Rhizomes Ginger, Glycyrrhiza, Ipecac, Rauwolfia,

 Dried Latex Opium, Papain

 Dried Juice Aloe

 Gums Acacia, Tragacanth

 Resins Asafeotida, Benzoin, Tolu Balsam

 Fixed oils Castor, Almond

 Waxes Bees wax, Carnauba wax

 Animal Products Gelatin, Cod liver oil, Cantharides

 Minerals Kaolin, Talc

Book follows this method;

In this method, drugs are classified according to their natural

Table 2. Taxonomical Classification of Drugs

Phyllum Order Family Genus Species Drugs

Angiosperms Rosales Rosaceae Prunus amygdalus Almond

Rhodophyta Gelidiales Gelidiaceae Gelidium cartilagineum Agar

Gymnosperms Genetales Ephedraceae Ephedra sinica Ephedra

Gulshan-e-Farid Main Street, Goheer Town, Bahawalpur, Ph. 0306-07212627, 0333-9988833

In this method drugs are classified according to their therapeutic

Pharmacological Class Drugs

Anticancer Cinnamon bark,

Purgative Aloe, Senna, Castor oil

Antispasmodic Belladona, Hyoscyamus

Astringent Catechu, Tannic acid

Expectorant Glycyrrhiza, Tolu balsam

Gulshan-e-Farid Main Street, Goheer Town, Bahawalpur, Ph. 0306-07212627, 0333-9988833

In this method drugs are classified according to their principle

Sr.No. Chemical Constituents Drugs

1. Carbohydrates Agar, Acacia, Tragacanth, Starch

2. Glycosides Aloe, Senna, Glycyrrhiza, Digitalis

3. Volatile oils Cinnamon, Fennel, Clove, Caraway

4. Alkaloids Belladona, Hyoscyamus

5. Resins Ginger, Asafeotida, Benzoin,

6. Tannins Black catechu

7. Proteins Papain, Bromelain, Gelatin

Gulshan-e-Farid Main Street, Goheer Town, Bahawalpur, Ph. 0306-07212627, 0333-9988833

Gulshan-e-Farid Main Street, Goheer Town, Bahawalpur, Ph. 0306-07212627, 0333-9988833

Following are the most frequent terminologies used in Pharmacognosy.

Acaulescent: stem less