1 D.

Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

Chapter 7 How do Organisms Reproduce ?

Asexual Reproduction
 It involves only one parent.
 There is no formation and fusion of
gametes.
 The young ones formed are almost
identical to each other as well as to the
parent cell.
 Asexual reproduction generally occurs
during favourable environmental
conditions and when there is an
abundance of food.
 It is a faster method of reproduction.
Types of Asexual Reproduction is Unicellular
Organism
(i) Binary Fission: Seen in bacteria,
protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium. (In
these first pseudopodia withdrawn
(karyokinesis) the nucleus of the parent cell
divides and then the cytoplasm divides
(cytokinesis) resulting in the formation of
two daughter cells). It occurs during highly
favourable conditions. The cell division can
occur in any plane as in case of Amoeba.
However, organisms like Leishmania. (cause
2 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

Kala-azar), which have a whip like flagella at

one end, binary fission occurs in a definite
orientation in relation to the flagellum.

Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm.

Karyokinesis: Division of Nucleus.
(ii) Multiple Fission: Seen in Plasmodium,
(a malarial parasite). In this during
unfavourable conditions, the parent cell
develops a thick resistant wall around itself
forming a cyst. Within the wall, the
cytoplasm divides many times to form many
plasmodia. When conditions become
favourable, the cyst wall breaks and the
Plasmodium are released.

(iii) Budding: Seen in Yeast (a fungus). The

parent yeast cell develops a protrusion or an
outgrowth at its upper end. The nucleus of
3 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

the parent cell divides and one of them

moves into the outgrowth which grows
bigger and finally separates from the parent
cell to lead an independent existence. Very
often if the conditions are highly favourable,
a chain of buds is formed.

Types of Asexual Reproduction in

Multicellular Organisms :
(i) Fragmentation: Seen in multicellular
organisms which have a relatively simple
body organisation like Spirogyra. Spirogyra
has a filamentous body. (If it breaks into
smaller pieces or fragments). Each fragment
has the capacity to form a new individual.
However, all multicellular organisms cannot
show cell-by-cell division as cells from
tissues which form organs. These organs are
placed at definite positions in the body.
Hence, they need to use more complex
4 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

methods of reproduction.

(ii) Regeneration: It is the ability of

organisms to develop their lost parts. Some
organisms show have high regenerative
capacity it is also a means of reproduction
for example; Planaria. (Regeneration is
carried out by specialized cells which
redivide to form a mass of cells from which
different cells undergo changes to become
different cell types and tissues. These
changes occur in an organized sequence
known as development).
5 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

(iii) Budding: Seen in Hydra. Parent Hydra

develops a bud at its lower end. This grows
in size and finally breaks off to live
independently.

(iv) Spore Formation: Seen in Rhizopus (a

fungus). Rhizopus body is made up of
thread-like structures called hyphae. The
erect hyphae bear sporangia inside which
reproductive structures called spores are
formed. Spores are asexually reproducing
bodies having a thick protective wall. They
are produced during unfavourable times and
help to tide over the unfavourable
environmental conditions. When the spores
fall on a suitable medium, each one forms a
6 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

new individual.

(v) Vegetative Propagation: Method by

which plants reproduce by their vegetative
parts such as roots, stems, and leaves.
Types of Vegetative Propagation: It is two
types
 Natural vegetative propagation.
 Artificial vegetative propagation (Tissue
culture).
Mint reproduces naturally by roots.
Sugarcane, jasmine by stems and
Biyophyllum by leaves. In biyophyllum buds
are produced in the notches along the leaf
margins and when they fall on the soil, they
7 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

develop into new plants.

Importance of Vegetative Propagation

 Plants can bear flowers and fruits earlier.
 Plants which have lost the ability to
produce viable seeds can also reproduce
by vegetative propagation.
 All plants are genetically almost similar
to the parent plant.
 Seedless varieties can be obtained.
 The property of vegetative propagation
is used by horticulturists in developing
methods like layering, grafting to grow
many plants like sugarcane, roses, or
grapes.
8 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

Tissue Culture: The technique of

developing new plants from a cell or tissue
in a nutrient medium under aseptic
conditions. The cell or tissue is placed in a
nutrient medium where it forms a mass of
cells called callus. This callus is then
transferred to another nutrient medium
where it differentiates and forms a new
plant.
Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction
in plants, Sexual reproduction in human
beings. The mode of reproduction that takes
place with the involvement of two
individuals of two different sexes i.e. male
and female.
During sexual reproduction, male organism
having male sex organs produces male
gametes i.e. sperms which are small and
motile and the female organism having
female sex organs produces ova which are
generally large and store food. Male and
female gametes fuse to form a zygote that
grows into a new organism.
Significance of Sexual Reproduction :
 Sexual reproduction involves DNA as well
as cellular apparatus of two different
9 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

organisms which promotes diversity of

characters in the offspring.
 Since gametes are derived from two
different organisms, it results in a new
combination of genes which increases
the chances of genetic variations.
 Sexual reproduction results in the origin
of. new species.
 Sexual reproduction involves division in
the sex organs that reduces the DNA
matter to half so that the zygote formed
after fusion has the same amount of
DNA as the parents it maintains DNA in a
species.
Limitation of Sexual
Reproduction: Sexual reproduction
involves the process of combining DNA from
two different organisms which may bring
some undesirable features also.
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
 The reproductive parts are present in the
flower.
 The parts of the flower are sepals,
petals, stamens and carpels.
10 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

 Sepals are green structures that protect

the inner parts when the flower is in bud
stage.
 Petals are colourful and attract the
insects for pollination.
 Stamens are male reproductive parts
and produce pollen grains that contain
male gametes. Each stamen has two
parts—
 Filament i.e. stalk and Anther i.e. swollen
top part which has large number of
pollen grains.

The carpel is the female reproductive part

and produces ovules that contain female
gametes. It has three parts—Stigma which is
top sticky part and receives pollen grains
during pollination. Style which is the middle
long part and ovary which is the swollen
part and contains ovules. Each ovule has an
11 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

egg cell i.e. female gamete.

The flowers may be bisexual i.e. having both

stamens and carpels for example; Mustard
China Rose (Hibiscus).
The flower may be unisexual i.e. paving
either stamens or carpels for example;
Papaya, Watermelon.
Pollination: The process of transfer of
pollen grains from an anther to the stigma
of the flower is pollination. Two types of
pollination are:
(i) Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen
grains from the anther to the stigma of the
same flower or another flower of the same
plant.
(ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of
pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
of another flower or another flower of a
different plant of the same species. It
generally takes place with the help of some
12 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

agents like insects, birds, wind and water.

Fertilization: Fertilization is the process of

fusion of male and female gamete to form a
zygote during sexual reproduction.
Pollination is followed by fertilisation in
plants. The events are
Pollen grains land on the stigma of the
ovary.
Pollen tubes grow out of the pollen grains,
travel through the style and reach the ovary,
through micro pyle.
Pollen tube has two male germ cells. Each
ovule has two polar nuclei and a female
germ cell (egg).
Pollen tube releases two male germ cells
inside the ovule, one of them fuses with
female germ cell and forms a zygote which
grows into the baby plant i.e. embryo, the
fusion is known as syngamy. The other male
germ cell fuses with two polar nuclei, the
13 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

process is known as triple fusion. So in

flowering plants two fusions take place
during fertilisation. It is called double
fertilisation.

Post-fertilisation changes: After fertilisation

the following changes takes place in the
flower.
Zygote divides several times and forms an
embryo inside the ovule.
 The ovule develops a tough coat and
changes into the seed.
 The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to
form a fruit.
 Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma
shrivel and fall off.
14 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

Flower Diagram Class 10

Seed and its parts: The advantage of seed
is that it protects the future plant i.e.
embryo.
Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and
Embryo Cotyledons store food for the future
plant.
Embryo has two parts: plumule and
radicle. Plumule develops into shoot and
radicle develops into root.
The process of development of a seedling
from the embryo under appropriate
conditions is known as germination.

Reproduction in Human Being: Human

beings show sexual reproduction. Male
parent produces male gametes called
sperms. Female parent produces female
gametes called ova. Sperms have tail and
are therefore, motile. They are produced in
large numbers in the testes. Ovum is bigger,
15 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

non-motile and only one ovary produces one

ovum in one month. There is no food stored
in the sperms whereas ova contain stored
food. Both the gametes are microscopic
unicellular and have half the number of
chromosomes as compared to the body
cells.
Human beings become reproductively active
from the onset of puberty. Puberty is the
period during adolescence when the rate of
general body growth begins to slow down
and reproductive tissues begin to mature.
Onset of puberty in human males is
between 11 to 13 yrs of age, while in human
females is between 10 to 12 yrs. of age.
Puberty is associated with many physical,
mental, emotional and psychological
changes in boys and girls which occur slowly
over a period of time. These are called
secondary sexual characters. For instance
thick dark hair start growing in new parts of
the body such as arm pits and genital area
between the thighs. Thinner hair appear on
legs, arms and face. Skin becomes oily and
pimples may appear on the face. Individuals
become more conscious of their bodies
16 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

become more independent, more aggressive

etc.
In case of boys beard and mustache start
appearing, voice begins to crack,
reproductive organs develop and start
producing releasing sperms.
In case of girls, breast size begins to
increase, skin of the nipples darkens,
menstruation starts.
The act of mating between the male and
female partner is termed as copulation.
Male Reproductive System: Male
reproductive system consists of the
following components

 1 pair of testes
 A system of ducts
 Epididymis
 Vas deferens or the sperm duct
17 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

 Urethra
 A system of glands
 Seminal vesicles
 Prostrate gland
 Cowper’s gland
 A copulatory organ called a penis.
One pair of testes are present in a bag-like
structure called scrotum which lies outside
the abdominal cavity, hence they are extra
abdominal in position. This is so because the
testes have to be maintained at 1-3 degree
lesser temperature than the body in order to
produce functional sperms.
Functions of testes
 To produce male gametes i.e. the
sperms.
 To produce a male reproductive hormone
called testosterone which is responsible
for producing sperms as well as
secondary sexual characteristics in
males.
Attached to each testis is a highly coiled
tube called epididymis. The sperms are
stored here and they mature in the
18 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

epididymis.
Each epididymis leads into the sperm duct
or the vas-deferens. Each vas-deferens rises
up and enters into the abdominal cavity. It
unites with the duct coming from the urinary
bladder to form a common duct called
urethra which passes through the penis and
opens to the outside. Along the way the
ducts of the three glands also open and pour
their secretions into the vas deferens.
Function of the vas-deferens: It is meant
for the passage of the sperms in the male
body.
Functions of the glands: They produce
different secretions which provide nutrition
as well as medium for locomotion to the
sperms.
The secretions of the three glands along
with the sperms is known as semen.
Function of the urethra: It is the common
passage for both semen and urine from the
body to. the outside.
Penis: It is the organ which is used to
introduce semen into the female body. It is
richly supplied with blood vessels.
19 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

Female Reproductive System: It consists

of the following components

 1 pair of ovaries
 1 pair of fallopian tubes or oviducts
 A uterus/womb
 A vagina/birth canal.
Each ovary is almond shaped and present
inside the abdominal cavity. At the time of
birth each girl child already contains
thousands of immature ova. These ova start
maturing only from the time of puberty. Only
one ovum is produced by one ovary in one
month and each ovary releases an ovum in
alternate months. The release of an ovum
from the ovary into the abdominal cavity is
known as ovulation.
Functions of ovary
 To produce and release ova
 To produce female reproductive
hormones: estrogen and progesterone.
20 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

There are two fallopian tubes. The end lying

close to the ovary has finger like structures
called fimbriae. The two fallopian tubes
unite to form an elastic bag like structure
called uterus.
Function of the fallopian tubes: It is the
site of fertilization between the male and
the female gametes and formation of the
zygote early embryo.
The inner lining of the uterus is richly
supplied with blood vessels and is known as
endometrium. The narrow end of the uterus
is called cervix.
Function of the uterus: The embryo
formed in the fallopian tube comes down
and gets attached to the endometrium
(implantation) and develops for the next
nine months till the baby is delivered.
Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina
through the cervix. The vagina is a muscular
tube through which the baby is delivered at
the end of nine months. It also serves as the
canal for receiving the semen at the time of
copulation.
The semen is discharged into the vaginal
tract during copulation. The sperms travel
21 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

upwards and reach the fallopian tube where

one sperm fuses with the ovum to form the
zygote. The zygote divides and redivides as
it descends into the uterus and the embryo
gets implanted in the endometrium. The
endometrium thickens so as to receive the
embryo.
The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s
blood with the help of a special tissue called
placenta, which is a disk-like structure
embeded in the uterine wall. It contains
finger-like villi on the embryo side, while on
the mother’s side blood spaces surround the
villi. Villi provides a large surface area for
glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother
to the developing embryo and the wastes to
pass from the embryo to the mother through
the placenta. When the embryo starts
resembling a human is formed, it is termed
as a foetus. The foetus continues
to develop inside the uterus for almost nine
months after which the baby is delivered as
a result of rhythmic contractions of the
uterine muscles.
Menstruation: It is the loss of blood,
mucous along with the unfertilized ovum
and the ruptured cells and tissues of the
22 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

endometrium through the vagina of the

female. It is a 28-day cycle which occurs in
every reproductively active female (from
puberty). The flow of blood continues for 2
to 8 days. If the ovum does not get
fertilized, then the endometrium starts
sloughing off and there is loss of blood and
mucous etc. through the vagina. In case the
ovum gets fertilized, then the endometrium
becomes thick and spongy for nourishing
the embryo and hence menstruation does
not occur. A lady with a developing embryo
in her womb is termed as pregnant. The
beginning of menstruation at puberty is
known as menarche. The stopage of
menstruation when the woman is 45-55 yrs
of age is called menopause.
Reproductive Health: Sexually
transmitted diseases and birth control.
A number of diseases occur as a result of
sexual intercourse if one of the partners is
infected. These are known as sexually
transmitted diseases (STD’s). They can be
caused by bacteria for example; syphilis,
gonorrhoea; or caused by a virus for
example; HIV-AIDS, warts etc. The
transmission of these diseases can be
23 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

avoided by using birth control measures

such as wearing a condom during the sexual
act.
Birth control measures: They can be
mechanical, chemical and surgical.
Mechanical methods: These are used to
prevent the passage of semen to the
follopian tube :
(i) Use of condoms: Condoms are thin
rubber tubes worn over the penis before
sexual intercourse. The semen gets
collected in this and is not discharged into
the vagina.
(ii) Diaphragm: It is a thin rubber fixed over
a flexible metal ring which is fitted over the
cervix in a woman’s body by a doctor.
(iii) Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device
(IUCD) or loop: It is inserted in the uterus
and its insertion causes certain secretion
which prevents the implantation of the
embryo in the uterine wall.
24 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

Both methods (ii) and (iii) cause side effects.

Chemical methods
 Use of spermicides: These are strong
sperm-killing chemicals available in the
form of creams, jellies etc. which are
injected into the vagina just before
copulation.
 Oral contraceptive pills: These are
hormonal pills which prevent ovulation
but do not stop menstruation.
Surgical methods
 Vasectomy: It involves cutting and
ligating the vas deferens in males.
 Tubectomy: It involves cutting and
ligating Reproductive organs the
fallopian tubes in females.
25 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

 Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP)

or abortions is carried out to eliminate
the developing embryo. This practice
can, however, be misused to carry out
female foeticide which involves the
killing of the female foetus. It should be
avoided at all cost as it disturbs the
male-female ratio in a population.
Reproduction: It is the process by which
living organisms produce new individuals
similar to themselves.
 Reproduction ensured continuity of life
on earth.
 It is a bridge to hereditary transmission.
 It involves a continuation of characters
from the parents to daughter cells by
copying of DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic
Acid) molecules present in the
chromosomes of the cell.
 Copying of DNAs is also not a foolproof
exercise, even minute changes bring
about variation in the blue print of the
offsprings.
 The useful variations are retained while
the harmful ones do not go beyond.
26 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

 Actually, variations help the species to

withstand drastic environmental
changes, thus save the species from
becoming extinct and promotes its
survival for a longer time.
 This inbuilt tendency of variation is the
“basis” for Evolution.
Asexual Reproduction: It is extremely
useful as a means of rapid multiplication. It
is common in lower plants and animals.
Different forms of Asexual
Reproduction:
 Fission: The parent cell divides/splits
into two daughter cells —Binary fission
and splits into many cells —Multiple
fission.
 Budding: A new organism is produced
as an outgrowth of the parent body part.
 Spore Formation: Spores are small, the
bulb-like structure which develops at the
top of the erect hyphae of the fungus-
plant, when released into the air
germinate, into new individuals after
landing into food or soil.
27 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

 Fragmentation: It is the accidental

process when the broken pieces of an
organism (fragments) grows into a
complete organism. Example,
fragmentation in Spirogyra.
 Regeneration: When simple animals
like a hydra, planaria develop a new
individual from their broken older part it
is known as regeneration. It is carried
out by specialised cells which grow large
numbers of cells.
Vegetative Propagation: A mode of
reproduction in which parts like the stem,
root, leaves develop into new plants under
favourable conditions.
Benefits:
 Plants can bear flowers, fruits more
quickly than those produced from seeds.
 Growing banana, orange, rose, jasmine
that have lost the capacity to produce
seeds.
 The genetical similarity is maintained in
the plants. Example, sugarcane, rose,
grapes by layering or grafting.
28 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

Sexual Reproduction: When reproduction

takes place as a result of the fusion between
two gametes, one from each parent, it is
called sexual reproduction.
 This process of fusion between two
gametes is called fertilization.
 The formation of gametes involves an
exchange of chromosomal (genetic)
fragments between homologous
chromosomes causing genetic
recombination which leads to variation.
Sexual Reproduction in Plants: It occurs
mostly in flowering plants.’ In fact, flowers
are the reproductive organ of plants.
 Pollen grains of a flower transfer to the
stigma of the carpel of the same flower
(Self-Pollination) or to the carpel of
another flower (Cross-Pollination).
 This transfer of pollens is achieved by
agents like wind, water or animals. After
pollination, the pollen grains reach the
egg cell in the form of a pollen tube.
 Fertilization. The fusion between the
pollen grain and female egg cell. It
29 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

occurs inside the ovary. The zygote is

produced in this process.
 The zygote divides several times to form
an embryo within the ovule. The ovule
develops a rough coat and is converted
into a seed.
 Ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form
fruit, while the seed contains the future
plant or embryo which develops into a
seedling under suitable conditions. This
process is known as Germination.
Reproduction in Human Beings:
 Humans use a sexual mode of
reproduction.
 It needs sexual maturation which
includes the creation of the germ cells,
i.e., egg (ova) in the female and sperm
in the male partner and this period of
sexual maturation is called Puberty.
 Human beings have a well-developed
male and female reproductive system.
 The formation of the male germ cell
(sperms) takes place in the testes (male
reproductive organ). Actually, a pair of
testes are located inside scrotum
30 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

situated outside the abdominal cavity. It

is meant to keep a relatively low
temperature needed for the production
of sperms by testes. Testes release a
male sex hormone called testosterone
whose function is to:
 regulate the production of sperms;
 brings about changes in appearance
seen in boys at the time of puberty;
and
 the sperms along with the secretion
of the prostate gland and seminal
vesicle, together constitute semen,
which is released and made to enter
into the female genital tract during
Copulation.
Female Reproduction System:
 The female germ cells or eggs are made
in the ovaries, a pair of which is located
in both sides of the abdomen.
 When a girl is bom, the ovaries already
contain thousands of immature eggs. At
the time of puberty, some of these eggs
start maturing. One egg is produced
every month by one of the ovaries.
31 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

 The egg is carried from the ovary to the

womb through a fallopian tube. These
two fallopian tubes unite into an elastic
bag like structure known as the uterus.
 The uterus opens into the vagina
through the cervix.
 Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube
of the female genital tract.
 The fertilized egg also called zygote gets
implanted in the lining of the uterus, and
starts dividing. The uterus is richly
supplied with blood to nourish the
growing embryo.
 If the zygote is not formed, the inner wall
of uterus breaks which causes bleeding
through vagina. This process is called
Menstruation. It occurs at a regular
interval of 28 days.
 The embryo gets nutrition from the
mother’s blood with the help of a special
tissue called Placenta.
 Placenta provides a large surface area
for glucose and oxygen to pass from the
mother to the embryo. Similarly the
wastes from developing embryo are
32 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

removed to mother’s blood through

placenta.
 The child is bom as a result of rhythmic
contractions of the muscles in the uterus
after nine months (36 weeks) of
development inside the mother’s womb,
called Gestation Period.
 The sexual cycle in a woman continues
upto the age of 45 to 50 years. After that
the ovaries do not release eggs. This
stage is called Menopause. It also marks
the end of menstruation in the woman.
Reproductive Health: Reproductive health
means total well-being in all aspects of
reproduction, z.e., physical, emotional,
social and behavioural.
Contraception: It is the avoidance of
pregnancy through different methods—
Natural methods, Barrier method, Oral
contraceptives, Surgical methods.
Advantages of contraception: Help in
birth control, prevent sexually transmitted
diseases, prevent unwanted pregnancies,
keep population explosion in check.
33 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

1. Reproduction is the process by which a

living organism is able to produce new
individuals of its own kind. Unlike other life
processes such as nutrition, respiration, etc.,
it is not essential to, maintain the life of an
individual organism. But it is important for
the existence and continuity of the species.
2. Reproduction involves the creation of
DNA copy and additional cellular apparatus
by the cell involved in the process.
3. The process of DNA copying leads to
variations. This inbuilt tendency for
variations during reproduction is the basis
for evolution.
NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science
Chapter 8
4. Living organisms’ reproduce mainly
through :
 Asexual reproduction
 Sexual reproduction
5. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
(a) Single ceiled organisms reproduce
through following ways:
34 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

(ii) Budding (also by multicellular organisms)

(iii) Spore formation (also by multicellular
organisms)
(b) Asexual reproduction by
multicellular organisms:
(i) Fragmentation and Regeneration

6. Fission: In unicellular organisms when

cell becomes fully mature, it splits into two
or more parts. It is called the fission. In
organisms such as Amoeba, splitting can
take place in any plane. But in organisms
like Leishmania, having whip like structure
at one end of the cell, binary fission occurs
in a definite orientation in relation to these
structures.
35 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

7. Regeneration : It is the ability to give

rise to new organism. When the individual is
cut or broken up into many pieces. It can be
seen in Hydra and Planaria and is known as
regeneration.
Regeneration is carried out by specialised
cells. These cells proliferate and rqgkeJarge
numbers of cells. From this mass of cells,
different cells undergo changes to become
various cell types and tissues. These
changes take place in an organised
sequence referred to as ” development.
However, regeneration is not the same as
reproduction, since most organisms would
36 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

not normally depend on being cut up to be

able to reproduce.

8. Budding: Organisms such as Hydra use

regenerative cells for reproduction in the
process of budding. In Hydra, a bud
develops as an outgrowth due to repeated
cell division at one specific site. These buds
develop into tiny individuals and when fully
mature, detach from the parent body and
37 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

become new independent individuals.

9. Spore Formation (Sporulation): Some

bacteria and lower organisms make spores.
During spore formation, knob like structure
called sporangium develops from the fungal
hypha. Sporangia contain spores that
eventually develop into new individual. The
spores are covered by thick walls that
protect them until they come in contact with
moist surface or substratum and can begin
to grow.
38 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

10. Fragmentation : It can be seen in

Spirogyra. During this process filament of
spirogyra simply breaks up into smaller
pieces upon maturation. These pieces or
fragments grow into new individuals. This
process occurs under favourable conditions
of moisture, temperature, light and nutrient
availability.
11. Vegetative propagation: It is the
simplest method of reproduction in some
higher plants in which new plant is produced
from any vegetative part of the plant such
as root, stem, leaf, etc.
Advantages of vegetative
propagation : Vegetative propagation is
useful for plants those have lost the
capacity to produce seeds, e.g. banana,
rose, jasmine. Moreover, all plants produced
are genetically similar to the parent plant.
Natural Vegetative Propagation: In
some plants like guava, sweet potato,
dahlia, roots sprout and grow into new
plants during favourable conditions. In some
other,stems grow horizontally and develop
root below and leaves above the ground.
Many other common examples of
vegetatively propagating plants are onion,
39 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

banana, garlic, ginger, turmeric,

bryophyllum and water hyacinth.
12. Vegetative propagation in
Bryophyllum: Bryophyllum reproduces by
the vegetative propagation method. During
this method, buds produced in the notches
along the leaf margin of bryophyllum fall on
the soil and develop into new plants.

13. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION :

Sexual reproduction involves two individuals
for producing a new individual. Sexual
reproduction begins with fertilization, which
is defined as the union of two different
gametes. The motile germ-cell fptrUeh or
sperm) is called the male gamete and germ-
cell containing stored food (egg or ovum) is
called the female gamete. The process of
fusion of two gametes is called fertilization.
After fertilization, a zygote is formed , which
develops into a new organism.
40 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

14. Sexual reproduction in Plants : The

flowering plants or angiosperms bear special
reproductive parts located in the flower.
Various parts of flower are; sepals, petals,
stamens and carpels.
Most flowers have both male and female
reproductive organs. The flower may be
unisexual (papaya, watermelon) when it
contains either stamen or carpel or bisexual
(Hibiscus, Mustard) when it contains both
stamens and carpels. It has male
reproductive part cal led stamen and a
female reproductive part called carpel.
Carpel is made of three parts. The swollen
bottom part is the ovary, middle elongated
part is the style and the terminal part which
may be sticky is the stigma.
The ovary contains ovules and each ovule
has an egg cell. Each stamen consists of
41 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

stalk called filament, and a flattened fertile

top called anther. The anthers produce the
pollen grains. The pollen grains produce
male gametes which fuse with (egg cel I)
female gamete present in the ovule. This
fusion of the germ-cells or fertilization gives
zygote which grows into a new plant.
Pollination: It is the process of transfer of
pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
of flower. If this transfer of pollen occurs in
the same flower, it is referred to as self-
pollination, whereas if the pollen is
transferred from one flower to another, it is
known as cross-pollination. This transfer is
carried out by different agencies like wind,
water, insects or animals.
Fertilization: A tube grows out of pollen
grain and travels through the style to reach
the female germ-cells present in ovule in the
ovary. Out of two male gametes present in
pollen tube one fuses with egg to form
zygote. This fusion is called fertilization.
After fertilization, the zygote divides several
times to form an embryo within the ovule.
The ovule develops a tough coat and
gradually turns into a seed. The ovary grows
rapidly and ripens to form a fruit. Meanwhile
42 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

the petals, sepals, stamens, style and

stigma may shrivel and fall off.
15. Reproduction in human beings : The
reproductive organs of human beings are
called gonads. These are testes in male and
ovaries in female. The male gonad produces
sperms and female gonad produces ova
(eggs) at the age of puberty (after
attainment of sexual maturity). Various
changes occur in girls and boys at this age.
16. Male Reproductive System consists
of the following organs:
Testes: A pair of testes are situated in
scrotum that lie outside the abdominal
cavity and behind the penis. Testes produce
sperms and hormone, Testosterone
hormone. Testosterone brings about
changes in appearance of boys at the time
of puberty.
43 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

VAS deferens: From each testis, a duct

arises which is known as vas deferens which
unites with a tube coming from urinary
bladder. It brings sperms from testis.
Urethra: Vas deferens tube opens into a
common tube called urethra. It runs through
a muscular organ called Penis. Penis is male
copulatory organ.
Accessory Glands: Glands like prostate
and seminal vesicles and Cowper’s gland
add their secretions which make transport of
44 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

sperms easier and this fluid also provides

nutrition.
17. Female Reproductive System: It
consists of the following organs:

Ovaries: Paired ovaries are located in the

abdominal cavity near the kidney. Ovaries
produce female gamete (ovum or egg) and
secrete female hormones (estrogen and
progesterone). One egg is produced every
month alternately by one of the ovaries.
Fallopian Tube: The egg is carried from the
ovary to womb/uterus through a thin oviduct
or fallopian tube.
Uterus: The two oviducts unite into an
elastic bag like structure known as the
uterus.
45 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

Vagina: Uterus opens into the vagina. It is a

female copulatory organ.
18. Sexual Cycle in female: After puberty,
only one egg is produced alternately from
one ovary after a period of 28 days. Egg in
fallopian tube encounter sperms which enter
through the vaginal passage during sexual
intercourse. This fertilized egg (zygote) gets
implanted in the lining of uterus which later
forms embryo. Embryo gets nutrition from
the mother’s blood with the help of special
tissue called placenta.
If the egg is not fertilized, if lives for about
one day since the ovary releases one egg
every month, the uterus prepares itself
every month to receive the fertilized egg.
Thus, its lining becomes thick and spongy. If
it does not get zygote, the developed lining
slowly breaks down and comes out through
the vagina as blood and mucus. This cycle
takes place roughly every month and is
known as menstruation. It usually lasts for
about 2-5 days.
19. Reproductive Flealth: Reproductive
organs need a lot of care and hygiene.
Otherwise, they are susceptible to many
46 D.Andrew Pearson |Science |Class X

infections or diseases. The diseases which

spread through sexual routes are known as
sexually transmitted diseases e.g., bacterial
infections like syphilis, gonorrhoea and viral
infections such as warts and HIV- AIDS. A
condom helps to prevent transmission of
many of these infections to some extent.
Frequent pregnancy causes many health
problems and also adds to an already
exploding population. Many ways have been
devised to avoid pregnancy. Contraception
can be achieved by:
 Mechanical barrier method (use of
condoms).
 Chemical methods (use of pills).
 Use of contraceptive devices (copper-T).
 Surgical methods (vasectomy in males
and tubectomy in females)