Constructivism was introduced to IR by Nicholas Onuf (1989) who coined the term.

Alexander Wendt: Often credited as the leading constructivist scholar, Wendt argued in his famous article
"Anarchy is What States Make of It" that state behavior under anarchy depends on inter-state interactions
and identities.

constructivism provides a valuable perspective by emphasizing that international relations are fundamentally
shaped by ideas, identities, and social interactions rather than merely by power or economic calculations.

Sociologists Émile Durkheim and Max Weber highlighted the importance of ideas, beliefs, and values
(referred to as ideational factors) in shaping society and behaviour. when such ideational structures persist
and become institutionalized or routinized over time, they influence behavior patterns that can be studied
empirically.

The constructivist theory of international relations (IR) focuses on how ideas, beliefs, identities, and norms
shape the behaviour of states and the structure of international politics. For neorealists, identities and
interests are given; states know who they are and what they want before they begin interaction with other
states. Constructivism argues that international relations are socially constructed rather than inherently
determined by fixed power dynamics or objective structures. In the processes of interaction, the identities
and interests of states are created. The international system is a human invention or creation not of a physical
or material kind but of a purely intellectual and ideational kind. It is a set of ideas, a body of thought, a system
of norms, which has been arranged by certain people at a particular time and place. Much IR theory, and
especially neorealism, is materialist; it focuses on how the distribution of material power, such as military
forces and economic capabilities, defines balances of power between states and explains the behaviour of
states. Constructivists reject such a one-sided material focus. They argue that the most important aspect of
international relations is social, not material.

Constructivism allows for the possibility of change in international relations. Since identities and social norms
are not fixed, they can evolve over time. This flexibility enables constructivists to explain how and why states
may shift their security strategies, alliances, or perceptions in response to changing social contexts.

Immanuel Kant’s ideas, especially his work on phenomenology, have a big influence on constructivist
thought. Phenomenology is the study of how human consciousness affects what we see and understand. It
means that our observations are shaped by our own awareness and perspectives. In constructivism, this
idea applies to states as well: how they view and interpret international events depends on shared ideas and
subjective experiences, not just on objective facts.

Nicholas Onuf - people make society and society makes people

Mutual Constitution of Agent

and Structure

Constructivism posits constructivism

that the international emphasizes how
system is not a given but ideas, identities, and
rather constructed beliefs drive state
behaviour.
through social processes. constructivism

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World as a Project Under Construction: Constructivism sees the international system as constantly evolving,
a "case of becoming" rather than something static or fixed ("being"). This means that global politics is shaped
and reshaped by ongoing interactions, changing identities, and evolving norms. In constructivism, nothing is
permanent; the international order is always "under construction" as new ideas, norms, and relationships
emerge.

People and states don’t exist in isolation; they are "social beings" influenced by the norms, values, and
expectations around them. This social environment helps shape their identities and influences how they see
others.

NORMS
Norms in constructivism are like unwritten rules or expectations that guide how countries should behave.
They represent shared beliefs about what actions are right or wrong in international relations.

Constructivists argue that norms—shared expectations about appropriate behaviour—are crucial in shaping
international behaviour. Norms evolve over time and influence what states consider acceptable or taboo.

ANARCHY
Constructivists argue that this structure is culturally or ideationally defined, anarchy’s character is constructed
by the attitudes, identities, and relationships that states build over time. Constructivists argue that anarchy
is a social construct—meaning its effects depend on how states perceive and act within it. Unlike realists
who see anarchy as inherently conflictual, constructivists view anarchy as what states make of it. How states
perceive and react to anarchy depends on their shared identities and interactions.

For example, if states view each other as rivals, anarchy may lead to competition and mistrust. However, if
they view each other as partners or allies, anarchy can foster cooperation and peaceful coexistence.
According to constructivists, anarchy simply means the absence of a central authority above states, but it
does not inherently dictate behavior. Instead, states’ interactions and shared understandings shape what
anarchy "means."

IDENTITY AND INTERESTS

In constructivist theory, Identity and Interests are closely linked, with the idea that a state’s identity—its self-
conception shaped by history, culture, and values—directly influences its interests and goals in international
relations. Unlike realism, which assumes that all states have fixed interests (like survival and power),
constructivism posits that interests are formed based on a state’s unique identity.

States’ identities (such as democratic or authoritarian) shape their interests. States’ identities (such as
democratic or authoritarian) shape their interests. Constructivists believe interests are not inherent but
developed through historical interactions and socialization with other states.

For instance, a state that identifies as a leader in human rights may prioritize humanitarian aid, while a state
with a strong military identity might prioritize security and defense. Therefore, interests are not

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predetermined; they evolve as identities and social contexts shift, making identity central to understanding a
state’s behavior and objectives on the global stage.

Constructivism explains why states change behaviors and alliances over time, attributing these shifts to
evolving identities, changing norms, and new ideas (e.g., decolonization, human rights evolution).

Value-Rational Behaviour in constructivism refers to actions motivated by values, principles, or norms,

rather than purely by material or self-interested goals. Unlike instrumental or utility-based rationality (where
actors weigh costs and benefits to maximize their interests), value-rational behavior is driven by a
commitment to what actors perceive as morally right, culturally appropriate, or normatively meaningful.

POWER AS IDEATIONAL
In constructivism, Power as Ideational means that power extends beyond mere material resources (like
military and economic strength) and includes the influence of ideas, beliefs, and norms. This "ideational
power" is the ability to shape perceptions, values, and norms in a way that influences the actions and
preferences of others.

Scientific Method and Explanation in IR: Constructivists do not dismiss the scientific method. They
acknowledge the importance of empirical analysis but also stress that understanding IR requires more than
just scientific explanation; it involves interpreting social contexts, beliefs, and ideas.

Criticisms of Constructivism

• Since norms and identities are abstract and complex to measure, constructivism lacks a concrete
method for predicting outcomes.

• Realists argue that constructivism undervalues the impact of military and economic power, suggesting
it may overlook how material factors directly influence behaviour.

• Some critics argue that it’s hard to show a direct link between norms, identity, and what states
actually do. This is because ideas and beliefs are intangible, making it difficult to measure their exact
impact on state actions.

ideas, Actions,

beliefs, norms
identities, behaviour

• In constructivist theory, interactions are fundamental to understanding international relations (IR)

because they shape the identities, interests, and behaviours of states. Unlike realism or liberalism,

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 which often treat state interests as pre-defined and static, constructivism sees these elements as fluid,
evolving through social interactions and exchanges between states and other international actors.

1. Formation of Identities and Interests: Through repeated interactions, states develop certain roles,
identities, and preferences. For instance, states do not automatically view each other as allies or adversaries;
these roles are formed over time based on patterns of interaction. A country that consistently cooperates
with others on security issues, for example, may develop an identity as a "protector" or a "peace-promoter,"
which in turn shapes its future actions and policies.

2. Establishment of Norms and Expectations: Interactions contribute to the creation and reinforcement of
norms, which are shared understandings of acceptable behaviour. These norms, such as respect for human
rights or non-aggression, become guiding principles in IR. When states act in line with these norms, they
reinforce them, making it more likely that other states will follow suit. Interactions, therefore, help build a
collective "social structure" that influences behaviour across the international system.

3. Intersubjectivity and Shared Meanings: Constructivism emphasizes intersubjective understanding—the

shared meanings that arise from interactions between states. These shared understandings create common
ground for cooperation or conflict resolution. For instance, a shared belief in the importance of nuclear non-
proliferation has led to international treaties and cooperative efforts to prevent the spread of nuclear
weapons.

Knowledge and Subjectivity: Constructivists think that what we know is shaped by our personal perspectives
and ways of thinking. This means that our knowledge isn’t purely objective; it’s influenced by how we see the
world. This subjective view affects not only how we understand nature but also how we see social
relationships, politics, and global issues. So, knowledge isn’t just found; it’s shaped by our own experiences
and beliefs.

Constructivists see the security dilemma (where states feel threatened by others’ actions, leading to an
arms race) as a social structure based on mutual beliefs and understandings. This means that states tend
to assume the worst about others' intentions, but these assumptions are shaped by intersubjective
(shared) beliefs, not just by concrete threats or material factors.

MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING OF SOVEREIGNTY

"Mutual understanding of sovereignty" means that states generally agree on certain basic principles about
their own power and autonomy. For example, each state is seen as having the right to control its own affairs
within its borders (domestic sovereignty) and to conduct its foreign relations independently (international
sovereignty).

This understanding is reinforced through diplomatic practices—the established ways in which states interact
with each other, such as through embassies, treaties, and official meetings. These diplomatic practices help
reinforce the idea that each state respects the sovereignty of others, creating an intersubjective agreement
(shared understanding) among states.