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APPROACHES AND PRACTICES IN IPM/PM

CHAPTER 1

Lesson 1: Review on the Principles of Crop Protection/The Concept of IPM

Lesson 1A: The Current Concept of IPM
- Goals and Scope
- Management Strategies
- Management Rules
- Management Tactics

Lesson 1B: Historical Trends of IPM

- Pre-IPM Era
- Emergence of the early concepts
- The Economic Threshold-level (ETL-Based IPM)
- The Package of the Technology of IPM
- Emerging IPM Concept

Primer:

In this lesson the students will be enlighten about the concept of IPM, the
goals, strategies, tactics, and also they will become knowledgeable about the
history of IPM.

Objectives:

At the end of the session, the students should be able to:

 explain the basic information’s of crop protection applied in crop husbandry;
 pronounce the goals and scope of IPM;
 enumerate and elaborate the management strategies and rules of IPM; and
 appreciate the economic threshold level as guide in pest management

Lesson 1A: The Current Concept of IPM

What is IPM?
Integrated Pest Management is a decision support system for the selection and
use of pest control tactics singly or harmoniously coordinated into a
management strategy, based on the cost-benefit analyses that take into account
he interests of and impacts on producers, society, and the environment.

It is also an anthropocentric and is defined differently by diverse segments of

the human population

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APPROACHES AND PRACTICES IN IPM/PM

What is the Concept of IPM?

SOCIETY
- Laws and regulations
for pest and technology
- Market preferences
(Customer)

Ecosystem Economics
- Pest resistance
- Weather
IPM - Pest losses
- Pollution - Control costs
ipm
- Crop value
- Diversity - Consumers costs
- Pest Interaction

Control Technology
- Cultural/mechanical
- Biological
- Genetics and plant
breeding
- Pesticides

PEST
- Identification
- Biology
- Ecology
- Population dynamics
- Population assessment

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What is the goal and scopes of IPM?

Goals:
1. The IPM program must maintain economic reliability in managing pests
2. IPM practices should reduce the risk of crop loss. Any practice that leads to
increased risk will probably not be employed.
3. Due to the importance of pest resistance to pest management tactics,
particularly with pesticides, an IPM must be designed to minimize selection
pressure on pests to maintain the utility of the tactics in the future
4. An IPM program must strive to maintain environmental quality, and must
avoid use of the tactics.

Management Strategy

A plan for the successful action based on the objectives of the crop
production system, and on the biology and ecology of pests.
The five principal strategies used in managing pests:

Prevention

intended to prevent the arrival or establishment of pests
in areas currently not infested

the area involved maybe large geographic region such
as continent, or s small area such a field.

a strategy that may involve several tactics, prevention
can also be a tactic used to achieve control of a specific
pest.
Temporary 
use on an emergency basis to provide temporary
alleviation limitation of localized pest outbreaks

the scale is smaller than a field
Management 
within the field in spatial scale on continuing basis
within-field because the pest is well established in an area, is a
population recurring problem, and has progressed beyond the
point of where temporary alleviation provides adequate
control.

this is the most standard strategy of the most current
IPM program
Area-wide pest 
requires the cooperation of the people residing in a
management community
Eradication 
elimination of the entire pest from the area
 IPM Tactics

The fundamental approaches in managing pest populations:

Manipulation of the This is the tactics that either directly influences the pest
pest organisms organism or alter its behavior so that it no longer cause
unacceptable losses.
Manipulation of the These tactics used either increase crop tolerance to the pest
host plants attack or change the crop so the pests no longer affect it.
It affects the consumer pest population indirectly through its
foods.
Manipulation of the This tactic alter the environment such that the pest populations
environment do not increase to damaging levels, environment is made less
suitable for the pest, more suitable for the host, or more
favorable to natural enemies of the pest.

Manipulation of the pest organisms

Three Approaches:

 Prevention It is the key component in IPM programs and the, the pest
movement into an area can be avoided by enactment of laws
at the regional and national level to prevent the spread of
particular pest, but pest prevention can be also practiced at
the farm level without necessarily requiring the application of
the legislative rules and regulations.
 Pesticides Chemicals that have direct toxic influence on the pest; most
are lethal to the target pests.
 Non-pesticidal 3.1 Biological Control
Tactic - uses one organism to control another organism
3.2 Behavioral Control
- modification of pest behavior in order not to create
unacceptable damage to crop.
3.3 Physical Control
- applied with physical action such as pulling, cutting,
squashing, application of heat or cold, etc and this
is sometimes referred to as cultural management
but this is referring to with direct effect to the pest.
Manipulation of the host plants

Cultural Tactics - involves the modification of practices that are used to grow
the crop, to either decrease pest success or increase the
crop capacity to tolerate the pest.
Host-Plant - involves the changing of the genotype of the plants to
Resistance enable withstand damage or deter pest organism
reproduction through genetic manipulation/alteration of
plant characteristics.

Lesson 1B: Historical Trends of IPM

Heinrich Anton deBarry

 He is the father of plant pathology
 He studied diseases affecting plant

1900BC
 smut reduces yield of the edible grains used or making breads and cereals

Important Dates during the Ancient Times

4700 B.C.E

Chinese people domesticated the silkworm, an indication of understanding the basic
knowledge on how insects grow and reproduce

3000 B.C.E
 rats are the ever-present problems

“O, Ishwini, kill the burrowing rodents which devastate our food grains, cut their
heads, break their necks, plug their mouths so that they can never destroy our food.
Rid mankind of them” a quote from Indian Scripture
 mousetraps were already in the Turanian civilization

2500 B.C.E
 insecticidal properties of sulfur are discovered, and the element is used to control
insects and mites by the Sumerians

1000 B.C.E
 Egyptians and Chinese learn the use of botanical insecticide (nicotine and pyrethrin)
to protect stored grains.
Seventeenth Century: IMPORTANT DATES

 the beginning of scientific method and the invention of scientific equipment's

(microscope).

1640s
 Van Helmonth, start of the idea on photosynthesis

Mid 1600s
 Invention of compound microscope leads to the discovery of causal agents of many
diseases
 Barberry bush and incidence of rust disease, it was applied by the France people
the removal of barberry bush, this is the start of IPM

1665
 Robert Hooke observes the teliospores of rust fungus for the first time

1666
 Encyclopedias of natural history are published in Japan with information's about
insect biology and description of species

1683
 Van Leeuwenhoek discovers bacteria

1690
 Infusions of tobacco are discovered to be insecticidal.

Arsenic is used as an insecticide, toxicity problem were encountered but

people continuously use because of fear in hunger is more powerful than fear
of poisons.

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

1729
 Micheli noted the dust from a diseased melon causes the disease developed from
previously diseased-free melons

1743
 Needham first observes plant-parasitic nematodes in galled wheat kernels

1755
 Tillet noted the smut disease and he treated it with copper sulfate before
planting to reduce disease

NINETEENTH CENTURY
1807
 Millardet rediscovered the work of Tillet about the smut and that of he also
mentioned that copper can be applied as fungicide

1831
 First recorded of a plant resistant to an insect pest, the apple variety “Winter Majetin”
is a resistant to the wooly apple aphid in England.

1845-1846
 Late Blight of Potato devastated the potatoes in Ireland and other parts of Europe

1850-1860
 Berkeley observes root-knot nematode galls on the roots of greenhouse-
grown cucumbers, bulb nematodes on teasel, and cyst nematodes on sugar
beets

1953

DeBarry proves that fungi causes the rust disease in cereals rather than
results from disease

1861

DeBarry proves that the pathogen causing the blight disease of potatoes
was Phytophthora infestans

1875 and later years


techniques were developed to permit the microorganisms to be cultured this leads
the development of Koch’s Postulates

1878
 Downy mildew reaches France from America; the disease devastated the wine
industry in France.

1888
 Vedalia beetle were used to control cottony cushion scale of citrus

1890
 Pathogens were shown to be vectored, it was noted that insects could be a vector of
diseases

EARLY TWENTIENTH CENTURY

1900-1920
 farm equipment's were employed of which farmers can cultivate large areas
Early 1900s
 Inorganic chemicals such as copper sulfate, sodium chlorate, and iron sulfate, are
used to kill plants in railroad ballast (roads).

1905
 the first discovery that resistance to diseases is inherited (rust of wheat) lays the
foundation for plant breeding pest-resistant crops.

1911
 the first demonstration that there is hos-range variability among isolates of a
pathogen; the variability is the basis of defining races, pathovars, biotypes, or
strains.

1902

Legislative action is established in the United States with the development of
quarantine to prevent the introduction of foreign pests.

LATE TWENTIETH CENTURY

(1951 TO 2000)

1950s
 application of antibiotics for bacterial diseases control become widespread
 resistance to new classes of pesticides start to appear in insect populations
 chemical industries synthesize many new pesticides.

1953
 Watson and Crick describe the structure of DNA, year that sets the stage of
molecular biology with implications for plant breeding and genetic
engineering.

1959
 Karslon and Butenandt identify the first sex pheromone for silkworm moth;
Sex pheromones are the key elements of the reproductive behavior of many
insects which is successful this tactic is called BEHAVIORAL CONTROL.

1962

Rachel Carson writes the “Silent Spring” a book that brought the problems caused
by pesticides
Late 1960s
 Resistance to herbicide is first documented in a weed population, and a number of
weeds showing resistance increase rapidly

Note: Do research about the most detailed and comprehensive history of IPM

The Economic Threshold-level (ETL-Based IPM)

Crop Loss Reduction in yield caused by pests, compared with plants in

the same environment
Threshold The stimuli has reached a sufficient level to provoke a
response and use in relation to pest management
Economic Injury is a pest density at which the economic value lost to pest
Level (EIL) damage equals the cost of the desired tactic
Types of Threshold
Damage it is typically lower than the economic threshold, not related
Threshold/Statistical to economics
Economic is the pest density at which control action must be taken to
Threshold (ET) prevent the increase of pest population.
Nominal Threshold used by most of the farmers in the absence of numerical
threshold, Cousens (1987) called it as VISUAL
THRESHOLD
Comprehensive based on the assessment of the crop loss caused by
Threshold combined biotic and abiotic stresses (all pest categories).
Economic Optimum is a multiyear economic threshold which deals with weeds
Threshold and other propagules acting as seed banks.
No-seed Threshold Norris(1999) said that weeds should not permitted to
reproduce

The Package of the Technology of IPM

Note: Every commodity has its own packaged of technology

 Pest density refers to the number of pests present in a given area of a crop or environment. It is a crucial factor in
pest management because it helps determine the level of infestation and the potential threat to the crop. Understanding
pest density is essential for making informed decisions about when and how to implement control measures.

The economic threshold is a critical concept in integrated pest management (IPM) and agriculture. It refers to the
point at which the population density of a pest reaches a level where the potential economic damage to the crop justifies
the cost of taking action to control the pest. This threshold helps farmers and pest managers decide when it is
economically viable to apply control measures such as pesticides, biological controls, or cultural practices.

Economic Threshold (ET):

Definition: Also known as the action threshold, the ET is the pest density at which control measures should be
implemented to prevent the pest population from reaching the EIL. It is set below the EIL to allow time for the control
action to take effect.
Significance: The ET serves as a proactive measure to avoid reaching the EIL, ensuring timely interventions that
are economically justified.
Example: In cotton farming, an economic threshold might be set at 5-10 boll weevils per 100 plants. If
monitoring shows that the population density of boll weevils reaches or exceeds this level, farmers will apply insecticides
or other control measures to prevent economic losses.

The nominal threshold is a term used in pest management and other contexts to describe a predefined or fixed
level at which action is considered necessary, regardless of other factors. Unlike the economic threshold, which considers
the cost of control measures and the potential economic damage, a nominal threshold is often set based on experience,
general guidelines, or safety concerns rather than specific economic calculations.

Characteristics of Nominal Thresholds

Fixed Level: Nominal thresholds are established at a set level of pest density or activity that triggers control
measures. This level is often determined by historical data, regulatory standards, or expert recommendations.

Simplicity: Because nominal thresholds do not require complex calculations or economic analysis, they can be
easier to implement and communicate. They provide a straightforward guideline for when to act.

Broad Applicability: Nominal thresholds can be applied across different crops, pests, and regions, making them
a versatile tool in pest management strategies.

Conservative Approach: These thresholds often err on the side of caution, ensuring that control measures are
implemented before pest populations become problematic, even if the exact economic impact is not quantified.
Example: In a greenhouse, a nominal threshold might be set to treat plants when more than five aphids per leaf are
observed on average. This threshold is based on a general guideline for preventing the spread of aphids and maintaining
plant health, regardless of the specific economic impact.

Example: Comprehensive Threshold in Crop Management

Scenario
A farmer is managing a wheat crop that is susceptible to both biotic stress (such as fungal infections or insect pests) and
abiotic stress (like drought, extreme temperatures, or nutrient deficiencies). The comprehensive threshold is designed to
integrate these factors to optimize the use of pesticides, irrigation, and other interventions.

Biotic Factors Considered

Pest and Disease Pressure:

Pest Density: The number of pests per plant or area is monitored regularly. For example, a certain number of aphids per
square meter may trigger action.
Disease Incidence: The prevalence of fungal diseases such as rust or blight is assessed through field scouting.
Natural Predators and Parasites:
The presence of natural enemies of pests, such as ladybugs or parasitic wasps, is considered. High levels of natural
predators might reduce the need for chemical interventions.
Abiotic Factors Considered
Soil Moisture and Nutrient Levels:

Soil sensors measure moisture content and nutrient levels. If the soil moisture drops below a critical threshold during a
pest infestation, this might trigger combined irrigation and pest control measures.
Weather Conditions:

Weather forecasts are used to predict conditions that might exacerbate pest problems or disease spread, such as high
humidity or impending drought.
Temperature Extremes:

Thresholds are set for temperature fluctuations that could stress the plants and make them more susceptible to pests or
diseases.
Integrated Decision-Making
Threshold Levels: The farmer sets specific threshold levels for each factor, such as a minimum soil moisture content, a
maximum pest density, or a temperature range.
Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of both biotic and abiotic factors is conducted using sensors, traps, and field
scouting.
Action Plan: When the combined data indicate that both biotic and abiotic thresholds are met or exceeded, the farmer
implements a comprehensive action plan that might include targeted pesticide application, strategic irrigation, or nutrient
supplementation.
Benefits
Resource Optimization: By integrating multiple factors, the farmer can optimize the use of water, pesticides, and
fertilizers, reducing waste and environmental impact.
Enhanced Crop Resilience: This approach helps in building crop resilience against multiple stressors, ensuring better
yield and quality.
Economic Efficiency: The comprehensive threshold helps in making economically sound decisions by preventing
unnecessary interventions and focusing on critical needs.
This example demonstrates how a comprehensive threshold can effectively manage both biotic and abiotic stresses in a
crop production system, leading to sustainable and efficient agricultural practices.

An economic optimum threshold in pest management or crop production represents the point at which the marginal cost
of pest control measures equals the marginal benefit in terms of increased crop yield or quality. It aims to maximize the
economic returns by balancing the costs of intervention with the potential losses due to pest damage. Here’s an example
of how an economic optimum threshold can be applied:

Example: Economic Optimum Threshold in Soybean Production

Scenario
A soybean farmer is dealing with an infestation of soybean aphids, which are known to cause significant yield losses if
left unmanaged. The farmer needs to determine the optimal point at which to apply insecticides to control the aphid
population, ensuring that the costs of the insecticide application do not exceed the benefits of preventing crop damage.
Factors Considered
Pest Density:

The farmer monitors the aphid population using a combination of visual scouting and sticky traps. The aphid density is
measured as the number of aphids per plant.
Cost of Control:

The cost of insecticide application, including the price of the insecticide, labor, and equipment use, is calculated. For
example, the total cost might be $20 per acre.
Yield Loss Estimation:

Based on historical data and agronomic studies, the farmer estimates the potential yield loss per aphid per plant. For
instance, each aphid might cause a yield loss of 0.5 bushels per acre if not controlled.
Soybean Market Price:

The current market price of soybeans is considered. For instance, the price might be $10 per bushel.
Calculating the Economic Optimum Threshold
Economic Loss Calculation: The potential economic loss per acre is calculated based on aphid density, yield loss per
aphid, and soybean price. For example, if the aphid density reaches 100 aphids per plant, the potential yield loss is 50
bushels per acre, equating to an economic loss of $500 per acre.

Comparison with Control Cost: The cost of applying insecticide is compared with the potential economic loss. If the cost
of control is $20 per acre, the economic benefit of applying the insecticide is significant ($500 - $20 = $480).

Threshold Determination: The economic optimum threshold is determined by finding the aphid density level at which the
cost of control is just balanced by the avoided yield loss. In this example, if the aphid density reaches 5 aphids per plant,
the potential yield loss is 2.5 bushels per acre, resulting in an economic loss of $25 per acre, which is just above the
control cost.

Action
When monitoring shows that the aphid population reaches the economic optimum threshold of 5 aphids per plant, the
farmer decides to apply the insecticide. This ensures that the intervention is economically justified and optimizes the
return on investment.
Benefits
Cost-Effective Pest Management: By applying control measures only when they are economically justified, the farmer
maximizes profits and minimizes unnecessary expenses.
Sustainability: This approach reduces the overuse of pesticides, promoting sustainable agricultural practices and
minimizing environmental impact.
Data-Driven Decisions: The use of economic thresholds encourages the use of data and economic analysis in decision-
making, leading to more informed and strategic pest management.
This example illustrates how an economic optimum threshold can be effectively used in crop production to ensure that
pest control measures are both economically and environmentally sound.
he term "no seed threshold" typically refers to a situation in pest management where the presence of seeds is used as a
benchmark for initiating control measures. This concept is often applied in the context of seed-borne diseases or pests that
affect seed quality or germination. The threshold represents the level at which action should be taken to prevent seed-
related issues that could impact crop production.

Example: No Seed Threshold in Seed-Borne Disease Management

Scenario
A farmer is managing a wheat crop and is concerned about a seed-borne fungal disease, such as Fusarium head blight.
The disease can affect seed quality, leading to poor germination and reduced crop yield. The farmer needs to determine
when to implement control measures to prevent the spread of the disease through contaminated seeds.

Factors Considered
Seed Sampling and Testing:

The farmer collects samples of seeds from different batches and tests them for the presence of the Fusarium fungus. The
testing results indicate the percentage of seeds infected with the disease.
Threshold Level:

Based on research and agronomic guidelines, a no seed threshold is established. For example, if more than 5% of the
seeds are found to be infected with Fusarium, it is considered a critical level that warrants action.
Control Measures:

Seed Treatment: If the percentage of infected seeds exceeds the no seed threshold, the farmer applies a fungicidal
treatment to the seeds to reduce the fungal load and prevent further spread.
Seed Replacement: In cases where the infection level is very high, the farmer might choose to replace the contaminated
seeds with certified disease-free seeds.
Implementation
Monitoring: The farmer regularly monitors seed samples for infection levels.
Threshold Application: When the percentage of infected seeds reaches or exceeds the 5% threshold, the farmer takes
appropriate action, such as treating the seeds or replacing them to ensure healthy crop establishment.
Benefits
Prevention of Disease Spread: By adhering to the no seed threshold, the farmer prevents the spread of seed-borne
diseases, protecting crop health and ensuring better germination rates.
Improved Crop Yield: Healthy seeds lead to better plant establishment and higher yields, enhancing overall farm
productivity.
Cost-Effective Management: By setting a specific threshold, the farmer can target interventions more precisely, avoiding
unnecessary treatments and managing costs effectively.
Summary
The no seed threshold is a practical approach for managing seed-borne diseases or pests by setting a specific level of seed
infection or contamination at which control measures are triggered. This approach helps ensure that seed quality is
maintained, preventing potential losses in crop yield and quality.