CHAPTER 2:

CELLS
BIO091
Semester I
2024/2025

1
SUBTOPICS
2.1 : Cell Theory

2.2 : Differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

2.3 : Structure and function of organelles

2.4 : Specialised animal tissues

2.5 : Specialised plant tissues

2
 LEARNING OUTCOME
LEARNING OUTCOMES

2.1 State the cell theory.

2.2 Compare and contrast the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

2.3 Describe the structure and function of organelles.

2.4 Describe the structure, functions and distributions of specialized animal

tissues.

2.5 Describe the structure, functions and distributions of specialized plant

tissues.
 INTRODUCTION
• All organisms are made of cells.

• The basic structural and functional units of every organism.

• Basic features of all cells:

i. Plasma membrane (selective barrier)

ii. Cytosol (semifluid/ jellylike substance)

iii. Chromosomes (carry genes/ DNA)

iv. Ribosomes (protein factories)

 2.1 CELL THEORY

Two concepts of cell theory:

i. Cells are the basic living units of organization and function in

all organisms.

i. All cells come from other cells.

 CELLS /
ORGANISMS

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Unicellular Multicellular

Plant cells Animal cells

 2. CELLS
2.2 PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
Two types of organisms:

A) PROKARYOTES

• Pro–before ; karyotes – nucleus

• Organisms of domains Bacteria and
Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells
(single cell microorganisms)

Characteristics of prokaryotes cells:

• No nucleus
• DNA is located in the nucleoid region
• Lack of membrane-bound organelles
• Smaller than eukaryotic cells,
0.1- 0.5μm
Types of bacteria based on shapes

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B) EUKARYOTES

• Eu – true ; karyotes – nucleus

• Example or eukaryotic: plants, animals, fungi, amoeba, protozoa.

Characteristics of eukaryotic cells:

• DNA in a nucleus, surrounded by a nuclear membrane.

• Organelles surrounded by membrane. Example:

i. single membrane-bound organelle: vacuole
ii. double membrane-bound organelle: chloroplast

• Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and nucleus.

• Larger than prokaryotic cells, 10-100μm.

Examples of Eukaryotes
 Comparisons Between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

- Ribosomes (site of protein synthesis) - Ribosome (site of protein synthesis)

- Smaller - Larger
- Free in the cytoplasm - Some are free in the cytoplasm
- Some are bound to nuclear envelope or
organelle like endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
- Cell division generally by binary fission (a - Cell division involves mitosis (involves somatic
type of asexual reproduction due to lacking cells) & or meiosis (involves gametes cells).
nuclei).
- Cell walls consist of peptidoglycan. - Plants & algae cell walls consist of cellulose; fungi
contain chitin.
- Have mesosomes (in bacteria) & plasma - No mesosomes.
membrane (cyanobacteria) - Mitochondria
- Site for cellular respiration - Site for cellular respiration
- Produce ATP. - Produce ATP.

- No chloroplast; - Have chloroplast

- Only photosynthetic lamellae present in - Present in plant cells & algae.
cyanobacteria.
12
2.2 PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES

B) EUKARYOTES
Two categories :

i) Unicellular eukaryote
• Microscopic
• Example: protist (protozoa), some algae and fungi
• Nucleus and other organelles surrounded by membrane
ii) Multicellular eukaryote: Plant cell
ii) Multicellular eukaryote: Animal cell
 Differences Between Animal Cells & Plant Cells

Animal Cell Plant Cell

No cellulose cell wall. Have cellulose cell wall.
only have plasma membrane (cell surface Have plasma membrane (cell surface
membrane) membrane)

No plasmodesmata & pits. Plasmodesmata & pits present in cell wall.

No chloroplasts. Chloroplasts present in photosynthetic cells.

Small, temporary vacuoles. Large permanent central vacuole filled with

cell sap.

No tonoplast. Tonoplast around vacuole.

 Animal Cell Plant Cell
Nucleus often central. Nucleus & cytoplasm usually peripheral.
Cytoplasm throughout the cell.

Contain glycogen granules for carbohydrate Contain starch granules for carbohydrate
storage. storage.

Smaller than plant cells. Often larger than animal cells.

Some cells have cilia & flagella No cilia & flagella.

example: Ciliated epithelium of trachea,
oviducts, sperms.

Lysosomes present. Lysosomes usually absent except

insectivorous plants.
 3. ORGANELLES
2.3 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ORGANELLES

TYPES OF ORGANELLES /STRUCTURES

BASED ON FUNCTION

Manufacturing Oxidative Network of Extracellular Energy

and/or Organelle fibers structures converting
breakdown structures organelles
organelles Peroxisome (cytoskeleton)
Cell wall
Ribosome Endomembrane Mitochondria
Nucleus system Microtubules
Extracellular
Nuclear Endoplasmic matrix Chloroplast
envelope reticulum Microfilaments

Golgi Intermediate Intercellular

Lysosome junctions
Apparatus filaments

Vesicles & Plasma

Vacuoles membrane
NUCLEUS

• Most of the cell’s DNA is located in the

nucleus.
⮚ Some DNA in mitochondria and
chloroplast.

• Usually spherical or oval.

• Typically located in the central region

of the cell.
• Nuclear envelope/membrane 3. ORGANELLES
– Encloses the nucleus,
separating it from the
cytoplasm.
– Double membrane; each
consists of phospholipid bilayer.
– Perforated by pores.

• Nuclear pore • Nuclear lamina

– Surrounded by a protein
– Array of protein filaments /
structure called pore complex. intermediate filaments.
– Regulates the entry and exit
– Lines the inner surface of the
of macromolecules.
nuclear envelope.
– Helps maintain the shape of the
nucleus.
 • Nuclear matrix
– Network of protein fibers found
throughout the nuclear interior.
– Both nuclear lamina and
matrix organize genetic
material in the nucleus.

• Chromosomes
• Nucleolus (plu. Nucleoli) – Contain DNA molecule.
– Each chromosome is a single DNA
– Not enclosed by a membrane.
molecule with many globular proteins called
– Site for ribosomal RNA (rRNA) histones.
synthesis, from instruction in – DNA coiled around the proteins forming
the DNA. chromatin.
– Chromatin condenses forming
chromosomes as a cell prepares to divide.
NUCLEUS
RIBOSOMES

• Ribosome : structure made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein.

– Site for protein synthesis.

– Cells active in protein synthesis have a large number of ribosomes and

prominent nucleoli (Example: pancreatic cells).
Two types of ribosomes;

i. free ribosomes
✔ suspended in the cytosol;
✔ produces proteins that function within the
cytosol.

i. bound ribosomes free

✔ attached to the outside of the endoplasmic ribosome bound
ribosome
reticulum or nuclear envelope;
✔ produce proteins to be inserted into the
membrane or exported out of the cell
(pancreatic enzymes).
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

● The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions
in eukaryotic cells.

● Components of the endomembrane system:

1. Nuclear envelope
2. Endoplasmic reticulum
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Lysosomes
5. Vesicles & Vacuoles
6. Plasma membrane

● These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles.

Properties of Endomembrane System

Carries out a variety of tasks in the cell, including:

☑ Protein synthesis and transport of proteins into membranes and other organelles.

☑ Metabolism and movement of lipids.

☑ Detoxification of poisons.

☑ Membranes of this system are related either through direct physical continuity or
by the transfer of vesicles (sacs made of membrane).
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM :
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
○ Extensive network of membranes.

○ Accounts for more than half of the total membranes in many eukaryotic cells.

○ Consists of a network of membranous tubules & flattened sacs called cisternae.

● Cisternal space
○ The internal lumen/space of the ER that is separated from the cytosol by the ER membrane.

● The ER membrane,
○ is a single-layer membrane,
○ is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane.
○ separates the ER lumen/cisternal space from the cytosol.
There are two distinct regions of ER:
1. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
(smooth ER)
⮚ Lacks ribosomes at the outer surface.

2. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

(Rough ER)
⮚ Has ribosomes on the outer surface of
the membrane.
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM :
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• Lacks ribosomes.

• System of interconnected
tubules.

• Continuous from the Rough

ER.

• Not involved in protein

synthesis.
The functions of smooth ER:
1. Metabolize lipids, synthesize cholesterol and phospholipids and synthesize
lipid components of lipoproteins (liver cells).

2. Synthesize steroid-based hormone (testosterone).

3. Absorb, synthesize, and transport fats.

4. Detoxify drugs, certain pesticides, and cancer-causing chemicals (kidneys

and liver).

5. Break down glycogen to form glucose (liver).

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 3. ORGANELLES
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM :
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• Have cisternae, studded with ribosome.

• Protein from bound ribosome enter the ER lumen and

carbohydrates are attached to it to form glycoproteins.

• Glycoprotein is an example of a secretory protein (protein

with carbohydrate that is covalently bonded to it).

• It then departs/buds off from the RER in a membranous

vesicle called a transport vesicle.

• These transport vesicles, transit from one part of the cell to

another.

• Act as membrane factory for the cell;

⮚ adding membrane protein and phospholipids to its own
membrane in making secretory protein.
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM : 3. ORGANELLES
GOLGI APPARATUS/ BODY
• Works as a receiving and shipping center.
• Consists of flattened membranous sacs called
cisternae.
• Each Golgi stack has three areas;
– The cis face: entry surface
– The trans face: exit surface
– The medial region: in between

• Functions of the Golgi apparatus:

– Modifies products of the ER
– Manufactures certain macromolecules
– Sorts and packages materials into transport
vesicles
CELLS
Chapter 2
CELLS
Chapter 2
 SUMMARY OF SECRETORY PROTEIN TRANSPORT

1. Polypeptides synthesized on ribosomes bound to RER.

2. Protein assembled and carbohydrate component added in the lumen of ER.

3. Protein products (e.g.: glycoproteins) are packaged at the transitional region

of RER.

4. Transport vesicles move proteins to the Golgi body (cis face).

5. Proteins further modified during transit from cis to trans region in Golgi.

6. Proteins (e.g.: glycoproteins or secretory proteins) are packaged in transport

vesicles in the trans face.

7. Transport vesicle that departs from the trans face contains secreted products
inside, may :

i. fuse with the plasma membrane & release content from the cell.
ii. give rise to specialized vesicles (e.g.: lysosome) or vacuoles.
iii. fuse with less mature Golgi cisternae.
iv. carry proteins back to ER (required in RER)

*glycoprotein (shown as green-purple molecule)

ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM :
LYSOSOME
• A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules.

• Lysosomal enzymes;
☑ can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids.
☑ Work best in an acidic environment (pH 5).

• If the lysosome breaks, the released enzymes are not effective, as cytosol has a neutral pH.

• However lysosomal membrane becomes fragile when the cell is injured, lacks oxygen, and
when an excessive amount of vitamin A present causes the lysosome to rupture and leads
to autolysis.
 3. ORGANELLES
Nucleus 1 µm
Lysosome carry out intracellular digestion: ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

(a) Phagocytosis
• A process by engulfing food particles.
• Food vacuole formed and fused with
lysosome.
• The enzyme digests the food.
Lysosome
Digestive
enzymes
Lysosome

Plasma
membrane
Digestion
Food vacuole

(a) Phagocytosis
 Vesicle containing 1 µm
(b) Autophagy two damaged organelles

• Recycle the cell’s own organic

material.
Mitochondrion
• Damaged organelle becomes fragment
surrounded by membrane. Peroxisome
fragment
• Lysosome fuses with this vesicle
• Lysosomal enzyme dismantles the
Lysosome
enclosed material and releases it into
the cytosol for reuse. Peroxisome

Mitochondrion Digestion
Vesicle

(b) Autophagy 38
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM : 3. ORGANELLES
VACUOLES
• Vacuoles are large, single membrane-enclosed sacs.

• A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several vacuoles.

Types of vacuoles:
1. Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis.

2. Contractile vacuoles
1. found in many freshwater protists, to pump excess water out of cells
(osmoregulatory function).

3. Central vacuoles
• found in many mature plant cells, hold organic compounds and water.
• Enclosed by a membrane called tonoplast.
 food
vacuole Central vacuole

Cytosol

Tonoplast
cilia
nucleus
Nucleus Central
Contractile vacuole vacuole
Cell wall
(a) Food vacuole and contractile vacuole in
Paramecium Chloroplast

5 µm
 Relationship among organelles of the
1. Nuclear envelope is connected to endomembrane system
rough ER. Rough ER is continuous
with smooth ER.

2. Membranes & proteins produced by

the ER, flow in the form of transport
vesicles to the Golgi.

3. Golgi pinches off transport vesicles &

other vesicles that give rise to
lysosomes, other types of specialized
vesicles & vacuoles.

4. Lysosome fuses with other

5. Transport protein carries 6. Plasma membrane expands by
vesicle for digestion
proteins to plasma fusion of vesicles & proteins are
membrane for secretion. secreted form the cell.
ENERGY CONVERTING ORGANELLES

MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS

– Not part of the endomembrane system.

– Double membrane organelles.
– Contain proteins made by free ribosomes.
– Contain circular DNA.
– Grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells (semi-autonomous).

• Mitochondria - site for cellular respiration to produce ATP.

• Chloroplasts - site of photosynthesis and found in plants and algae.
 3. ORGANELLES
MITOCHONDRIA
• Mitochondria are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells.

• Motile or contractile cells have more mitochondria per

volume than less active cells.

• A double membrane forms two compartments:

intermembrane space and matrix;

– The outer mitochondrial membrane is smooth,

Intermembrane
space
allowing small molecules to pass through it.

– The inner mitochondrial membrane strictly

regulates molecules that move across it and fold
into cristae.
• Mitochondrial matrix has many different enzymes,
mitochondrial DNA, and ribosomes.

Intermembrane space
• Some steps of cellular Outer
membrane
respiration occurred in the
mitochondrial matrix.
Free

CELLS
ribosomes
• Cristae present a in the
mitochondrial Inner
matrix membrane
large surface area
Cristae
for enzymes that Matrix
Chapter 2
synthesize ATP.
0.1 µm
 3. ORGANELLES
CHLOROPLAST
• A member of plastids.

• Plastids

✔ a group of organelles that produce and

store food materials in plants and algae.

✔ examples of plastids – chloroplasts,

chromoplasts & leucoplasts (amyloplast).

• Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, carotenoids,

enzymes, and other molecules that function in
photosynthesis.

• Found in leaves of plants and algae.

 • Chloroplast
✔ Larger than
mitochondria.
✔ disc-shaped
structures.
✔ bounded by a
double membrane.

• Chloroplast structure includes: • Three regions (separated by

1. Thylakoids membrane):
1. Intermembrane space
⮚ membranous sacs, stacked
2. Stroma
to form a granum.
3. Thylakoid lumen
2. Stroma
⮚ fluid-filled internal space -
contains enzymes.
 CHLOROPLAST

Ribosomes

Stroma

Inner and outer

membranes

Granum

1 µm
Thylakoid
OXIDATIVE ORGANELLES 3. ORGANELLES
PEROXISOME
PEROXISOMES
• Specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single membrane.

• Peroxisomes are numerous in the kidneys and liver, which are active in detoxification.

• Peroxisomes contain oxidase that transfers hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen and
produces hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), but if H2O2 escape from the peroxisomes, they might
damage other membranes in cells.

• Catalase breaks down H2O2 into water and oxygen (.: harmless).

• Oxygen is also used by peroxisomes to break down fatty acids into smaller molecules that
are transported to mitochondria and used as fuel for cellular respiration.
Chloroplast
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion

1 µm
 CYTOSKELETON
• A dense network of protein fibers extending throughout
the cytoplasm.

• Three types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton:

1. Microtubules
➢ the thickest of the three components of the
cytoskeleton.
2. Microfilaments
➢ also called actin filaments,
➢ the thinnest components.
3. Intermediate filaments
⮚ have diameters in the middle range
⮚ are made from fibrous protein subunits
⮚ are more stable than microtubules &
microfilaments.
Microtubules & microfilaments:
o formed from globular
protein (beadlike) subunits
o Can be rapidly assembled
& disassembled.
 Function of Cytoskeleton

• Gives cells mechanical strength, supports the cell, and maintains its shape.

• Organizes the cell’s structures and activities, anchoring many organelles.

• Certain cytoskeleton /microtubules interact with motor proteins to produce

motility.

• Inside the cell, vesicles travel along tracks made up of microtubules of the
cytoskeleton.

• Function in cell division.

 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Vesicle

• Molecular motors : vesicles

transported along microtubules
using motor proteins that use ATP
to generate force.

• The vesicles are attached to motor

Dynactin complex proteins, example; dynein by
= connector molecule connector molecules, example;
Dynein
= motor protein dynactin.

• Dynein moves the vesicle along

microtubules.

Microtubule
54
 3. ORGANELLES
CYTOSKELETON:
MICROTUBULESMICROTUBULES
 3. ORGANELLES
MICROTUBULES
EXAMPLE 1:
Centrosomes and Centrioles
⮚ function in cell division.

• In many cells, microtubules grow out from a centrosome near the nucleus.

• The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing center (MTOC)”.

• In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each with nine
triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring, (known as 9 X 3 structure)
 CYTOSKELETON: MICROTUBULES

nine triplets of microtubules

arranged in a ring (9 X 3 structure)
 3. ORGANELLES
MICROTUBULES

● The centrioles are duplicated before cell division & may play a
role in some types of microtubule assembly.

● The ability of microtubules to assembles & disassemble is rapidly

seen during cell division.

● At that time, tubulin subunits organizes into a structure called

mitotic spindle – which serves as a framework for the orderly
distribution of chromosomes during cell division.
MICROTUBULES 3. ORGANELLES
MICROTUBULES
EXAMPLE 2:
Cilia and Flagella
Direction of
swimming
• Microtubules control the beating of cilia and
flagella.

• Cilia and flagella differ in their beating

patterns.
(a) Motion of flagella
5 µm
• Cilia and flagella share a common
ultrastructure: Direction of organism’s
movement
– A core of microtubules covered by the
plasma membrane. Power Recovery
stroke stroke
– A basal body that anchors the cilium or
flagellum.
– A motor protein called dynein, which
(b) Motion of cilia
drives the bending movements of a cilium
or flagellum.
 Outer microtubule
0.1 µm Plasma
doublet
membrane
Dynein proteins
Central
microtubule
Radial
spoke
Nine doublets or pairs of
Protein cross- microtubules encircling one
Microtubules

CELLS
linking outer
doublets central pair
(b) Cross section of
Plasma cilium ✔ Cilium has a 9 X 2 + 2
membrane
ring structure
Basal body

0.5 µm Chapter 2
(a) Longitudinal 0.1 µm
section of cilium Triplet

Centrioles form the base of cilia and

flagella are known as basal body.
✔ Basal body has a 9 x 3 structure.

(c) Cross section of basal body

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62
MICROFILAMENTS
MICROFILAMENTS
MICROFILAMENTS

Muscle cell

Actin filament
arranged parallel to
one another in
CELLS
muscle tissue
Chapter 2
Myosin filament

Myosin arm

(a) Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction

MICROFILAMENTS
Cortex (outer cytoplasm): gel with actin
network

Inner cytoplasm: sol with actin

subunits

Extending
pseudopodium

(b) Amoeboid movement

Localized contraction helped by
actin and myosin drives amoeboid movement.
MICROFILAMENTS

c) Cytoplasmic streaming
A circular flow of cytoplasm within cells.
Occurs due to the motion of organelles attached to actin filaments via myosin-motor proteins.
 3. ORGANELLES
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
 3. ORGANELLES
EXTRACELLULAR STRUCTURE

• Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate

cellular activities.

• Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external to the
plasma membrane.

• These extracellular structures include:

1. Cell walls of plants
2. The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
3. Cell junctions
CELL WALL OF PLANTS

• The cell wall is an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells from
animal cells.

• Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have cell walls.

• The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents
excessive uptake of water.

• Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other

polysaccharides and protein.
 3. ORGANELLES
Plants cell wall may have multiple layers:
1. Primary cell wall: thin and flexible. Secondary
cell wall
Primary
cell wall
2. Middle lamella: thin layer rich in
Middle
pectins, glues adjacent cells. lamella

3. Secondary cell wall (in some cells): 1 µm

Central vacuole
deposited in several laminated Cytosol
Plasma membrane
layers, strong and durable for cell
Plant cell walls
protection and support.

• Plasmodesmata: channels between Plasmodesmata

adjacent plant cells

EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX MATRIX
EXTRACELLULAR
• Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an
elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM).

• The ECM is made up of the followings:

Collagen Fibres embedded in web of

proteoglycan complexes.

Proteoglycan Hundreds of proteoglycan (small core

complexes protein with many carbohydrate chain
covalently attached) attach to single
long polysaccharide molecule.

Fibronectin Attach the ECM to integrins that

embedded in plasma membrane.
 CELLS
• Integrins: two subunits of membrane proteins,
(a) bind with ECM on the outside
(b) attach to the microfilaments on the inside.

• In a position to transmit signals between ECM and the cytoskeleton inside.

 3. ORGANELLES
CELL JUNCTIONS
CELL JUNCTIONS

• Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often

adhere, interact, and communicate through direct physical contact.

• There are several types of cell junctions:

i. Plasmodesmata
ii. Tight junctions
iii. Desmosomes
iv. Gap junctions
PLANT CELL JUNCTION:
PLASMODESMATA
• Channels that perforate plant cell walls.

• Through it, water and small solutes (and sometimes proteins and RNA)
can pass from cell to cell.
Cell walls

Interior
of cell

Interior
of cell
0.5 µm Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes
Plasmodesmata : plant cells can communicate through specialized openings in their cell walls,
called plasmodesmata, where the cytoplasm of adjoining cells are connected.
ANIMAL CELL JUNCTIONS
CELL JUNCTIONS
Consist of:
i. Tight junctions:

i. Desmosomes
(anchoring junctions)

iii. Gap junctions

(communicating junctions)
ANIMAL CELL JUNCTIONS
CELL JUNCTIONS

i. Tight junctions:
✔ Areas of tight connections

between membranes of
adjacent cells.

✔ No space remains
between the cells,
preventing leakage of
extracellular fluid &
substances between cells.
ANIMAL CELL JUNCTIONS
CELL JUNCTIONS

ii. Desmosomes
(anchoring junctions)
✔ are points of attachment
between cells.

✔ fasten cells together into

strong sheets.

✔ Substances can still pass

freely through the spaces
between the plasma
membranes.
ANIMAL CELL JUNCTIONS
CELL JUNCTIONS

iii. Gap junctions

(communicating junctions)

✔ Provide cytoplasmic
channels between adjacent
cells.

✔ Allows the transfer of small

molecules & ions between
adjacent cells.
2.4 SPECIALISED TISSUES IN ANIMAL

● Cells undergo cell differentiation and become specialized in structure and function

● Tissues: groups of cells with similar appearance and a common function

● Different tissues have different structures to suit their functions

● Four categories of animal tissues:

i. epithelial
ii. connective
iii. muscle
iv. nervous 80
a) EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• Covers the outside of the body and lines
the organs and cavities within the body.
• It contains cells that are closely joined.
• The shape of epithelial cells may be:
i. squamous
ii. cuboidal
iii. Columnar

• The arrangement of epithelial cells may be:

i. simple (single-cell layer)
ii. stratified (multiple layers of cells)
iii. pseudostratified (a single layer of cells of varying length) 81
 Epithelial Tissue
Stratified squamous
epithelium

Basement
membrane

Pseudostratified
Cuboidal Simple columnar Simple squamous columnar
epithelium epithelium epithelium epithelium

82
i) Simple Squamous Epithelium

• Cells are flat and arranged in a single

layer.
● Lines blood vessels
• Allow diffusion and passage of materials.
and air sacs in lungs
● Permits exchange of • Example:
✔ Air sacs of lungs and lining of blood
materials by diffusion
vessels.

83
ii) Simple Columnar Epithelium

● The large, brick-shaped cells

● Found where secretion or active
absorption is important.
● Lining of the intestines, secreting
digestive juices and absorbing nutrients.

84
iii) Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

● Dice-shaped cells.
● Lines blood vessels ● Specialized for secretion.
and air sacs in lungs ● Found in kidney tubules and many
● Permits exchange of glands, including the thyroid gland and
materials by diffusion salivary glands.

85
iv) Stratified Squamous Epithelium

• Multilayered and regenerates rapidly.

• Found on surfaces subject to abrasion.
• Eg: the outer skin and linings of mouth,
anus, and vagina.

86
v) Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

● Consists of a single layer of cells varying in height.

● A pseudostratified epithelium of ciliated cells forms a
mucous membrane that lines the respiratory tract.
● Example: Beating cilia sweep mucus along the
surface.

87
Glands:
Specialized Epithelial Tissue
a) Goblet cells
- unicellular exocrine glands that secrete mucus.

b) Exocrine glands
- secrete product through a duct onto the exposed
epithelial surface.
- example: sweat and salivary gland

c) Endocrine glands
- release hormones into interstitial fluid or blood.
- example: Pituitary glands
88
 Unicellular glands
Cilia (goblet cells)

Basement
membrane
(a) Goblet cells.

Skin

(d) Endocrine gland

(b) Sweat gland. (c) Parotid salivary gland.

89
b) CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Mainly binds and supports other tissues.

• Made of three main elements:

i. Ground substance (example: fluid)
ii. Fibers (example: collagen)
iii. Cells (example: blood cells)

90
 Connective Tissue
Loose connective tissue
Collagenous fiber Blood
Plasma
White
blood cells
120 μm

55 μm
Elastic Red blood cells
fiber Cartilage
Fibrous connective tissue
Chondrocytes

100 μm
30 μm

Chondroitin sulfate
Nuclei Bone Adipose tissue
Central
canal Fat droplets
700 μm

150 μm
Osteon 91
 Types of Connective tissue Descriptions
1) LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE • The most widespread.

• Found in the skin and throughout the body.

2) FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE • Dense with collagenous fibers.

• Found in:
- tendons which attach muscles to bones
- ligaments which connect bones at joints.
Types of Connective tissue Descriptions
3) BONE • Mineralized connective tissue.

• Osteoblasts, bone-forming cells deposit a matrix of

collagen.

• Combine with calcium, magnesium, and phosphate

ions into a hard mineral within the matrix.

4) BLOOD • Has a liquid extracellular matrix called plasma.

• Suspended in plasma are erythrocytes, leukocytes

platelets.
Types of Connective tissue Descriptions
5) CARTILAGE • Strong yet flexible support material.

• Skeletons of embryos contain cartilage;

replaced by bone as the embryo matures.

6) ADIPOSE TISSUE • Specialized loose connective tissue that stores

fat in adipose cells.

• Insulates the body and stores fuel as fat

molecules.
C) NERVOUS TISSUE
● Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal.
● Nervous tissue contains
(a) Neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve impulses.
(b) Glial cells, or glia, that help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons.
D) MUSCLE TISSUE
● Responsible for many types of body
movement

● The cells contain actin and myosin,

which together enable the muscle to
contract

● Three types:
i. Cardiac muscle
ii. Smooth muscle
iii. Skeletal muscle/striated muscle
i. Cardiac Muscle

● Forms wall of heart.

● Striated.
● Has similar contractile properties.
● Have intercalated discs (composed of
gap junctions) that interconnect cell to
cell which relay signals between them.
● to synchronize heart contraction.
 ii. Smooth Muscle
● Lacks striations.
● Found in the walls of the
digestive tract, urinary bladder,
arteries, and other internal
organs.
● Responsible for involuntary body
activities, for example:
peristalsis of small intestines,
churning of the stomach and
constriction of arteries.
iii. Skeletal Muscle
● Attached to bones by tendons,
● Responsible for voluntary
movements.
● Skeletal muscle fibers form by the
fusion of many cells, resulting in
multiple nuclei in each muscle fiber.
● Arrangement of contractile units
(sarcomere) and fibers gives the
cells a striped (striated) appearance.
2.5 SPECIALISED TISSUES IN PLANTS

3 basic plant organs;

roots, stems, leaves

Each organ is composed of 3 basic

tissues;
a) dermal,
b) vascular
c) ground

Each tissue forms continuous tissue

system throughout the plant.

3 tissue systems in plant

101
a) Dermal Tissue System

● Plant’s outer protective covering.

● First line of defense against physical

damage and pathogens.

● Non-woody plants; single tissue called the

epidermis, a layer of tightly packed cells.

● Woody plants, the periderm replace the

epidermis in older regions.

a) Dermal Tissue System

● Waxy epidermal coating (cuticle) prevents water

loss.

● In roots, water and minerals absorbed enter

through the epidermis of root hairs.

● In shoots, guard cells are involved in gaseous

exchange.

● Trichomes, specialized epidermal cells in shoots

reduce water loss and reflect excess light.

b) Vascular Tissue System

● The vascular tissue system are embedded in the ground tissue.

● Facilitate the transport of materials through the plant via xylem and phloem.
● Provide mechanical support.
● Both xylem and phloem are continuous throughout the plant body.

.
 Two types of vascular tissues are:
1) Xylem
Conducts water and dissolved minerals upward from roots
into the shoots.

Two types of conducting cells:

i. Tracheids:
▪ main conducting cells of gymnosperms and ferns.
▪ Occurs in clumps in xylem throughout the plant body.
▪ Function: i) Conduction of water & nutrient minerals; ii)
Support.

ii. Vessel elements:

▪ main conducting cells of angiosperms.
▪ Function: i) Conduction of water & nutrient minerals; ii)
Support.
▪ More efficient than tracheids in conduction.
2. Phloem

• transports sugars the products of photosynthesis and

transports other nutrients, from where they are made
(usually the leaves) to other parts of the plant.

• Made up of two specialized cells:

a) Sieve tube elements
▪ Living but lacks nucleus & other organelles at
maturity.
▪ End walls are sieve plates - have perforated ends.
▪ Function: Conduction of sugar in solution.

b) Companion cells
▪ Living
▪ Has cytoplasmic connections with sieve tube
element.
▪ Function: i) Provide ATP and materials to maintain
sieve tube elements; ii) Assists in moving sugars
into and out of sieve tube element.
c) Ground Tissue System

• Forms the bulk of the plant.

• Composed of three tissues:

i. parenchyma
ii. collenchyma
iii. sclerenchyma

• These tissues can be differentiated from each other by their cell

wall structures.
 Feature Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

1. Cell Shape Isodiametric cells which are oval, Circular, oval or polyhedral. Variable in shape.
spherical or polygonal in shape. Two types: Fibres and sclereids.
2. Cell wall Thin cellulosic wall Uneven thickening on primary cell wall. Have both primary and lignified thick
secondary cell wall
3. Cytoplasm Abundant Present Absent
4. Nucleus Present – Living Tissue Present – Living Tissue Absent – Dead tissue

5. Vacuoles Large vacuole Vacuolated Absent

6. Intercellular Present Absent Absent
Spaces
7. Occurrence Basically packing tissue. All soft part Dicot stems (e,g: elderberry), petiole and Dicot hypodermis, bundle sheath,
of plant, leaf cells, root, pith, cortex, beneath the epidermis. Absent in monocot pericycle, seed, pulp of fruits, shells of
medullary rays. and roots. walnuts & coconuts, pits of cherries &
peaches.
8. Function Food storage (oil droplets, water & Provide tensile strength (elastic support), Protection from stress and strain,
salts), Photosynthesis (green Mechanical support, Flexible structure. Mechanical strength & support.
chloroplasts) & secretions (resins, Photosynthesis.
tannin, sugary nectar and hormones)
THE END