Cell (biology)

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"Cell research" redirects here. For the journal, see Cell Research (journal).

Drawing of the structure of cork as it appeared under the microscope to Robert Hooke from
Micrographia which is the origin of the word "cell" being used to describe the smallest unit of a
living organism

Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green)

The cell is the functional basic unit of life. It was discovered by Robert Hooke and is the
functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a
living thing, and is often called the building block of life.[1] Some organisms, such as most
bacteria, are unicellular (consist of a single cell). Other organisms, such as humans, are
multicellular. (Humans have about 100 trillion or 1014 cells; a typical cell size is 10 µm; a typical
cell mass is 1 nanogram. The largest cells are about 135 µm in the anterior horn in the spinal
cord while granule cells in the cerebellum, the smallest, can be some 4 µm and the longest cell
can reach from the toe to the lower brain stem (Pseudounipolar cells).[2]) The largest known cells
are unfertilised ostrich egg cells which weigh 3.3 pounds.[3][4]

In 1835, before the final cell theory was developed, Jan Evangelista Purkyně observed small
"granules" while looking at the plant tissue through a microscope. The cell theory, first
developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms
are composed of one or more cells, that all cells come from preexisting cells, that vital functions
of an organism occur within cells, and that all cells contain the hereditary information necessary
for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells.[5]

The word cell comes from the Latin cellula, meaning, a small room. The descriptive term for the
smallest living biological structure was coined by Robert Hooke in a book he published in 1665
when he compared the cork cells he saw through his microscope to the small rooms monks lived
in.[6]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Anatomy of cells
o 1.1 Prokaryotic cells
o 1.2 Eukaryotic cells
• 2 Subcellular components
o 2.1 Cell membrane: A cell's defining boundary
o 2.2 Cytoskeleton: A cell's scaffold
o 2.3 Genetic material
o 2.4 Organelles
• 3 Structures outside the cell wall
o 3.1 Capsule
o 3.2 Flagella
o 3.3 Fimbriae (pili)
• 4 Cell functions
o 4.1 Cell growth and metabolism
o 4.2 Creation of new cells
o 4.3 Protein synthesis
• 5 Cell movement or motility
• 6 Evolution
o 6.1 Origin of the first cell
o 6.2 Origin of eukaryotic cells
• 7 History
• 8 See also
• 9 References
 • 10 External links

o 10.1 Textbooks

Anatomy of cells
There are two types of cells: eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are usually
independent, while eukaryotic cells are often found in multicellular organisms.

Prokaryotic cells

Main article: Prokaryote

Diagram of a typical prokaryotic cell

The prokaryote cell is simpler, and therefore smaller, than a eukaryote cell, lacking a nucleus and
most of the other organelles of eukaryotes. There are two kinds of prokaryotes: bacteria and
archaea; these share a similar structure.

A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions:

• On the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell's surface. These are structures (not
present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate movement and communication
between cells;
• Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope – generally consisting of a cell wall covering a
plasma membrane though some bacteria also have a further covering layer called a
capsule. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from
its environment, serving as a protective filter. Though most prokaryotes have a cell wall,
 there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma (bacteria) and Thermoplasma (archaea). The
cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against
exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and finally bursting (cytolysis)
from osmotic pressure against a hypotonic environment. Some eukaryote cells (plant cells
and fungi cells) also have a cell wall;
• Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the cell genome (DNA) and
ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions. A prokaryotic chromosome is usually a
circular molecule (an exception is that of the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi, which
causes Lyme disease). Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a
nucleoid. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which
are usually circular. Plasmids enable additional functions, such as antibiotic resistance.

Eukaryotic cells

Main article: Eukaryote

Diagram of a typical animal (eukaryotic) cell, showing subcellular components.

Organelles:
(1) nucleolus
(2) nucleus
(3) ribosome
(4) vesicle
(5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
(6) Golgi apparatus
(7) Cytoskeleton
(8) smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(9) mitochondria
(10) vacuole
(11) cytoplasm
(12) lysosome
(13) centrioles within centrosome
Eukaryotic cells are about 15 times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as 1000
times greater in volume. The major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that
eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound compartments in which specific metabolic activities
take place. Most important among these is a cell nucleus, a membrane-delineated compartment
that houses the eukaryotic cell's DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means
"true nucleus." Other differences include:

• The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences
in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
• The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called chromosomes,
which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell
nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some eukaryotic organelles such
as mitochondria also contain some DNA.
• Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia play important roles
in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation. Cilia may thus be "viewed
as sensory cellular antennae that coordinate a large number of cellular signaling
pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell
division and differentiation."[7]
• Eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. The flagella are more complex than
those of prokaryotes.

Table 1: Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Typical organisms bacteria, archaea protists, fungi, plants, animals
~ 10–100 µm (sperm cells, apart from the tail, are
Typical size ~ 1–10 µm
smaller)
nucleoid region; no
Type of nucleus real nucleus with double membrane
real nucleus
linear molecules (chromosomes) with histone
DNA circular (usually)
proteins
RNA-/protein- RNA-synthesis inside the nucleus
coupled in cytoplasm
synthesis protein synthesis in cytoplasm
Ribosomes 50S+30S 60S+40S
Cytoplasmatic highly structured by endomembranes and a
very few structures
structure cytoskeleton
flagella made of flagella and cilia containing microtubules;
Cell movement
flagellin lamellipodia and filopodia containing actin
one to several thousand (though some lack
Mitochondria none
mitochondria)
Chloroplasts none in algae and plants
single cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms
Organization usually single cells
with specialized cells
 Binary fission (simple Mitosis (fission or budding)
Cell division
division) Meiosis
Table 2: Comparison of structures between animal and plant cells
Typical animal cell Typical plant cell
Organelles • Nucleus • Nucleus
o Nucleolus (within nucleus) o Nucleolus (within nucleus)
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum • Rough ER
(ER) • Smooth ER
• Smooth ER • Ribosomes
• Ribosomes • Cytoskeleton
• Cytoskeleton • Golgi apparatus (dictiosomes)
• Golgi apparatus • Cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm • Mitochondria
• Mitochondria • Plastids and its derivatives
• Vesicles • Vacuole(s)
• Lysosomes
• Centrosome • Cell wall

o Centrioles

Subcellular components

The cells of eukaryotes (left) and prokaryotes (right)

All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell, separates
its interior from its environment, regulates what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and
maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, a salty cytoplasm takes up most
of the cell volume. All cells possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing
the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell's primary
machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells. This article will list these primary
components of the cell, then briefly describe their function.

Cell membrane: A cell's defining boundary

Main article: Cell membrane

The cytoplasm of a cell is surrounded by a cell membrane or plasma membrane. The plasma
membrane in plants and prokaryotes is usually covered by a cell wall. This membrane serves to
separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double
layer of lipids (hydrophobic fat-like molecules) and hydrophilic phosphorus molecules. Hence,
the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer. It may also be called a fluid mosaic membrane.
Embedded within this membrane is a variety of protein molecules that act as channels and pumps
that move different molecules into and out of the cell. The membrane is said to be 'semi-
permeable', in that it can either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass
through to a limited extent or not pass through at all. Cell surface membranes also contain
receptor proteins that allow cells to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones.

Cytoskeleton: A cell's scaffold

Main article: Cytoskeleton

Bovine Pulmonary Artery Endothelial cell: nuclei stained blue, mitochondria stained red, and F-
actin, an important component in microfilaments, stained green. Cell imaged on a fluorescent
microscope.

The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place;
helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the
separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth
and mobility. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments
and microtubules. There is a great number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a
cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments. The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is
less well-studied but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis.[8]

Genetic material

Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA). Most organisms use DNA for their long-term information storage, but some viruses (e.g.,
retroviruses) have RNA as their genetic material. The biological information contained in an
organism is encoded in its DNA or RNA sequence. RNA is also used for information transport
(e.g., mRNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA) in organisms that use DNA for the
genetic code itself. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are used to add amino acids during protein
translation.
Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular DNA molecule (the bacterial
chromosome) in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into
different, linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional
genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts (see endosymbiotic
theory).

A human cell has genetic material contained in the cell nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the
mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome). In humans the nuclear genome is divided into 23 pairs
of linear DNA molecules called chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA
molecule distinct from the nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial DNA is very small
compared to nuclear chromosomes, it codes for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy
production and specific tRNAs.

Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell
by a process called transfection. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's
genome, or stable, if it is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome.

Organelles

Main article: Organelle

The human body contains many different organs, such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each
organ performing a different function. Cells also have a set of "little organs," called organelles,
that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions.

There are several types of organelles within an animal cell. Some (such as the nucleus and golgi
apparatus) are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, peroxisomes and
lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that
fills the cell and surrounds the organelles.

Cell nucleus – a cell's information center

The cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle
found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's
chromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA
replication and RNA synthesis (transcription) occur.
The nucleus is spherical and separated from the
cytoplasm by a double membrane called the nuclear
envelope. The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a
cell's DNA from various molecules that could
accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its
processing. During processing, DNA is transcribed, or
copied into a special RNA, called messenger RNA
(mRNA). This mRNA is then transported out of the Diagram of a cell nucleus
nucleus, where it is translated into a specific protein
molecule. The nucleolus is a specialized region within
the nucleus where ribosome subunits are assembled. In
 prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the
cytoplasm.
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts – the power generators
Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that occur
in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm
of all eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria play a critical
role in generating energy in the eukaryotic cell.
Mitochondria generate the cell's energy by oxidative
phosphorylation, using oxygen to release energy
stored in cellular nutrients (typically pertaining to
glucose) to generate ATP. Mitochondria multiply by
splitting in two. Respiration occurs in the cell
mitochondria.
Organelles that are modified chloroplasts are broadly
called plastids, and are involved in energy storage
through photosynthesis, which uses solar energy to
generate carbohydrates and oxygen from carbon
dioxide and water.[citation needed]
Mitochondria and chloroplasts each contain their own
genome, which is separate and distinct from the
nuclear genome of a cell. Both organelles contain this
DNA in circular plasmids, much like prokaryotic cells,
strongly supporting the evolutionary theory of
endosymbiosis; since these organelles contain their
own genomes and have other similarities to
prokaryotes, they are thought to have developed
through a symbiotic relationship after being engulfed
by a primitive cell.[citation needed]
Endoplasmic reticulum – eukaryotes only
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the transport
network for molecules targeted for certain
modifications and specific destinations, as compared
to molecules that will float freely in the cytoplasm.
The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has
ribosomes on its surface and secretes proteins into the
cytoplasm, and the smooth ER, which lacks them.
Smooth ER plays a role in calcium sequestration and
release.
Golgi apparatus – eukaryotes only
The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to
process and package the macromolecules such as
proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell. It is
particularly important in the processing of proteins for
secretion. The Golgi apparatus forms a part of the
endomembrane system of eukaryotic cells. Vesicles
that enter the Golgi apparatus are processed in a cis to
trans direction, meaning they coalesce on the cis side
of the apparatus and after processing pinch off on the
opposite (trans) side to form a new vesicle in the
animal cell.[citation needed]
Diagram of an endomembrane
system
Ribosomes
The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein
molecules. They each consist of two subunits, and act
as an assembly line where RNA from the nucleus is
used to synthesise proteins from amino acids.
Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or
bound to a membrane (the rough endoplasmatic
reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell membrane in
prokaryotes).[9]
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes – eukaryotes only
Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). They digest excess or worn-out
organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria. Peroxisomes have enzymes
that rid the cell of toxic peroxides. The cell could not house these destructive enzymes if
they were not contained in a membrane-bound system. These organelles are often called a
"suicide bag" because of their ability to detonate and destroy the cell.[citation needed]
Centrosome – the cytoskeleton organiser
The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell – a key component of the
cytoskeleton. It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus. Centrosomes
are composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell division and help in the
formation of the mitotic spindle. A single centrosome is present in the animal cells. They
are also found in some fungi and algae cells.[citation needed]
Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food and waste. Some vacuoles store extra water. They are often described
as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane. Some cells, most notably
Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which can pump water out of the cell if there is too
much water. The vacuoles of eukaryotic cells are usually larger in those of plants than
animals.

Structures outside the cell wall

Capsule

A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell wall. The capsule may be
polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as Bacillus anthracis or
hyaluronic acid as in streptococci.[citation needed] Capsules are not marked by ordinary stain and can
be detected by special stain. The capsule is antigenic. The capsule has antiphagocytic function so
it determines the virulence of many bacteria. It also plays a role in attachment of the organism to
mucous membranes.[citation needed]

Flagella

Flagella are the organelles of cellular mobility. They arise from cytoplasm and extrude through
the cell wall. They are long and thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature. Are most
commonly found in bacteria cells but are found in animal cells as well.

Fimbriae (pili)

They are short and thin hair like filaments, formed of protein called pilin (antigenic). Fimbriae
are responsible for attachment of bacteria to specific receptors of human cell (adherence). There
are special types of pili called (sex pili) involved in conjunction.[citation needed]

Cell functions
Cell growth and metabolism

Main articles: Cell growth and Metabolism

Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism.
Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules. Metabolism
has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to
produce energy and reducing power, and anabolism, in which the cell uses energy and reducing
power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions. Complex sugars
consumed by the organism can be broken down into a less chemically complex sugar molecule
called glucose. Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), a form of energy, through two different pathways.

The first pathway, glycolysis, requires no oxygen and is referred to as anaerobic metabolism.
Each reaction is designed to produce some hydrogen ions that can then be used to make energy
packets (ATP). In prokaryotes, glycolysis is the only method used for converting energy.

The second pathway, called the Krebs cycle, or citric acid cycle, occurs inside the mitochondria
and can generate enough ATP to run all the cell functions.
An overview of protein synthesis.
Within the nucleus of the cell (light blue), genes (DNA, dark blue) are transcribed into RNA.
This RNA is then subject to post-transcriptional modification and control, resulting in a mature
mRNA (red) that is then transported out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm (peach), where it
undergoes translation into a protein. mRNA is translated by ribosomes (purple) that match the
three-base codons of the mRNA to the three-base anti-codons of the appropriate tRNA. Newly
synthesized proteins (black) are often further modified, such as by binding to an effector
molecule (orange), to become fully active.

Creation of new cells

Main article: Cell division

Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells. This
leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation (vegetative
reproduction) in unicellular organisms.

Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission. Eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear
division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis. A diploid cell may
also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid cells serve as gametes in
multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells.
DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, is required every time a cell
divides. Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the
job.

Protein synthesis

Main article: Protein biosynthesis

Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and
maintenance of cellular activities. This process involves the formation of new protein molecules
from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA. Protein synthesis
generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.

Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a

complementary RNA strand. This RNA strand is then processed to give messenger RNA
(mRNA), which is free to migrate through the cell. mRNA molecules bind to protein-RNA
complexes called ribosomes located in the cytosol, where they are translated into polypeptide
sequences. The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence based on the mRNA
sequence. The mRNA sequence directly relates to the polypeptide sequence by binding to
transfer RNA (tRNA) adapter molecules in binding pockets within the ribosome. The new
polypeptide then folds into a functional three-dimensional protein molecule.

Cell movement or motility

Cells can move during many processes: such as wound healing, the immune response and cancer
metastasis. For wound healing to occur, white blood cells and cells that ingest bacteria move to
the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection.
At the same time fibroblasts (connective tissue cells) move there to remodel damaged structures.
In the case of tumor development, cells from a primary tumor move away and spread to other
parts of the body. Cell motility involves many receptors, crosslinking, bundling, binding,
adhesion, motor and other proteins.[10] The process is divided into three steps – protrusion of the
leading edge of the cell, adhesion of the leading edge and de-adhesion at the cell body and rear,
and cytoskeletal contraction to pull the cell forward. Each step is driven by physical forces
generated by unique segments of the cytoskeleton.[11][12]

Evolution
Main article: Evolutionary history of life

The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, which began the history of life on Earth.

Origin of the first cell

Further information: Abiogenesis

There are several theories about the origin of small molecules that could lead to life in an early
Earth. One is that they came from meteorites (see Murchison meteorite). Another is that they
were created at deep-sea vents. A third is that they were synthesized by lightning in a reducing
atmosphere (see Miller–Urey experiment); although it is not clear if Earth had such an
atmosphere. There are essentially no experimental data defining what the first self-replicating
forms were. RNA is generally assumed to be the earliest self-replicating molecule, as it is
capable of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions (see RNA world
hypothesis). But some other entity with the potential to self-replicate could have preceded RNA,
like clay or peptide nucleic acid.[13]

Cells emerged at least 4.0–4.3 billion years ago. The current belief is that these cells were
heterotrophs. An important characteristic of cells is the cell membrane, composed of a bilayer of
lipids. The early cell membranes were probably more simple and permeable than modern ones,
with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid. Lipids are known to spontaneously form bilayered
vesicles in water, and could have preceded RNA. But the first cell membranes could also have
been produced by catalytic RNA, or even have required structural proteins before they could
form.[14]

Origin of eukaryotic cells

The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a symbiotic community of prokaryotic cells.
DNA-bearing organelles like the mitochondria and the chloroplasts are almost certainly what
remains of ancient symbiotic oxygen-breathing proteobacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively,
where the rest of the cell seems to be derived from an ancestral archaean prokaryote cell – a
theory termed the endosymbiotic theory.

There is still considerable debate about whether organelles like the hydrogenosome predated the
origin of mitochondria, or viceversa: see the hydrogen hypothesis for the origin of eukaryotic
cells.

Sex, as the stereotyped choreography of meiosis and syngamy that persists in nearly all extant
eukaryotes, may have played a role in the transition from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. An 'origin
of sex as vaccination' theory suggests that the eukaryote genome accreted from prokaryan
parasite genomes in numerous rounds of lateral gene transfer. Sex-as-syngamy (fusion sex) arose
when infected hosts began swapping nuclearized genomes containing co-evolved, vertically
transmitted symbionts that conveyed protection against horizontal infection by more virulent
symbionts.[15]