Solar Thermal

Presented by

Dr Mark Gillott

There are painters who transform the sun to a

yellow spot, but there are others who with the help
of their art and their intelligence, transform a yellow
spot into the sun.

Pablo Picasso (1881 – 1973)

SOLAR THERMAL

• History & Worldwide Application

• Types of solar thermal systems
• Performance comparison
• Types of DHW solar thermal systems
• Other Solar Thermal Systems
I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

HISTORY
• The first solar hot water heater was
patented in 1909 by William J. Bailey in
California

• 4000 sold until the discovery of

cheap natural gas in the 1920s –
virtually closed his business

• 1970s Oil crisis rejuvenated solar

thermal system sales

• Solar thermal systems mandatory in

most new buildings in Spain & Portugal
I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

SOLAR THERMAL – WORLDWIDE

Report Covers 45 Countries, 3.84 billion

people, 59% worlds population, 85-90% of
solar thermal market

International Energy Agency (IEA)

April 2007

Worldwide Solar Thermal Capacity in

Operation (2006):

118 GW, 168 million sq.m,

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

SOLAR THERMAL – WORLDWIDE

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

SOLAR THERMAL – WORLDWIDE

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

SOLAR THERMAL – WORLDWIDE

School of the Built Environment
School of the Built Environment
 I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Solar collector types

Air based Water based

Transpired Non-transpired Non-concentrating Concentrating

Solar ponds Flat plate Evacuated

CPC Trough Dish Power Tower

Increasing temperature

(K1DRE1) and (K1BIRE

 I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

FLAT PLATE EVACUATED TUBE

(K1DRE1) and (K1BIRE

 I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Flat Plate Unglazed & Plastic Absorber collectors

• Low cost
• Low temperature
• Rugged
• Lightweight
• Seasonal pool heating
• Poor performance in cold
or windy weather

(K1DRE1) and (K1BIRE

 I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Flat Plate Unglazed & Plastic Absorber collectors

(K1DRE1) and (K1BIRE

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Flat Plate Unglazed & Plastic Absorber collectors

Collector area should be 50% to 100% of the Pool surface area

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Flat Plate Unglazed & Plastic Absorber collectors

 I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Flat Plate glazed

• Simple construction
• Insulation and glazing prevent heat loss
• high temperature operation
• Selective surface improves performance
• Moderate cost: £180/m2
• Heavy and bulky

(K1DRE1) and (K1BIRE

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Flat Plate Unglazed & Plastic Absorber collectors

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Flat Plate glazed

Aesthetically easier to integrate

 I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Evacuated tube collector

• Very good at reaching high temp
• No convection heat loss
• Difficult to integrate into roof
• Suitable for cold climates
• Fragile
• Typical house in the UK requires 3m2
• Cost £400- 600/m2

(K1DRE1) and (K1BIRE

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Evacuated tube collector – single glass wall

Most efficient, however prone to failure

If allowed to overheat
 I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Evacuated tube collector

Lower efficiency due to the two layers of glass solar energy has to pass through,
however the tubes are generally more durable

(K1DRE1) and (K1BIRE

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Evacuated tube collector

Vacuum pipes can be turned south on buildings even with unfavourable roof orientation
I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Evacuated tube collector – Heat Transfer

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Evacuated tube collector

Evacuated Tube Solar Thermal Collector on Marmont Centre Roof:
23rd November @11am (outside temp 6 deg.C) Hot water used for Bathrooms & Kitchen
I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Evacuated tube collector

Evacuated Tube Solar

Thermal Awning,
Los Gatos CA
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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Evacuated tube collector

SOLAR THERMAL SHADING

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Evacuated tube collector

Vertically mounted vacuum tube solar collectors in Sweden

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Evacuated tube collector

Large Scale Solar Thermal Installation for the Olympic Village in Beijing

325,000 litres fuel oil can be saved equivalent to 650 tonnes of CO 2

Solar Architectural Design – Sun Shields

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Evacuated tube collector – Portable (for camping etc)

SOLAR THERMAL INSTALLATION

Provide Access
SOLAR THERMAL INSTALLATION

Assemble Components & Frame

SOLAR THERMAL INSTALLATION

Fix to Roof
SOLAR THERMAL INSTALLATION

Install copper flow & return pipes

SOLAR THERMAL INSTALLATION

Install Tubes
I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Solar Thermal – for domestic hot water heating

System

Design
Preferably you will need 2-4m2 of southeast to southwest facing roof receiving direct sunlight for
the main part of the day. You'll also need space to locate an additional water cylinder if required.

Performance
Provides 50-65% of annual domestic hot water in UK – Saving 1700kWh per annum

Cost and maintenance

The typical installation cost for a domestic flat plate collector system is £2,000 - £3,000.
Evacuated tube systems will cost £3,500 - £4,500.
I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Solar Thermal – for domestic hot water heating

Costs are falling:

Solar panels from £220 (10 tubes)

Full kit £795

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

SOLAR THERMAL TRACKERS

Killick House in Sutton, the largest

domestic Vacuum Tube Solar Thermal
Water Heating installation in the UK. The
Solar Collectors to
provide hot water for 53 flats.

The system will save the residents £3,000

per annum and keep 36 tonnes of carbon
dioxide out of the atmosphere each year."
 I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Performance comparison

Efficiency (%)

Operating Temperature Range

N.B. collector & system efficiency will be covered in ST-2

(K1DRE1) and (K1BIRE
 I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Orientation
• Shade
• orientation of the surface
• angle of tilt of the surface.

(K1DRE1) and (K1BIRE

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Domestic Solar Water Heating (DSWH) systems

The main function is to supply hot water for domestic usage

DSWH

Passive Active

Batch heaters Thermosyphon Direct Indirect

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Passive DSHW systems

use gravity and the tendency for water to naturally circulate as it is heated through
the system without a pump. They are generally more reliable and easy to maintain

Batch heaters

Batch Heaters are the simplest solar hot water systems. Their simple design consists of
a tank of water within a glass-covered insulated enclosure carefully aimed at the sun.

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Passive DSHW systems

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Passive DSHW systems

Thermosyphon systems

• Natural circulation of water

• Flat plate collector
• Collector placed below the storage tank
• Hot water is taken from the top of the tank
• Cold water supplied from the bottom of the tank
• Fixed orientation position ( Latitude +/- 15o)
• Height difference of no less than 30 cm
• Big pipes diameter (28-35 mm) for a 10m2 collector

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Passive DSHW systems

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Active systems
Active systems use electric pumps, valves, and controllers to circulate water or
other heat-transfer fluids through the collectors
.
Direct systems:
(also known as open loop)

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Active systems
Active systems use electric pumps, valves, and controllers to circulate water or
other heat-transfer fluids through the collectors
.
Direct systems ( Drawback system) – NO ANTIFREEZE (Glycol)

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Active systems
Active systems use electric pumps, valves, and controllers to circulate water or
other heat-transfer fluids through the collectors

Indirect systems

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

High temperature solar collectors

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

High temperature solar collectors

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

High temperature solar collectors

• The energy density of flat plate and evacuated tube systems limits the
temperature rise to ~ 150 °C

• For higher temperature applications, need to increase incident energy density

by focusing solar radiation onto a smaller area

• Properties of solar concentration systems:

o Concentration ratio and way it is achieved
o Temperature of the system (related to concentration ratio)
o Medium used to transport heat

o Provision for storage in the system

o Method used for conversion to another form of energy (electricity)

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

High temperature solar collectors

• Design considerations:
• Concentration ratio
• Acceptance angle
• Pattern/area of resulting beam: point, line, etc..
• small/narrow acceptance angle means that tracking
the sun is needed

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

High temperature solar collectors

Parabolic concentrator

These can be made either as a line focus or as a point focus concentrator.

• Line focus requires tracking in 1-axis

• Point focus requires tracking in 2-axis

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

High temperature solar power systems

three main types of concentrating solar power systems

• Parabolic troughs

• Parabolic dish systems

• Central-receiver systems

Application include

• High temperature steam generation to drive a

Rankine cycle turbine/generator

• High temperature source for heat engines

• Process steam
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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Parabolic troughs systems

Parabolic trough consists of reflective parabolic trough which focuses

sunlight onto a receiver at the focus point of the parabola.

•Concentration ratio typically from

10 to 100

•SEGS (solar electricity

generating systems) largest solar
energy systems

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 I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Parabolic troughs systems

Example of a SEGS

• 30 MWp plants
• Higher temperature operation
• Tracking in one dimension
•Evacuated tube collector with black
chrome and ceramic/metallic selective
surface

• suitable
for direct steam generation,
combined cycle generation, thermal
storage.

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Parabolic troughs systems

Example of a SEGS

354 MW plant in Southern California

•The world largest solar energy plant

•Up to 80 MW per trough
•Provide electricity for over 350,000 people

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 I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Parabolic dish collector systems

• Consists of a tracking parabolic mirror, with a

heat engine (receiver) mounted at the focal point
• High concentration ratio

• Potential for large interconnected individual

systems

• Engine design, reflector design, alternate fuels to

allow on demand operation

(K1DRE1) and (K1BIRE School of the Built Environment

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Parabolic dish collector systems

• Single unit of up to 25 kW using a Stirling

engine

• Suitable for remote electricity generation

• A large solar field can be installed to generate

utility scale power

• High initial capital cost/ not proven technology

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Central tower receiver systems

• uses a field of heliostats to track the sun and
reflect solar radiation onto a central receiver
tower

• Concentration ratio is higher than parabolic

trough systems

• reduced energy losses

•Uses heat storage media (salt based phase
change materials)

• Heliostats account for majority of system cost

• Metal/glass used, but replaced by membrane
technologies

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Central tower receiver systems

Example of a Central receiver power station

• 10 MW power output
•Generated superheated steam at 510°C
•thermal storage
•Sophisticated controls over a large
number of heliostats

• uses molten sodium or salts for heat

transfer

• uses nitrate salt and 3 hours thermal

storage

• concentration ratio of 800X;

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Central tower receiver systems

The PS-10 solar tower plant sits at Sanlucar la Mayor outside Seville, Spain.
It's Europe's first commercial solar thermal power plant

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Central tower receiver systems

11-megawatt electric power plant and it's providing electricity for a population
of about 6,000 houses

By 2013 - 300 megawatts, electricity for about 180,000 houses. That is about
the same as the population of a city like Seville.

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Central tower receiver systems

The prototype that successfully generated 50kW of 32 x 6.25MW Turbines – 200MW - 200,000 Homes
electricity for 15,000 hours over 7 years had a collector 1km high structure covering 20 square kilometres,
roof 240m in diameter and a tower 197m high. The world’s tallest and largest engineered structure.
 I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Passive solar heating

Conventional

Summer Winter SUNSPACE

PSH

Shading Advanced
Devices Windows
Thermal Mass

TROMBE

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Air solar collectors

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Air solar collectors

Transpired-air collectors
• need large usable surface area
• need air ducts and distribution air systems
• reduction of fuel costs by 50 to 70%
• low maintenance cost
• simple in operation with minimum efforts
• low investment costs - simple structure with the
design of the solar panels as part of the building
envelope
• short response time
Non transpired air collectors
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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Air solar collectors operation

• Dark perforated absorber captures

solar energy
• Fan draws air through collector small
holes & canopy
• air collects in a cavity between the
solar collector and building wall

• Controls regulate temperature

o Dampers
• need large usable surface area
o Auxiliary heating • need air ducts and distribution air systems
• Air is distributed through building • reduction of fuel costs by 50 to 70%
• low maintenance cost
• Wall heat loss recovered • simple in operation with minimum efforts
• low investment costs - simple structure with the
• Destratification design of the solar panels as part of the building
envelope
• Summer bypass damper • short response time

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Residential/commercial application

• Improved air quality at low cost

• Size ranges from a few m2 to 10,000 m2

• Ducts should be located near south wall

• Paybacks of 2 to 5 years typical

• Industrial systems often have quickest

payback

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Practical consideration

• Most cost-effective in new construction and renovation

• Cladding
• Ensure that existing ventilation system accommodates SAH easily
• Most dark colors have absorptivity of 0.80-0.95
• Architectural concerns can be very important
• Higher occupancy more cost-effective
• Can be fitted around windows and doors
• Existing fans & ducting can be used
• Low or no added maintenance costs

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Solar Architectural Design – Air-Collector-Facade

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Creative Energy Homes – C60 House - Ventilation
SUNWARM converts solar thermal energy to produce hot water, hot air for
space heating, heat recovery, air cooling and ventilation as well as
improving the indoor air quality by filtering the incoming air
Typical savings on gas:
4230 kWh
738 kg Co2

Up to 60% hot
water provided

Warm day warm night cold day cold night

www.notingham.ac.uk/sbe iSET
Institute of Sustainable Energy Technology
I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Solar Ponds
Heat Absorbing Bottom

Temperature inversion due to density of salt water (the dense heated salt water cannot rise)

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Space Heating

Seasonal Thermal Storage

The availability of solar radiation is out of

phase with space heating demand in the UK

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Solar District Heating Systems

The surface-to-volume ratio of a central storage tank is much better than that for distributed
storage systems, so the storage losses are much lower, and even permit seasonal heat storage.
Solar district heating is also an option if room heating is to be covered by solar energy. There
are higher piping losses with a central tank, but some solar district heating demonstration
systems have already been successfully tested.

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Solar District Heating Systems

Arnold Schwarzenegger Stadium in Graz, Austria

Solar District Heating System: constructed 2002 on the roof of the Skating Hall

1407 sq.m of collectors supply 560 – 600 MWh (800KWp system) into the district
heating system via a heat exchanger. 250,000 kg of CO2 are saved annually

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Solar District Heating with Seasonal Storage

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I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DSWH VI. Other Solar thermal systems

Solar Thermal Air-conditioning

Absorption, adsorption, venturi jet pump

Main components of the system at the University Clinic of Freiburg:

Adsorption refrigeration machine (left) and solar thermal system (right)
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School of the Built Environment
Solar Thermal Air-conditioning

Flat plate collectors are also used with micro-heat pipe technology

Beacon Energy
- Loughborough
- UK
Unique system
with no moving
parts
Evacuated Solar
Heat Pipe
Collector Array

13kW of heat &

6.5kW of cooling

Natural refrigerant
water
Solar Thermal Air-conditioning

The School in collaboration with

WORT Construction in Mexico.
Design, construction and
installation of a solar air
conditioning unit for a village
community store in Mazunte.
Solar Shading & Heating System

Aluminium Louvres (shading devices) used as

solar thermal collectors

ADJUSTABLE LOUVRES

HEAT-PIPES

ABSORBING MATERIAL REFLECTIVE MATERIAL

I. Type of solar collectors II. Performance III. type of DHWS VI. Other Solar thermal systems

OTHER SYSTEMS – Solar Drying, Desalination, Solar Cooking

SOLAR GRILL
SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Definition
• A solar collector :
Any object exposed to the sun and has the ability to
absorb and/or concentrate solar radiation could be
considered as a solar collector
collector.

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SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Definition
• A solar collector :
Any object exposed to the sun and has the ability to
absorb and/or concentrate solar radiation could be
considered as a solar collector
collector.

• A solar thermal collector:

A that is required to supply heat energy
(hot water, steam, hot air, etc)

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SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Heat balance of a flat plate collector

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SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Basic operation of a solar thermal collector

Heat Balance of a solar thermal collector

Solar irradiance Normal to plate

Heat loss by
Radiation and convection

Heat transfer fluid out

Absorbed radiation

Heat transfer fluid in

Useful energy gained = solar radiation absorbed – heat lost

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SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Basic operation of a solar thermal collector

Flat sheet with tubes

(fin-and-tube)

Curved flat sheet with tubes

(fin-and-tube)

Flat plate with channels

conduction losses

Low heat conduction materials

(plastics)

Air channels

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Performance of a solar thermal collector

Limitation

e.g., A simple solar thermal collector with heat removal

circulating fluid:
Heat transfer
•U~ 25W/m2K (very high !) - poor performance fluid outlet To

• T ~ 30-40 C
o
o (low temperature) - swimming pools)
Heat transfer
fluid inlet
Ti

How to improve increase the heated fluid (water) temperature?

• use a cover which is transparent to solar radiation

• use high radiation absorbing collector plate properties (absorptance)
• use insulation materials at the back and sides of the absorber plate
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SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Structure of commercial solar thermal collector (flat plate configuration)

• Supporting frame
• Thermal insulation on the back and sides
• Absorber
• Transparent cover (glazing) Transparent cover
(e.g., glass pane)

absorber

Thermal insulation

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SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Solar radiation path in a solar thermal collector

Radiation intensity
Solar radiation

GLASS

85%
Transmittance

INSIDE
Radiation intensity

Absorbed short wave

radiation

0.3 m
1.2 emitted IR radiation
0.6
2.5
5
Wavelength
20

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SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Solar radiation path in a solar thermal collector

Solar energy balance in the solar collector

Heat loss
Radiation, convection)
Reflection on
The absorber
Reflection on
Solar radiation The cover
(short wave)

Heat loss through

insulation

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SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Structure of solar thermal collector (flat plate configuration)

• Supporting frame
• Thermal insulation on the back and sides
• Absorber
• Transparent cover (glazing)

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SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Structure of a commercial solar thermal collector (tubular configuration)

Components of a solar thermal collector

absorber

Transparent cover

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SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Structure of a commercial solar thermal collector (tubular configuration)

Marmont Building Ecohouse

Demo- Terry Payne Gallery

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SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Solar Collector Sizing Calculation

Table1
Latitude of Nottingham
Total solar energy received per year
52o North
2100 kWh/m2
Collector efficiency:
Cold water supply temperature
Ambient temperature
Water average specific heat capacity
15oC
15oC
4.2 kJ / (kg K)
= Qu/(Ac * I)
Solar collector heat removal factor 0.8
1kWh = 3.6MJ
Qu = delivered hot water (KWh)
Ac = collector area
I = Solar energy received (KWh/m2)

Assuming that on average a person would require 50 litres of hot water daily at a temperature
of 60oC. A solar thermal collector with average efficiency of 60%, and operating conditions as
given in Table 1 was chosen to supply the hot water.

Calculate the solar collector area required to supply all hot water requirements for a
family of four people living in Nottingham.

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SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM DESIGN
iv.
Heat load required by 4 people per day is:

Qu = m C T (energy transfer equation)

50 litres water = 50kgs = m (per person)

C = 4.2 kJ / kg K
T = 60 -15 (required hot water temp – cold water supply temp)

Qu = 50 kg x 4 (people) x 4.2kJ/(kg K) x (60 -15) = 37800 kJ/day

Qu=37800 kJ/day = 37.8 MJ/day = 10.5 kWh/day (÷ 3.6, because 1W=1J/s, 3600secs = 1hr)

Collector efficiency
= Qu/(Ac * I)
With I, total solar energy received in one day in Nottingham is:
I=2100 kWh/(m2 year)/365 = 5.7534 kWh/ (m2/day)
Hence,
Ac=Qu/(I)=10.5/(0.6*5.7534)= 3.04 m2

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SOLAR THERMAL - SUMMARY

HISTORY & DEVELOPMENT COLLECTOR TYPES

DWH SYSTEMS CALCULATION OTHER SOLAR THERMAL

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REFERENCES ON SOLAR ENERGY
1. Beckman, W.A., J.A. Klein and J.A.Duffie, 1977 , solar heating design by the f-Chart
method, New York : Willey Interscience.
2. Duffie,J.A.,and W.a. Beckman, 1980,Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, New
York: Willey Interscience.
3. Frank Kirieth and J.F. Kreider, Principles of Solar Engineering, McGraw Hill Book
Company,1978.
4. P.N. Cheremisinoff and W.C. Dickinson (Eds.), Solar Energy Technology Handbook,
Marcel Dekker, 1980.
5. J.R. Howell, R.B. Bannerot and G.c. Vliet, Solar Thermal Energy System s Analysis
and Design, McGraw Hill, 1985.
6. E.E Anderson, Fundamentals of Solar Energy Conversion, Addison Wesley,1983.
7. P.J. Lunde, Solar Thermal Engineering Space Heating and Hot Water Systems, Jhon
Willey, 1980.
8. Ashrae , Standard 93-77, Methods of testing to determine the thermal performance of
solar collectors, New York : American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-
Conditioning Engineers.
9. Beckman, W.A., J.A. Duffle, and Associates, 1976, Futher verification for the solar

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