EE212 L01 Electronics I 2024

EE212 Electronics I Lecture # 1
EE212
- Electronics I -
Lecture # 1
Instructor: S. Simay YILMAZ, PhD

simayyilmaz@iyte.edu.tr
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EE212 Electronics I Lecture # 1 The Book
Microelectronics
Circuit Analysis
and Design
by
Donald A. Neamen
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EE212 Electronics I Lecture # 1 The Book
Chapters of EE212 - Electronics I
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EE212 Electronics I Lecture # 1 Outline
Chapter 1: Semiconductor Materials and Diodes
Preview
1.1 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
1.2 The pn Junction
1.3 Diode Circuits: DC Analysis and Models
1.4 Diode Circuits: AC Equivalent Circuit
1.5 Other Diode Types
1.6 Design Application: Diode Thermometer
1.7 Summary
Problems
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EE212 Electronics I Lecture # 1 Before starting Chapter 1:
ELECTRONICS?
• Electronics is defined as the science of the motion of charges in a gas, vacuum, or

semiconductor. (Note that the charge motion in a metal is excluded from this
definition.) Today, electronics generally involves transistors and transistor circuits.
• Microelectronics refers to integrated circuit (IC) technology, which can produce a

circuit with multimillions of components on a single piece of semiconductor
material.
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PASSIVE AND ACTIVE DEVICES
• In a passive electrical device, the time average power delivered to the device over an infinite time
period is always greater than or equal to zero. Resistors, capacitors, and inductors, are examples
of passive devices. Inductors and capacitors can store energy, but they cannot deliver an average
power greater than zero over an infinite time interval.
• Active devices, such as dc power supplies, batteries, and ac signal generators, are capable of
supplying particular types of power. Transistors are also considered to be active devices in that
they are capable of supplying more signal power to a load than they receive. This phenomenon is
called amplification. The additional power in the output signal is a result of a redistribution of ac
and dc power within the device.
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ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
In most electronic circuits, there are two inputs.
• One input is from a power supply that provides dc voltages and currents to establish
the proper biasing for transistors.
• The second input is a signal. Time-varying signals from a particular source very
often need to be amplified before the signal is capable of being “useful.”
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Figure shows a signal source that is the output of a compact disc system. The output music signal from
the compact disc system consists of a small time-varying voltage and current, which means that the
signal power is relatively small. The power required to drive the speakers is larger than the output
signal from the compact disc, so the compact disc signal must be amplified before it is capable of
driving the speakers in order that sound can be heard.
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ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Then, the analysis of electronic circuits is divided into two parts:
• one deals with the dc input and its circuit response (dc analysis),
• and the other deals with the signal input and the resulting circuit response (ac analysis).
Dependent voltage and current sources are used
• to model the active devices and
• to represent the amplification or signal gain.
In general, different equivalent circuit models must be used for the dc and ac analyses.
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DISCRETE AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
In this course, we will deal with discrete electronic circuits, that is, circuits
that contain discrete components, such as resistors, capacitors, and
transistors.
In EE313 Electronics II, we will focus on the types of circuits that are the
building blocks of the IC. For example, we will look at the various circuits that
make up the operational amplifier, an important IC in analog electronics.
We will also discuss various logic circuits used in digital ICs.
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ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
Analog signals
• The voltage signal shown is called an analog signal. The magnitude of an analog signal
can take on any value within limits and may vary continuously with time. Electronic
circuits that process analog signals are called analog circuits.
• One example of an analog circuit is a linear amplifier. A linear amplifier magnifies an

input signal and produces an output signal whose amplitude is larger and directly
proportional to the input signal.
• The vast majority of signals in the “real world” are analog
such as voice, music, photographs and pictures, video.

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
Digital signals
• An alternative signal is at one of two distinct levels and is called a digital signal. Since the
digital signal has discrete values, it is said to be quantized. Electronic circuits that process
digital signals are called digital circuits.
• In many electronic systems, signals are processed, transmitted, and received in digital
form.
• Such as text, compact discs, MP3, DVD,HDTV, Satellite
TV, MPEG, JPEG, GIF, HTML files etc.
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The following notation is used throughout this course:
• A lowercase letter with an uppercase subscript, such as iB and vBE,
indicates a total instantaneous value.
• An uppercase letter with an uppercase subscript, such as IB and
VBE, indicates a dc quantity.
• A lowercase letter with a lowercase subscript, such as ib and vbe,
indicates an instantaneous value of a time-varying signal.
• An uppercase letter with a lowercase subscript, such as Ib and Vbe,
indicates a phasor quantity.

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• Semiconductor devices are the basic components in electronic circuits. The
electrical characteristics of these devices provide the controlled switching
required for signal processing, for example.
• Most electrical engineers are users of electronics rather than designers of

electronic circuits and ICs. As with any discipline, however, the basics must be
mastered before the overall system characteristics and limitations can be
understood.
• In electronics, the discrete circuit must be thoroughly studied and analyzed

before the operation, properties, and limitations of an IC can be fully understood.
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EE212 Electronics I Lecture # 1
Chapters of EE212 - Electronics I
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EE212 Electronics I Lecture # 1 Chapter 1
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• The electronic devices, such as diodes and transistors, are fabricated

using semiconductor materials, so we begin CH. 1 with a brief discussion
of the properties and characteristics of semiconductors.
• A basic electronic device is the pn junction diode.
• The diode is a two-terminal device, but the i–v relationship is nonlinear.
• Since the diode is a nonlinear element, the analysis of circuits containing diodes is
not as straightforward as the analysis of simple linear resistor circuits.
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In this chapter, we will:
• Gain a basic understanding of semiconductor material properties

 Two types of charged carriers that exist in a semiconductor
 Two mechanisms that generate currents in a semiconductor
• Determine the properties of a pn junction

 Ideal current–voltage characteristics of a pn junction diode
• Examine dc analysis techniques for diode circuits using various models to describe the nonlinear
diode characteristics
• Develop an equivalent circuit for a diode that is used when a small, time-varying signal is applied
to a diode circuit
• Gain an understanding of the properties and characteristics of a few specialized diodes
• Design a simple electronic thermometer using the temperature characteristics of a diode
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EE212 Electronics I Lecture # 1 1.1 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS AND PROPERTIES
• Most electronic devices are fabricated by using semiconductor materials along

with conductors and insulators.
• Silicon is the most common semiconductor material used for semiconductor

devices and integrated circuits.
• Other semiconductor materials are used for specialized applications.

 For example, gallium arsenide and related compounds are used for very high speed devices
and optical devices.
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1.1.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• The electrons are distributed in various “shells”

at different distances from the nucleus, and
electron energy increases as shell radius
increases.
• Electrons in the outermost shell are called

valence electrons, and the chemical activity of a
material is determined primarily by the number
of such electrons.
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• Elements in the periodic table can be grouped according

to the number of valence electrons. Table shows a
portion of the periodic table in which the more
common semiconductors are found.
• Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) are in group IV and are

elemental semiconductors.
• In contrast, gallium arsenide is a group III–V compound

semiconductor.
• We will also see that the elements in group III and

group V are also important in semiconductors.
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Figure shows five noninteracting silicon atoms, with the four valence electrons of each
atom shown as dashed lines emanating from the atom. As silicon atoms come into close
proximity to each other, the valence electrons interact to form a crystal.
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• The final crystal structure is a tetrahedral configuration in which each silicon atom has four
nearest neighbors, as shown in Figure 1.1(b). The valence electrons are shared between atoms,
forming what are called covalent bonds. Germanium, gallium arsenide, and many other
semiconductor materials have the same tetrahedral configuration.
• Figure 1.1(c) is a two-dimensional representation of the lattice formed by the five silicon atoms in
Figure 1.1(a). An important property of such a lattice is that valence electrons are always available
on the outer edge of the silicon crystal so that additional atoms can be added to form very large
single-crystal structures.
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• A two-dimensional representation of a silicon single

crystal is shown in the figure, for T = 0 K, where T is
temperature. Each line between atoms represents a
valence electron. At T = 0 K, each electron is in its lowest
possible energy state, so each covalent bonding position
is filled.
• If a small electric field is applied to this material, the

electrons will not move, because they will still be bound
to their individual atoms. Therefore, at T = 0 K, silicon is
an insulator; that is, no charge flows through it.
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• When silicon atoms come together to form a crystal, the electrons occupy
particular allowed energy bands. At T = 0 K, all valence electrons occupy the
valence energy band.
• If the temperature increases, the valence electrons may gain thermal

energy. Any such electron may gain enough thermal energy to break the
covalent bond and move away from its original position as schematically
shown in the figure.
• In order to break the covalent bond, the valence electron must gain a
minimum energy, Eg, called the bandgap energy. The electrons that gain
this minimum energy now exist in the conduction band and are said to be
free electrons. These free electrons in the conduction band can move
throughout the crystal. The net flow of electrons in the conduction band
generates a current.
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An energy band diagram is shown in Figure 1.4(a).
• The energy Ev is the maximum energy of the valence energy band (electron or hole)
• and the energy Ec is the minimum energy of the conduction energy band. (free electron)
• The bandgap energy Eg is the difference between Ec and Ev (req. energy to break covalent
bond)
• and the region between these two energies is called the forbidden bandgap.
Electrons cannot exist within the forbidden
bandgap. Figure 1.4(b) qualitatively shows an
electron from the valence band gaining enough
energy and moving into the conduction band.
This process is called generation.
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• Materials that have large bandgap energies, in the range of 3 to 6 electron–volts1

(eV), are insulators because, at room temperature, essentially no free electrons
exist in the conduction band. In contrast, materials that contain very large
numbers of free electrons at room temperature are conductors. In a
semiconductor, the bandgap energy is on the order of 1 eV.
• The net charge in a semiconductor is zero; that is, the semiconductor is neutral.
• If a negatively charged electron breaks its covalent bond and moves away from its
original position, a positively charged “empty” state is created at that position
(Figure 1.3). As the temperature increases, more covalent bonds are broken, and
more free electrons and positive empty states are created. 1The unit eV (electron volt) represents the energy
necessary to move one electron across a potential
difference of 1 V, 1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 joules.
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• A valence electron that has a certain thermal energy and is

adjacent to an empty state may move into that position, as
shown in the figure, making it appear as if a positive charge is
moving through the semiconductor. This positively charged
“particle” is called a hole.
• In semiconductors, then, two types of charged particles

contribute to the current: the negatively charged free
electron, and the positively charged hole.
• Note that the charge of a hole has the same magnitude as

the charge of an electron.
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• The concentrations (#/cm3) of electrons and holes are important parameters in

the characteristics of a semiconductor material, because they directly influence
the magnitude of the current. An intrinsic semiconductor is a single-crystal
semiconductor material with no other types of atoms within the crystal.
• In an intrinsic semiconductor, the densities of electrons and holes are equal, since
the thermally generated electrons and holes are the only source of such particles.
Therefore, we use the notation ni as the intrinsic carrier concentration for the
concentration of the free electrons, as well as that of the holes.
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• The equation for ni is as follows:
where B is a coefficient related to the specific semiconductor material, Eg is the bandgap

energy (eV), T is the temperature (K), k is Boltzmann’s constant (86 × 10−6 eV/K), and e
represents the exponential function.
• The values for B and Eg for several semiconductor materials are given in Table 1.3. The
bandgap energy Eg and coefficient B are not strong functions of temperature.
• The intrinsic concentration ni is a parameter that appears often in the current–voltage

equations for semiconductor devices.
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The number of intrinsic carriers per

cubic centimeter
ni (Si,300K )  1.5x1010 cm3
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1.1.2 Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Since the electron and hole concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor are relatively
small, only very small currents are possible.
• However, these concentrations can be greatly increased by adding controlled amounts of

certain impurities.
• A desirable impurity is one that enters the crystal lattice and replaces
(i.e., substitutes for) one of the semiconductor atoms, even though
the impurity atom does not have the same valence electron structure.
• For silicon, the desirable substitutional impurities are from the group
III and V elements (see Table 1.2).
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• The most common group V elements used for this purpose are phosphorus and arsenic.
• For example, when a phosphorus atom substitutes for a silicon atom, as shown in Figure
1.6(a), four of its valence electrons are used to satisfy the covalent bond requirements.
The fifth valence electron is more loosely bound to the phosphorus atom. (serving as a
charge carrier)
• At room temperature, this electron has enough
thermal energy to break the bond, thus being free to
move through the crystal and contribute to the
electron current in the semiconductor. When the fifth
phosphorus valence electron moves into the
conduction band, a positively charged phosphorus ion
is created as shown in Figure 1.6(b).
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• The phosphorus atom is called a donor impurity, since it donates an electron that is free to
move.
• Although the remaining phosphorus atom has a net positive charge, the atom is immobile in
the crystal and cannot contribute to the current.
• Therefore, when a donor impurity is added to a semiconductor, free electrons are created
without generating holes.
• This process is called doping, and it allows us to control the concentration of free electrons in
a semiconductor.
• A semiconductor that contains donor impurity atoms is called an n-type semiconductor (for
the negatively charged electrons) and has a majority of electrons compared to holes.
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• The most common group III element used for silicon doping is boron. When a
boron atom replaces a silicon atom, its three valence electrons are used to satisfy
the covalent bond requirements for three of the four nearest silicon atoms
(Figure 1.7(a)). This leaves one bond position open. At room temperature,
adjacent silicon valence electrons have sufficient thermal energy to move into
this position, thereby creating a hole.
• This effect is shown in Figure 1.7(b). The boron

atom then has a net negative charge, but cannot
move, and a hole is created that can contribute to
a hole current.
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• Because the boron atom has accepted a valence electron, the boron is
therefore called an acceptor impurity.
• Acceptor atoms lead to the creation of holes without electrons being

generated. This process, also called doping, can be used to control the
concentration of holes in a semiconductor.
• A semiconductor that contains acceptor impurity atoms is called a p-type

semiconductor (for the positively charged holes created) and has a
majority of holes compared to electrons.
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• The electrical characteristics of silicon and germanium are improved

by adding materials in a process called doping.
• There are just two types of doped semiconductor materials:
• n-type
• p-type
• n-type materials contain an excess of conduction band electrons.
• p-type materials contain an excess of valence band holes.

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• The materials containing impurity atoms are called extrinsic semiconductors, or

doped semiconductors.
• The doping process, which allows us to control the concentrations of free

electrons and holes, determines the conductivity and currents in the material.
• A fundamental relationship between the electron and hole concentrations in a

semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by no po = ni2 where no is the
thermal equilibrium concentration of free electrons, po is the thermal equilibrium
concentration of holes, and ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration.
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At room temperature (T = 300 K), each donor atom donates a free electron to the semiconductor.
• If the donor concentration Nd is much larger than the intrinsic concentration, we can
approximate no ≈ Nd
• Then, from previous Equation, the hole concentration is po = ni2 / Nd .
Similarly, at room temperature, each acceptor atom accepts a valence electron, creating a hole.
• If the acceptor concentration Na is much larger than the intrinsic concentration, we can
approximate po ≈ Na
• Then, from previous Equation, the electron concentration is no = ni2 / Na
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1.1.3 Drift and Diffusion Currents
We’ve described the creation of negatively charged electrons and positively charged holes in the
semiconductor. If these charged particles move, a current is generated. These charged electrons
and holes are simply referred to as carriers. The two basic processes which cause electrons and
holes to move in a semiconductor are:
(a) drift, which is the movement caused by electric fields, and
(b) diffusion, which is the flow caused by variations in the concentration, that is, concentration
gradients.
Such gradients can be caused by a nonhomogeneous doping distribution, or by the injection of a

quantity of electrons or holes into a region, using methods to be discussed later in this chapter.
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Drift Current Density
• Assume an electric field is applied to a semiconductor. The field produces a force that acts on free electrons and holes,
which then experience a net drift velocity and net movement.
• Consider an n-type semiconductor with a large number of free electrons (Figure 1.8(a)). An electric field E applied in
one direction produces a force on the electrons in the opposite direction, because of the electrons’ negative charge.
The electrons get a drift velocity vdn (in cm/s) which is vdn = −μn E (1.7), where μn is a constant called the
electron mobility and has units of cm2/V·s.
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• For low-doped silicon, the value of μn is typically 1350 cm2/V·s. The mobility can be thought of as
a parameter indicating how well an electron can move in a semiconductor.
• The negative sign in Equation (1.7) indicates that the electron drift velocity is opposite to that of
the applied electric field as shown in Figure 1.8(a).
• The electron drift produces a drift current density Jn (A/cm2) given by
Jn = −e n vdn = −e n (−μn E) = +e n μn E (1.8)
where n is the electron concentration (#/cm3) and e is the magnitude of the electronic charge.
• The conventional drift current is in the opposite direction from the flow of negative charge,
which means that the drift current in an n-type semiconductor is in the same direction as the
applied electric field.
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• Consider a p-type semiconductor with a large number of holes (Figure 1.8(b)). An electric
field E applied in one direction produces a force on the holes in the same direction,
because of the positive charge on the holes.
• The holes acquire a drift velocity vdp (in cm/s), which is
vdp = +μp E (1.9)
where μp is a constant called the hole mobility, and again has units of cm2/V·s.
For low-doped silicon, the value of μp is typically 480 cm2/V·s, which is less than half the
value of the electron mobility.
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• The positive sign in Equation (1.9) indicates that the hole drift velocity is in the same
direction as the applied electric field as shown in Figure 1.8(b).
• The hole drift produces a drift current density Jp (A/cm2) given by
Jp = +e p vdp = +e p (+μp E) = +e p μp E (1.10)
where p is the hole concentration (#/cm3) and e is the magnitude of the electronic charge.
• The conventional drift current is in the same direction as the flow of positive charge,
which means that the drift current in a p-type material is also in the same direction as
the applied electric field.
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• Since a semiconductor contains both electrons and holes, the total drift current
density is the sum of the electron and hole components. The total drift current
density is then written as
J = e n μn E + e p μp E = σE = (1/ρ) E (1.11(a))
where
σ = e n μn + e p μp (1.11(b))
and where σ is the conductivity of the semiconductor in (Ω·cm)−1 and ρ = 1/σ is the
resistivity of the semiconductor in (Ω·cm).
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• The conductivity, σ, is related to the concentration of electrons and holes (n and p).
• If the electric field is the result of applying a voltage to the semiconductor, then
Equation (1.11(a)) becomes a linear relationship between current and voltage and is
one form of Ohm’s law.
• From Equation (1.11(b)), we see that the conductivity can be changed from strongly
n-type, n >> p, by donor impurity doping to strongly p-type, p >> n, by acceptor
impurity doping.
Being able to control the conductivity of a semiconductor by selective doping is

what enables us to fabricate the variety of electronic devices that are available.
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Diffusion Current Density
• In the diffusion process, particles flow from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration.
This is a statistical phenomenon related to kinetic theory.
• The electrons and holes in a semiconductor are in continuous motion, with an average speed determined by the
temperature, and with the directions randomized by interactions with the lattice atoms. Statistically, we can
assume that, at any particular instant, approximately half of the particles in the high-concentration region are
moving away from that region toward the lower-concentration region.
• We can also assume that, at the same time, approximately half of the particles in the lower-concentration region
are moving toward the high-concentration region. However, by definition, there are fewer particles in the lower-
concentration region than there are in the high-concentration region. Therefore, the net result is a flow of
particles away from the high-concentration region and toward the lower-concentration region. This is the basic
diffusion process.
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For example, consider an electron concentration that varies as a function of distance x, as

shown in Figure 1.9(a). The diffusion of electrons from a high-concentration region to a low-
concentration region produces a flow of electrons in the negative x direction. Since electrons
are negatively charged, the conventional current direction is in the positive x direction.
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• The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of electrons can be written as (for one
dimension)
Jn = e Dn (dn/dx) (1.12)
where e is the magnitude of the electronic charge, (dn/dx) is the gradient of the electron
concentration, and Dn is the electron diffusion coefficient.
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• In Figure 1.9(b), the hole concentration is a function of distance. The diffusion of holes
from a high-concentration region to a low-concentration region produces a flow of holes in
the negative x direction. (Conventional current is in the direction of the flow of positive
charge.)
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• The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of holes can be written as (for one
dimension)
Jp = -e Dp (dp/dx) (1.13)
where e is the magnitude of the electronic charge, dp/dx is the gradient of the hole
concentration, and Dp is the hole diffusion coefficient.
• Note the change in sign between the two diffusion current equations. This change in sign is
due to the difference in sign of the electronic charge between the negatively charged
electron and the positively charged hole. The minus sign is needed so that Jp is positive in
the positive x direction.
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electron diffusion coefficient
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• The mobility values in the drift current equations and the diffusion coefficient values in
the diffusion current equations are not independent quantities. They are related by the
Einstein relation, which is
at room temperature.
• The total current density is the sum of the drift and diffusion components. Fortunately, in
most cases only one component dominates the current at any one time in a given region of
a semiconductor.
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1.1.4 Excess Carriers
• Up to this point, we have assumed that the semiconductor is in thermal equilibrium. In the
discussion of drift and diffusion currents, we implicitly assumed that equilibrium was not
significantly disturbed. Yet, when a voltage is applied to, or a current exists in, a semiconductor
device, the semiconductor is really not in equilibrium.
• We will discuss the behavior of non-equilibrium electron and hole concentrations.
• Valence electrons may acquire sufficient energy to break the covalent bond and become free
electrons if they interact with high-energy photons incident on the semiconductor. When this
occurs, both an electron and a hole are produced, thus generating an electron–hole pair. These
additional electrons and holes are called excess electrons and excess holes.
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• When these excess electrons and holes are created, the concentrations of free electrons and
holes increase above their thermal equilibrium values. This may be represented by
n = no + δn (1.15(a))
and
p = po +δp (1.15(b))
where no and po are the thermal equilibrium concentrations of electrons and holes, and δn and δp
are the excess electron and hole concentrations.
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• If the semiconductor is in a steady-state condition, the creation of excess electrons and holes
will not cause the carrier concentration to increase indefinitely, because a free electron may
recombine with a hole, in a process called electron–hole recombination.
• Both the free electron and the hole disappear causing the excess concentration to reach a
steady-state value. The mean time over which an excess electron and hole exist before
recombination is called the excess carrier lifetime.
• Excess carriers are involved in the current mechanisms of, for example, solar cells and
photodiodes. These devices are discussed in Section 1.5.
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EE212 Electronics I Lecture # 1 1.2 THE pn JUNCTION
1.2 THE pn JUNCTION
Objective: Determine the properties of a pn junction including the ideal current-voltage characteristics of the
pn junction diode.
• So far, we looked at characteristics of semiconductor materials. The doping produces free electrons or
holes in a semiconductor, and an electric field or a concentration gradient leads to the movement of these
charge carriers. We introduce n-type and p-type dopants into two adjacent sections of a piece of
semiconductor. The p and n sides are called the “anode” and the “cathode,” respectively.
• The real power of semiconductor electronics occurs when p- and n-regions are directly adjacent to each
other, forming a pn junction.
• In most integrated circuit applications, the entire semiconductor material is a single crystal, with one
region doped to be p-type and the adjacent region doped to be n-type.
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1.2 THE pn JUNCTION
• We begin with semiconductor devices with the pn junction for three reasons.
(1) The device finds application in many electronic systems, e.g., in adaptors that charge
the batteries of cellphones.
(2) The pn junction is among the simplest semiconductor devices, thus providing a good
entry point into the study of the operation of such complex structures as transistors.
(3) The pn junction also serves as part of transistors. We also use the term “diode” to refer
to pn junctions.
• The pn junction can be considered in three modes: equilibrium, reverse bias, and forward bias.
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1.2.1 The Equilibrium pn Junction
Nd : donor concentration
Na : acceptor concentration
ni : intrinsic concentration
pno : hole concentration
npo : electron concentration
(a) is a simplified block diagram of a pn junction. (b) shows the respective p-type and n-type doping
concentrations, assuming uniform doping in each region, as well as the minority carrier concentrations in
each region, assuming thermal equilibrium. (c) is a three-dimensional diagram of the pn junction showing the
cross-sectional area of the device.
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The interface at x = 0 is called the metallurgical junction.
• A large density gradient in both the hole and electron concentrations occurs across this junction.
• Initially, there is a diffusion of holes from the p-region into the n-region, and a diffusion of electrons
from the n-region into the p-region.
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• The flow of holes from the p-region uncovers negatively charged acceptor ions, and the flow of
electrons from the n-region uncovers positively charged donor ions. This action creates a charge
separation, which sets up an electric field oriented in the direction from the positive charge to
the negative charge.
• If no voltage is applied to the pn junction, the diffusion of holes and electrons must eventually
stop. The direction of the induced electric field will cause the resulting force to repel the
diffusion of holes from the p-region and the diffusion of electrons from the n-region.
• Thermal equilibrium occurs when the force produced by the electric field and the force
produced by the density gradient exactly balance.
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• The positively charged region and the negatively charged region comprise the space-charge
region, or depletion region, of the pn junction, in which there are essentially no mobile electrons
or holes. Because of the electric field in the space-charge region, there is a potential difference
across that region (b).
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 64
• This potential difference is called the built-in potential barrier, or built-in voltage, and is given by
(1.16)
where VT = k T / e, k = Boltzmann’s constant, T = absolute temperature, e = the magnitude of the

electronic charge, and Na and Nd are the net acceptor and donor concentrations in the p- and n-
regions, respectively. The parameter VT is called the thermal voltage and is approximately
VT = 0.026 V at room temperature, T = 300 K.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 65
• The potential difference, or built-in potential barrier, across the space-charge region cannot be
measured by a voltmeter because new potential barriers form between the probes of the
voltmeter and the semiconductor, canceling the effects of Vbi .
• The built-in potential barrier is developed to oppose the flow of diffusion currents.
• In essence, Vbi maintains equilibrium, so no current is produced by this voltage.
• However, the magnitude of Vbi becomes important when we apply a forward-bias voltage, as
discussed later in this chapter.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 66
1.2.2 Reverse-Biased pn Junction
• Assume a positive voltage is applied to the n-region of

a pn junction. The applied voltage VR induces an
applied electric field, EA, in the semiconductor. The
direction of this applied field is the same as that of
the E-field in the space-charge region.
• The magnitude of the electric field in the space-charge region increases above the thermal
equilibrium value. This increased electric field holds back the holes in the p-region and the
electrons in the n-region, so there is essentially no current across the pn junction.
• By definition, this applied voltage polarity is called reverse bias.

29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 67
• When the electric field in the space-charge region increases, the

number of positive and negative charges must increase. If the doping
concentrations are not changed, the increase in the fixed charge can
only occur if the width W of the space-charge region increases.
Therefore, with an increasing reverse-bias voltage VR, space-charge
width W also increases.
• Because of the additional positive and negative charges induced

in the space-charge region with an increase in reverse-bias
voltage, a capacitance is associated with the pn junction when a
reverse-bias voltage is applied. The junction operates as a
capacitor. This junction capacitance, or depletion layer
where Cjo is the junction capacitance at
capacitance, is zero applied voltage.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 68
• The magnitude of the junction capacitance decreases as the reverse-bias voltage (𝑉𝑅 )
increases.
• The junction capacitance will affect the switching characteristics of the pn junction.
• The voltage across a capacitance cannot change instantaneously, so changes in voltages in

circuits containing pn junctions will not occur instantaneously.
• The capacitance–voltage characteristics can make the pn junction useful for electrically
tunable resonant circuits.
• Junctions fabricated specifically for this purpose are called varactor diodes. Varactor diodes
can be used in electrically tunable oscillators, such as a Hartley oscillator, discussed in
Chapter 15, or in tuned amplifiers, considered in Chapter 8.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 69
• As implied in the previous section, the magnitude of the electric field

in the space-charge region increases as the reverse-bias voltage
increases, and the maximum electric field occurs at the metallurgical
junction.
• However, neither the electric field in the space-charge region nor the
applied reverse-bias voltage can increase indefinitely because at some
point, breakdown will occur and a large reverse bias current will be
generated.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 70
1.2.3 Forward-Biased pn Junction
• The n-region contains many more free electrons than the p-region; the p-region contains many
more holes than the n-region.
• With zero applied voltage, the built-in potential barrier prevents these majority carriers from
diffusing across the space-charge region; thus, the barrier maintains equilibrium between the
carrier distributions on either side of the pn junction.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 71
1.2.3 Forward-Biased pn Junction
• If a positive voltage vD is applied to the p-region, the potential barrier decreases.
• The electric fields in the space-charge region are very large compared to those in the remainder
of the p- and n-regions, so essentially all of the applied voltage exists across the pn junction
region.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 72
• The applied electric field, EA, induced by the applied voltage is in the opposite direction from
that of the thermal equilibrium space-charge E-field.
• However, the net electric field is always from the n- to the p-region. The net result is that
the electric field in the space-charge region is lower than the equilibrium value.
• This upsets the delicate balance between diffusion and the E-field force.
• Majority carrier electrons from the n-region diffuse into the p-region, and majority carrier
holes from the p-region diffuse into the n-region.
• The process continues as long as the voltage vD is applied, thus creating a current in the pn
junction.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 73
• This applied voltage polarity (i.e., bias) is known as forward bias. The forward-bias voltage vD must always be less
than the built-in potential barrier Vbi.
• As the majority carriers cross into the opposite regions, they become minority carriers in those regions, causing
the minority carrier concentrations to increase. Figure shows the resulting excess minority carrier concentrations
at the space-charge region edges. These excess minority carriers diffuse into the neutral n- and p-regions, where
they recombine with majority carriers, thus establishing a steady-state condition.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 74
1.2.4 Ideal Current-Voltage Relationship
• An applied voltage results in a gradient in the minority carrier concentrations, which in turn causes
diffusion currents.
• In forward bias, the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, raising the diffusion currents
substantially.
• In reverse bias, the applied voltage enhances the field, prohibiting current flow.
• The theoretical relationship between the voltage and the current in the pn junction is given by
(1.18)
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 75
1.2.4 Ideal Current-Voltage Relationship
• The parameter IS is the reverse-bias saturation current.
• For silicon pn junctions, typical values of IS are in the range of 10−18 to 10−12 A.
• The actual value depends on the doping concentrations and is also proportional to the cross-
sectional area of the junction.
• The parameter VT is the thermal voltage and is approximately VT = 0.026 V at room

temperature.
• The parameter n is usually called the emission coefficient or ideality factor, and its value is
in the range 1 ≤ n ≤ 2.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 76
• The emission coefficient n considers any recombination of electrons and holes in the space-
charge region.
 At very low current levels, recombination may be a significant factor and the value of n may be
close to 2.
 At higher current levels, recombination is less a factor, and the value of n will be 1.
• Unless otherwise stated, we will assume the emission coefficient is n = 1.
• This pn junction, with nonlinear rectifying current characteristics, is called a pn junction

diode.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 77
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 78
1.2.5 pn Junction Diode
• The derived current–voltage characteristics

of a pn junction.
• For a forward-bias voltage, the current is

an exponential function of voltage.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 79
1.2.5 pn Junction Diode

log e • Figure depicts the forward-bias current plotted on a log
log( iD )  vD  log( I s )
nVT scale.
• With only a small change in the forward-bias voltage, the

corresponding forward-bias current increases by orders of
magnitude.
• For a forward-bias voltage vD > +0.1 V, the (−1) term in

Equation (1.18) can be neglected. In the reverse-bias
direction, the current is almost zero.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 80
• Figure shows the diode circuit symbol and the

conventional current direction and voltage
polarity.
• The diode can be thought of and used as a

voltage controlled switch that is “off” for a
reverse-bias voltage and “on” for a forward-bias
voltage.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 81
• In the forward-bias or “on” state, a relatively large current is produced by a fairly small
applied voltage; in the reverse-bias, or “off” state, only a very small current is created.
• When a diode is reverse-biased by at least 0.1 V, the diode current is iD = −IS.
• The current is in the reverse direction and is a constant, hence the name reverse-bias
saturation current.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 82
Temperature Effects
• Since both IS and VT are functions of

temperature, the diode characteristics also vary
with temperature.
• The temperature-related variations in forward-

bias characteristics are illustrated.
• For a given current, the required forward-bias

voltage decreases as temperature increases.
 For silicon diodes, the change is approximately 2

mV/°C.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 83
• The parameter IS is a function of the intrinsic carrier concentration ni, which in turn is
strongly dependent on temperature.
 The value of IS approximately doubles for every 5 °C increase in temperature. The actual reverse-
bias diode current, as a general rule, doubles for every 10 °C rise in temperature.
• The relative value of ni in germanium, is large, resulting in a large reverse-saturation current

in germanium-based diodes. Increases in this reverse current with increases in the
temperature make the germanium diode highly impractical for most circuit applications.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 84
Breakdown Voltage
• When a reverse-bias voltage is applied to a pn junction, the electric field

in the space-charge region increases. The electric field may become large
enough that covalent bonds are broken and electron–hole pairs are
created. Electrons are swept into the n-region and holes are swept into
the p-region by the electric field, generating a large reverse bias current.
This phenomenon is called breakdown.
• The reverse-bias current created by the breakdown mechanism is limited

only by the external circuit. If the current is not sufficiently limited, a
large power can be dissipated in the junction that may damage the
device and cause burnout. The current–voltage characteristic of a diode
in breakdown is shown.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 85
Breakdown Voltage
• Under a high reverse bias voltage, pn junctions break down, conducting a very high current.
Depending on the structure and doping levels of the device, two most common breakdown
mechanism “Zener” or “Avalanche” breakdown may occur.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 86
• Avalanche breakdown: As the reverse bias voltage increases, an avalanche effect takes place. Even though the leakage
current is very small, each carrier entering the depletion region experiences a very high electric field and hence a large
acceleration, thus gaining enough energy to break the electrons from their covalent bonds. Called “impact ionization,” this
phenomenon can lead to avalanche: Each electron freed by the impact may itself speed up so much in the field as to
collide with another atom with sufficient energy, thereby freeing one more covalent-bond electron. Now, these two
electrons may again acquire energy and cause more ionizing collisions, rapidly raising the number of free carriers.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 87
• The avalanche breakdown occurs when carriers crossing the space charge region gain sufficient
kinetic energy from the high electric field to be able to break covalent bonds during a collision
process.
• The generated electron–hole pairs can themselves be involved in a collision process generating
additional electron–hole pairs, thus the avalanche process.
• The breakdown voltage is a function of the doping concentrations in the n- and p-regions of the
junction.
• Larger doping concentrations result in smaller breakdown voltages.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 88
• Zener breakdown is a result of tunneling of carriers across the junction. This effect is prominent
at very high doping concentrations and results in breakdown voltages less than 5 V.
• The voltage at which breakdown occurs depends on fabrication parameters of the pn junction. A
pn junction is usually rated in terms of its peak inverse voltage or PIV. The PIV of a diode must
never be exceeded in circuit operation if reverse breakdown is to be avoided.
• Diodes can be fabricated with a specifically designed breakdown voltage and are designed to
operate in the breakdown region. These diodes are called Zener diodes.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 89
EE212 Electronics I Lecture # 1 1.3 DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS AND MODELS
1.3 DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS AND MODELS
Objective: Examine dc analysis techniques for diode circuits using various models to describe
the diode characteristics.
Remember, we said that
• The analysis of electronic circuits is divided into two parts:
 one deals with the dc input and its circuit response (dc analysis),
 and the other deals with the signal input and the resulting circuit response (ac analysis).
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 90
• The diode is a two-terminal device with nonlinear i–v characteristics.
• The analysis of nonlinear electronic circuits is not as straightforward as the analysis of linear
electric circuits. However, there are electronic functions that can be implemented only by
nonlinear circuits.
• Examples include the generation of dc voltages from sinusoidal voltages and the implementation
of logic functions.
• Mathematical relationships, or models, that describe the current–voltage characteristics of

electrical elements allow us to analyze and design circuits without having to fabricate and
test them in the laboratory.
• In this section, we will develop the dc analysis and modeling techniques of diode circuits.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 91
• We will consider the current–voltage characteristics of the pn junction diode to construct

various circuit models.
• Large-signal models are initially developed that describe the behavior of the device with
relatively large changes in voltages and currents. These models simplify the analysis of diode
circuits and make the analysis of relatively complex circuits much easier.
• In the next section, we will consider a small-signal model of the diode that will describe the
behavior of the pn junction with small changes in voltages and currents.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 92
• The current–voltage characteristics of the pn

junction diode were given in Figure 1.17.
• An ideal diode (as opposed to a diode with ideal

I–V characteristics) has the characteristics shown
in Figure 1.26(a).
 When a reverse-bias voltage is applied, the

current through the diode is zero (Figure 1.26(b));
 When current through the diode is greater than

zero, the voltage across the diode is zero (Figure
1.26(c)).
 An external circuit connected to the diode must

be designed to control the forward current
through the diode.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 93
• One diode circuit is the rectifier circuit shown in Figure 1.27(a). Assume that the input
voltage vI is a sinusoidal signal, as shown in Figure 1.27(b), and the diode is an ideal diode
(see Figure 1.26(a)).
• During the positive half-cycle of the sinusoidal input, a forward-bias current exists in the
diode and the voltage across the diode is zero. The equivalent circuit for this condition is
shown in Figure 1.27(c). The output voltage vO is then equal to the input voltage.
• During the negative half-cycle of the sinusoidal input, the diode is reverse biased. The
equivalent circuit for this condition is shown in Figure 1.27(d). In this part of the cycle, the
diode acts as an open circuit, the current is zero, and the output voltage is zero.
• The output voltage of the circuit is shown in Figure 1.27(e).

29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 94
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 95
• Over the entire cycle, the input signal is sinusoidal and has a zero average value; however,
the output signal contains only positive values and therefore has a positive average value.
Thus, this circuit is said to rectify the input signal, which is the first step in generating a dc
voltage from a sinusoidal (ac) voltage.
• The analysis of nonlinear circuits is not as straightforward as that of linear circuits.
• We will look at four approaches to the dc analysis of diode circuits:
(a) iteration; Methods (a) and (b) are closely related

and are therefore presented together.
(b) graphical techniques;
(c) a piecewise linear modeling method;
(d) a computer analysis.

29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 96
1.3.1 Iteration and Graphical Analysis Techniques
• Iteration means using trial and error to find a solution to a problem.
• The graphical analysis technique involves plotting two simultaneous equations and locating
their point of intersection, which is the solution to the two equations.
We will use both techniques to solve the circuit equations, which include the diode equation.
These equations are difficult to solve by hand because they contain both linear and
exponential terms.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 97
Consider the circuit in Figure, with a dc voltage VPS applied

across a resistor and a diode. Kirchhoff’s voltage law applies both
to nonlinear and linear circuits, so we can write
(1.21(a)) and then (1.21(b)).
The diode voltage VD and current ID are related by the ideal diode equation as (1.22)
where IS is assumed to be known for a particular diode.
Combining the equations, we obtain (1.23)
which contains only one unknown, VD.
However, Eq. (1.23) is a transcendental equation and cannot be solved directly.
The use of iteration to find a solution to this equation is needed.

29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 98
Example 1.8: Determine the diode voltage and current for the circuit shown before. Consider a diode
with a given reverse-saturation current of IS = 10−13 A.
Solution using iteration
Solution: Write Eq.(1.23) as (1.24).
• First try VD = 0.60 V, the right side of Eq. (1.24) is 2.7 V, so the eq. is not balanced and try again.
• Next try VD = 0.65 V, the right side of Eq. (1.24) is 15.1 V. Again, the eq. is not balanced.
• But we can see that the solution for VD is between 0.6 and 0.65 V. If we continue the guesses, we will
be able to show that, when VD = 0.619 V, the right side of Eq. (1.24) is 4.99 V, which is essentially
equal to the value of the left side of the equation.
• The current in the circuit can then be determined by dividing the voltage difference across the
resistor by the resistance, or
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 99
EE212 Electronics I
Solution using graphical approach Lecture # 1 1.3 DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS AND MODELS
• To use a graphical approach to analyze the circuit, we go back to Kirchhoff’s voltage law, as expressed
by Eq. (1.21(a)), which was VPS = ID R + VD.
• Solving for the current ID, we have (1.21(b)).
• This equation gives a linear relation between the diode current ID and the diode voltage VD for a
given power supply voltage VPS and resistance R.
• This equation is referred to as the circuit load line, and is usually plotted on a graph with the current
ID as the vertical axis and the voltage VD as the horizontal axis.
• From Eq. (1.21(b)), we see that if ID = 0, then VD = VPS which is the horizontal axis intercept.
• If VD = 0, then ID = VPS /R which is the vertical axis intercept. The load line can be drawn between
these two points. From Eq. (1.21(b)), we see that the slope of the load line is −1/R.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 100

EE212 Electronics I
Solution using graphical approach Lecture # 1 1.3 DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS AND MODELS
• Using the values given in Example, plot the straight line.
• The second plot in the figure is that of Eq. (1.22), which is the
ideal diode equation relating the diode current and voltage.
The intersection of the load line and the device characteristics
curve provides the dc current ID ≈ 2.2 mA through the diode
and the dc voltage VD ≈ 0.62 V across the diode. This point is
referred to as the quiescent point, or the Q-point.
Slope=−1/R
• The graphical analysis method can yield accurate results, but it
is somewhat impractical.
• However, the concept of the load line and the graphical

approach are useful for “visualizing” the response of a circuit,
and the load line is used extensively in the evaluation of
electronic circuits.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 101
1.3.2 Piecewise Linear Model
• Another, simpler way to

analyze diode circuits is to
approximate the diode’s
current–voltage characteristics,
using linear relationships or
straight lines.
• Figure shows the ideal current–

voltage characteristics and two
linear approximations.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 102

• For VD ≥ Vγ , we assume a straight-line approximation whose slope is 1/rf , where Vγ is the

turn-on, or cut-in voltage of the diode, and rf is the forward diode resistance.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 103

• The equivalent circuit for this linear approximation is a constant-voltage source in series with a resistor (a).
• For VD < Vγ , we assume a straight-line approximation parallel with the VD axis at the zero current level. In this
case, the equivalent circuit is an open circuit (b).
• This method models the diode with segments of straight lines; called piecewise linear model. If assume rf = 0,
the piecewise linear diode characteristics are shown in (c).
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 104

Example 1.9: Determine the diode voltage and current in the circuit, using a piecewise linear model.
Solution using piecewise linear model
Determine the power dissipated in the diode. Assume piecewise linear diode parameters of Vγ = 0.6 V
and rf = 10Ω.
Solution: With the given input voltage polarity,
the diode is forward biased or “turned on,” so ID > 0.

The equivalent circuit
The diode current is determined by
The diode voltage is VD = Vγ + ID rf = 0.6 + (2.19 × 10−3)(10) = 0.622V.
The power dissipated in the diode is given by PD = ID VD . Then, PD = (2.19)(0.622) = 1.36mW.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 105

• This solution, using the piecewise linear model, is nearly equal to the solution obtained in Example
Solution using piecewise linear model
1.8, in which the ideal diode equation was used. However, the analysis using the piecewise-linear
model in this example is by far easier than using the actual diode I–V characteristics as was done in
Example 1.8.
• Because the forward diode resistance rf in Example 1.9 is much smaller than the circuit resistance
R, the diode current ID is essentially independent of the value of rf .
• If the cut-in voltage is 0.7 V instead of 0.6 V, the calculated diode current will be 2.15 mA, which is
not significantly different from the previous results.
• Therefore, the calculated diode current is not a strong function of the cut-in voltage. Consequently,
we will often assume a cut-in voltage of 0.7 V for silicon pn junction diodes.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 106

EE212 Electronics I
Combination of load line and piecewise linear model Lecture # 1 1.3 DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS AND MODELS
• The concept of the load line and the piecewise linear model can be combined in diode circuit
analyses. From Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the load line for the circuit and for the piecewise linear
model of the diode can be written as VPS = ID R + Vγ where Vγ is the diode cut-in voltage. We can
assume Vγ = 0.7V. Various load lines can be determined and plotted for the following circuit
conditions:
A: VPS = 5 V, R = 2kΩ
B: VPS = 5 V, R = 4kΩ
The load line for condition A is plotted in Figure. Also
C: VPS = 2.5 V, R = 2kΩ plotted in the figure are the piecewise linear
D: VPS = 2.5 V, R = 4kΩ characteristics of the diode. The intersection of the

two curves corresponds to the Q-point. For this case,
the quiescent diode current is IDQ ≈ 2.15mA.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 107

• Figure 1.32(b) shows the same piecewise linear characteristics of the diode. In addition, all
four load lines, defined by the conditions listed in A, B, C, and D are plotted on the figure.
• We see that the Q-point of the diode is a function of the load line. The Q-point changes
for each load line.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 108

The load line concept is also useful when the diode is reverse biased. Figure 1.33 (a) shows
the same diode circuit as before, but with the direction of the diode reversed.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 109

• The diode current ID and voltage VD shown are the usual forward-biased parameters.
• Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we can write VPS = IPS R − VD = −ID R − VD (1.25(a))
(1.25(b))
where ID = −IPS .
• Eq. (1.25(b)) is the load line equation. The two end points are found by setting ID = 0, which yields VD = − VPS =
−5V, and by setting VD = 0, which yields ID = − VPS/R = −5/2 = −2.5mA.
• The diode characteristics and the load line are plotted in Figure 1.33(b). We see that the load line is in the
third quadrant, where it intersects the diode characteristics curve at VD = −5V and ID = 0, demonstrating that
the diode is reverse biased.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 110

1.3.3 Computer Simulation & Analysis
• There are several programs.
• One of the earliest, and now the most widely used, circuit analysis programs is the
simulation program with integrated circuit emphasis (SPICE).
• One outgrowth of SPICE is PSpice, which is designed for use on personal computers.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 111

1.3.4 Summary of Diode Models
• The two dc diode models used in the hand analysis of diode circuits are: the ideal diode equation
and the piecewise linear approximation.
• For the ideal diode equation, the reverse-saturation current IS must be specified. For the piecewise
linear model, the cut-in voltage Vγ and forward diode resistance rf must be specified. In most cases,
however, rf is assumed to be zero unless otherwise given.
• The particular model that should be used in a specific application or situation is a compromise
between accuracy and ease of calculation.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 112

EE212 Electronics I Lecture # 1 1.4 DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
1.4 DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Objective: Develop an equivalent circuit for a diode that is used when a small, time-varying
signal is applied to a diode circuit.
• Up to this point, we have only looked at the dc characteristics of the pn junction diode.
• When semiconductor devices with pn junctions are used in linear amplifier circuits, the
time-varying, or ac, characteristics of the pn junction become important, because sinusoidal
signals may be superimposed on the dc currents and voltages.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 113

1.4.1 Sinusoidal Analysis
• In Figure (a), the voltage source vi is assumed to be a sinusoidal, or

time-varying, signal. The total input voltage vI is composed of a dc
component VPS and an ac component vi superimposed on the dc
value.
• To investigate this circuit, two types of analyses: a dc analysis

involving only the dc voltages and currents, and an ac analysis
involving only the ac voltages and currents.
Figure 1.35: AC circuit analysis: (a) circuit with combined dc and sinusoidal input
voltages, (b) sinusoidal diode current superimposed on the quiescent current, (c)
sinusoidal diode voltage superimposed on the quiescent value.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 114

Current–Voltage Relationships
• Since the input voltage contains a dc component with an ac signal superimposed, the diode current
will also contain a dc component with an ac signal superimposed (Figure 1.35b). Here, IDQ is the dc
quiescent diode current.
• The diode voltage will contain a dc value with an ac signal superimposed (Figure 1.35c). Assume
that the ac signal is small compared to the dc component, so that a linear ac model can be
developed from the nonlinear diode.
• The relationship between the diode current and voltage, (1.26)

where VDQ is the dc quiescent voltage and vd is the ac component.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 115

(1.27)
• If the ac signal is “small,” then vd << VT , and we can expand the exponential function into a
linear series, as follows:
(1.28)
• We may also write the dc quiescent diode current as
(1.29)
• The diode current–voltage relationship from Equation (1.27) can then be written as
(1.30)
where 𝑖𝑑 is the ac component of the diode current.

29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 116
• The relationship between the ac components of the diode

voltage and current is, (1.31(a))
(1.31(b))
• gd and rd are the diode small-signal incremental conductance

and resistance, also called the diffusion conductance and
diffusion resistance.
(1.32)
• The incremental resistance is a function of the dc bias current IDQ

and is inversely proportional to the slope of the I–V
characteristics curve, as shown in Figure. (d) forward-biased diode I –V characteristics with a
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 sinusoidal current and voltage superimposed
117 on the
quiescent values
Circuit Analysis
• To analyze the circuit shown in Figure 1.35(a), we first perform a dc analysis and
then an ac analysis. These two types of analyses will use two equivalent circuits.
• Figure 1.36(a) is the dc equivalent circuit that we have seen previously. If the diode
is forward biased, then the voltage across the diode is the piecewise linear turn-on
voltage.
• Figure 1.36(b) is the ac equivalent circuit. The diode has been replaced by its
equivalent resistance rd . All parameters in this circuit are the small-signal time-
varying parameters.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 118

Circuit Analysis
If the diode is forward The diode has been

biased, the voltage replaced by its equivalent
across the diode is resistance rd. All parame-
the piecewise linear ters in this circuit are the
turn-on voltage. small-signal time-varying
parameters.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 119

Example 1.11: Analyze the circuit shown in Figure (a). Assume circuit and
diode parameters of VPS = 5 V, R = 5 kΩ, Vγ = 0.6 V, and vi = 0.1 sinωt (V).
Solution: Analysis into two parts: the dc analysis and the ac analysis.
• For the dc analysis, set vi = 0 and determine the dc quiescent current from Figure 1.36(a)
The dc value of the output voltage is
Vo = IDQ R = (0.88)(5) = 4.4 V
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 120

• For the ac analysis, consider only the ac signals and parameters in the circuit. Set VPS = 0.
The ac Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL) equation becomes vi = id rd + id R = id (rd + R) where rd
is the small-signal diode diffusion resistance. From Eq. (1.32),
!! Note that we need DC Quiescent

current when we perform AC analysis!
The ac diode current is
The ac component of the output voltage is vo = id R = 0.0995 sinωt (V)
Comment: Divide the circuit analysis into a dc analysis and an ac analysis. Use separate
equivalent circuit models for each analysis.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 121
Frequency Response
• In the previous analysis, we implicitly assumed that the frequency of the ac signal was small enough that
capacitance effects in the circuit would be negligible.
• If the frequency of the ac input signal increases, the diffusion capacitance associated with a forward-biased
pn junction becomes important. The source of the diffusion capacitance is shown in Figure 1.37.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 122

• Consider the minority carrier hole concentration on the right
side of the figure. At the quiescent diode voltage, VDQ, the
minority carrier hole concentration is shown as the solid line
and indicated by pn|VDQ.
• If the total diode voltage increases by ΔV during the positive

half cycle of a sinusoidal signal superimposed on the quiescent
value, the hole concentration will increase to that shown by
the dotted line indicated by pn|VDQ+ΔV .
• If the total diode voltage decreases by ΔV during the negative

half cycle of a sinusoidal signal superimposed on the quiescent
value, the hole concentration will decrease to that shown by
the dotted line indicated by pn|VDQ-ΔV .
Change in minority carrier stored charge with a time-
• The +ΔQ charge is alternately being charged and discharged varying voltage superimposed on a dc quiescent diode
through the pn junction as the voltage across the junction voltage. The change in stored charge leads to a diode
diffusion capacitance.
changes.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 123
• The same process is occurring with the minority carrier electrons in the p-region.
• The diffusion capacitance is the change in the stored minority carrier charge that is caused
by a change in the voltage, or
• The diffusion capacitance Cd is normally much larger than the junction capacitance Cj,
because of the magnitude of the charges involved.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 124

1.4.2 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit
• The small-signal equivalent circuit of the forward-biased pn junction

is shown in Figure 1.38 and is developed partially from the equation
for the admittance, which is given by
Y = gd + jωCd (1.34)
where gd and Cd are the diffusion conductance and capacitance,

respectively.
• We must also add the junction capacitance, which is in parallel with

the diffusion resistance and capacitance, and a series resistance,
which is required because of the finite resistances in the neutral n-
and p-regions.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 125
• The small-signal equivalent circuit of the pn junction is used

to obtain the ac response of a diode circuit subjected to ac
signals superimposed on the Q-point values.
• Small-signal equivalent circuits of pn junctions are also used

to develop small-signal models of transistors, and these
models are used in the analysis and design of transistor
amplifiers.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 126

𝑟𝑓
𝑉𝛾
𝑟𝑓
𝑉𝛾
29.02.2024 127
Lecture # 1
EE212 Electronics I Lecture # 1 1.5 OTHER DIODE TYPES
1.5 OTHER DIODE TYPES
Objective: Gain an understanding of the properties and characteristics of a few specialized

diodes.
• There are many other types of diodes with specialized characteristics that are useful in
particular applications.
• We will briefly consider the solar cell, photodiode, light-emitting diode, Schottky diode,
and Zener diode.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 128

1.5.1 Solar Cell
• A solar cell is a pn junction device with no voltage directly

applied across the junction. The pn junction, which converts
solar energy into electrical energy, is connected to a load as
indicated in Figure. When light hits the space-charge region,
electrons and holes are generated. They are quickly
separated and swept out of the space-charge region by the
electric field, thus creating a photocurrent.
• The generated photocurrent will produce a voltage across • Solar cells are usually fabricated from
the load, which means that the solar cell has supplied silicon, but may be made from GaAs or
power. other III–V compound semiconductors.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 129

1.5.2 Photodiode
• Photodetectors are devices that convert optical signals into electrical signals.
• An example is the photodiode, which is similar to a solar cell except that the pn junction is
operated with a reverse-bias voltage. Incident photons or light waves create excess electrons and
holes in the space-charge region. These excess carriers are quickly separated and swept out of the
space-charge region by the electric field, thus creating a “photocurrent.” This generated
photocurrent is directly proportional to the incident photon flux.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 130

1.5.3 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
• The LED converts current to light. When a forward-bias voltage is applied

across a pn junction, electrons and holes flow across the space-charge region
and become excess minority carriers. These excess minority carriers diffuse
into the neutral semiconductor regions, where they recombine with majority
carriers.
• If the semiconductor is a direct bandgap material, such as GaAs, the electron

and hole can recombine with no change in momentum, and a photon or light
wave can be emitted.
• Conversely, in an indirect bandgap material, such as silicon, when an electron

and hole recombine, both energy and momentum must be conserved, so the
emission of a photon is very unlikely.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 131
• Therefore, LEDs are fabricated from GaAs or other compound semiconductor materials.
• In an LED, the diode current is directly proportional to the recombination rate, which means that
the output light intensity is also proportional to the diode current.
• Monolithic arrays of LEDs are fabricated for numeric and alphanumeric displays, such as the
readout of a digital voltmeter.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 132

• An LED may be integrated into an optical cavity to

produce a coherent photon output with a very
narrow bandwidth. Such a device is a laser diode,
which is used in optical communications
applications.
• The LED can be used in conjunction with a

photodiode to create an optical system such as
that shown in Figure 1.40. The light signal created
may travel over relatively long distances through
the optical fiber, because of the low optical
absorption in high-quality optical fibers.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 133

1.5.4 Schottky Barrier Diode
• Or simply a Schottky diode, is formed when a metal, such as

aluminum, is brought into contact with a moderately doped n-
type semiconductor to form a rectifying junction.
• Figure(a) shows the metal-semiconductor contact, and

Figure(b) shows the circuit symbol with the current direction
and voltage polarity.
• The I/V characteristics of a Schottky diode are very similar to

those of a pn junction diode. The same ideal diode equation
can be used for both devices. However, there are two important
differences between the two diodes that directly affect the
response of the Schottky diode.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 134
• The current mechanism in the two devices is different.
 The current in a pn junction diode is controlled by the diffusion of minority carriers.
 The current in a Schottky diode results from the flow of majority carriers (electrons) over the
potential barrier at the metallurgical junction. This means that there is no minority carrier
storage in the Schottky diode, so the switching time from a forward bias to a reverse bias is
very short compared to that of a pn junction diode. The storage time, ts , for a Schottky diode is
essentially zero (the length of time required for the minority carrier concentrations at the
space-charge region edges to reach the thermal equilibrium values).
• The reverse-saturation current IS for a Schottky diode is larger than that of a pn junction diode for
comparable device areas. This property means that it takes less forward bias voltage to induce a
particular current compared to a pn junction diode. (an application of this in Chapter 17)
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 135

• Figure 1.42 compares the characteristics of

the two diodes.
• Applying the piecewise linear model,

determine that the Schottky diode has a
smaller turn-on voltage than the pn junction
diode.
• This lower turn-on voltage and the shorter

switching time make the Schottky diode
useful in integrated-circuit applications.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 136

Example 1.12 The reverse saturation currents of a pn junction diode and a Schottky diode
are IS = 10−12 A and 10−8 A, respectively. Determine the forward-bias voltages required to
produce 1 mA in each diode.
Solution: The diode current-voltage relationship is given by

• Since the reverse-saturation current for the
Schottky diode is relatively large, less voltage
across this diode is required to produce a given
current compared to the pn junction diode.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 137

1.5.5 Zener Diode
• The applied reverse-bias voltage

cannot increase without limit. At some
point, breakdown occurs and the
current in the reverse-bias direction
increases rapidly. The voltage at this
point is called the breakdown voltage.
• The diode I–V characteristics,

including breakdown, are shown in
Figure 1.43.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 138

• Diodes, called Zener diodes, can be designed and fabricated to provide a specified
breakdown voltage VZo.
• The large current that may exist at breakdown can cause heating effects and catastrophic
failure of the diode due to the large power dissipation in the device.
• However, diodes can be operated in the breakdown region by limiting the current to a
value within the capabilities of the device. Such a diode can be used as a constant-voltage
reference in a circuit.
• The diode breakdown voltage is essentially constant over a wide range of currents and
temperatures. The slope of the I–V characteristics curve in breakdown is quite large, so the
incremental resistance rz is small. Typically, rz is in the range of a few ohms or tens of
ohms.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 139
• The circuit symbol of the Zener diode is shown in Figure.
• The voltage VZ is the Zener breakdown voltage, and the current IZ is the reverse-bias
current when the diode is operating in the breakdown region.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 140

Design Example 1.13 Consider a simple constant-voltage reference circuit and design the
value of resistance required to limit the current in this circuit. Assume that the Zener diode
breakdown voltage is VZ = 5.6 V and the Zener resistance is rz = 0. The current in the diode is
to be limited to 3 mA.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 141

• The resistance external to the Zener diode limits the current when the diode is operating in the breakdown region.
• In the circuit shown in the figure, the output voltage will remain constant at 5.6 V, even though the power supply
voltage and the resistance may change over a limited range. Hence, this circuit provides a constant output voltage.
29.02.2024 Lecture # 1 142

EE212 L01 Electronics I 2024

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EE212 Electronics I Lecture # 1

Instructor: S. Simay YILMAZ, PhD

Chapters of EE212 - Electronics I

1.2 The pn Junction

1.3 Diode Circuits: DC Analysis and Models

1.4 Diode Circuits: AC Equivalent Circuit

1.5 Other Diode Types

1.6 Design Application: Diode Thermometer

• Electronics is defined as the science of the motion of charges in a gas, vacuum, or

• Microelectronics refers to integrated circuit (IC) technology, which can produce a

the proper biasing for transistors.

often need to be amplified before the signal is capable of being “useful.”

Then, the analysis of electronic circuits is divided into two parts:

Dependent voltage and current sources are used

• to model the active devices and

• to represent the amplification or signal gain.

We will also discuss various logic circuits used in digital ICs.

• One example of an analog circuit is a linear amplifier. A linear amplifier magnifies an

• The vast majority of signals in the “real world” are analog

such as voice, music, photographs and pictures, video.

• Such as text, compact discs, MP3, DVD,HDTV, Satellite

TV, MPEG, JPEG, GIF, HTML files etc.

• A lowercase letter with an uppercase subscript, such as iB and vBE,

indicates a total instantaneous value.

• An uppercase letter with an uppercase subscript, such as IB and

VBE, indicates a dc quantity.

• A lowercase letter with a lowercase subscript, such as ib and vbe,

indicates an instantaneous value of a time-varying signal.

• An uppercase letter with a lowercase subscript, such as Ib and Vbe,

indicates a phasor quantity.

• Most electrical engineers are users of electronics rather than designers of

• In electronics, the discrete circuit must be thoroughly studied and analyzed

Chapters of EE212 - Electronics I

• The electronic devices, such as diodes and transistors, are fabricated

• A basic electronic device is the pn junction diode.

• The diode is a two-terminal device, but the i–v relationship is nonlinear.

• Gain a basic understanding of semiconductor material properties

• Determine the properties of a pn junction

• Gain an understanding of the properties and characteristics of a few specialized diodes

• Design a simple electronic thermometer using the temperature characteristics of a diode

• Most electronic devices are fabricated by using semiconductor materials along

• Silicon is the most common semiconductor material used for semiconductor

• Other semiconductor materials are used for specialized applications.

1.1.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors

• The electrons are distributed in various “shells”

• Electrons in the outermost shell are called

• Elements in the periodic table can be grouped according

• Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) are in group IV and are

• In contrast, gallium arsenide is a group III–V compound

• We will also see that the elements in group III and

• A two-dimensional representation of a silicon single

• If a small electric field is applied to this material, the

• If the temperature increases, the valence electrons may gain thermal

• Materials that have large bandgap energies, in the range of 3 to 6 electron–volts1

• A valence electron that has a certain thermal energy and is

• In semiconductors, then, two types of charged particles

• Note that the charge of a hole has the same magnitude as

• The concentrations (#/cm3) of electrons and holes are important parameters in

• The equation for ni is as follows:

where B is a coefficient related to the specific semiconductor material, Eg is the bandgap