PROTECTION

RELAYS a)Selectivity. It is the ability of the protective system to select

Objective 2 correctly that part of the system in trouble and disconnect the
Explain the types of relaying systems faulty part without disturbing the rest of thesystem.
a)Permanent magnet A well designed and efficient relay system should be selective
b)balance Beam i.e. it should be able to detect the point at which the fault
c)Induction type over current relays occurs and cause the opening of the circuit breakers closest to
d)Distance relays the fault with minimum or no damage to the system.
e)Directional Relays In order to provide selectivity to the system, it is a usual
f)Non Directional Relays practice to divide the entire system into several protection
g)Solid state relays zones. When a fault occurs in a given zone, then only the
circuit breakers within that zone will be opened
Protective Relays
A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates
the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective
element from the rest of the system.

The system can be divided into the following protection zones

:
a) generators
b) low-tension switchgear
c)transformers
d) high-tension switchgear
The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical e)transmissionlines
circuits by constantly measuring the electrical quantities,
which are different under normal and fault conditions b) Speed. The relay system should disconnect the faulty section
The relay circuit connections can be divided into three parts as fast as possible for the following reasons :
i)First part is the primary winding of a current transformer i) Electrical apparatus may be damaged if fault currents last
(C.T.) which is connected in series with the line to be long.
protected. ii) A fault may lead to greater reduction of the system voltage which
ii) Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and the maylead to shutting down of consumer motors (loads)
relay operating coil. iii) The high speed relay system decreases the possibility of
iii) Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either a.c. or development of one type of fault into the other more severe
d.c. It consists of a source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit type.
breaker and the relay stationary contacts.
When a short circuit occurs at point F on the transmission c) Sensitivity. It is the ability of the relay system to operate with
line, the current flowing in the line increases to an enormous low value of actuating quantity.
value. This results in a heavy current flow through the relay coil, Sensitivity of a relay is a function of the volt-amperes input to
causing the relay to operate by closing its contacts. This in turn the coil of the relay necessary to cause its operation. The
closes the trip circuit of the breaker, making the circuit smaller the volt-ampere input required to cause relay
breaker open and operation, the more sensitive is the relay. Thus, a 1 VA relay is
isolating the faulty section from the rest of the system. In this more sensitive than a 3 VA relay.
way, the relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment from d) Reliability. It is the ability of the relay system to operate
damage and normal working of the healthy portion of the under the pre-determined conditions and restore back the
system system to it original functional state.
e) Simplicity. - The relaying system should be easy to be
Fundamental Requirements of Protective Relaying understood by the user and for easy maintenance. Reliability
In order that protective relay system may perform this is closely related to simplicity. The simpler the protection
function satisfactorily, it should have the following qualities: scheme, the greater will be its reliability.
a)Selectivity f) Economy. - As a rule, the protective gear should not cost more
b)Speed than 5% of total cost. However, when the apparatus to be
c)Sensitivity protected is of utmost importance (e.g. generator, main
d)Reliability transmission line etc.), economic considerations are often
e)Simplicity subordinated to reliability.
f)Economy
1|Page B Y : M R . PIUS 0 7 42024075
Basic Relays schematic arrangement of a balanced beam type relay. It
Most of the relays in service on electric power system today consists of an iron armature fastened to a balance beam.
are of electro-mechanical type.
They work on the following two main operating principles :
i)Electromagnetic attraction
ii) Electromagneticinduction
1) Electromagnetic Attraction Relays
Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by virtue of an
armature being attracted to the poles of an electromagnet or a
plunger being drawn into a solenoid. Such relays may be
actuated by d.c. or a.c. quantities. The important types of
electromagnetic attraction relays are:
1) Attracted armature type relay.
2)Solenoid type relay. Under normal operating conditions, the current through the
relaycoil is such that the beam is held in the horizontal position
a) Attracted armature type relay. The figure below shows the by the spring. How- ever, when a fault occurs, the current
schematic arrangement of an attracted armature type relay. It through the re- lay coil becomes greater than the pickup value
consists of a laminated electromagnet M carrying a coil C and a and the beam is attracted to close the trip circuit. This causes
pivoted laminated armature. the opening of the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty circuit.

2) Induction Relays
Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the principle of
induction motor and are widely used for protective relaying
purposes involving a.c. quantities. They are not used with d.c.
quantities owing to the principle of operation. An induction
relay essentially consists of a pivoted aluminum disc placed in
two alternating magnetic fields of the same frequency but
displaced in time and space. The torque is produced in the disc
by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the currents
The armature is balanced by a counterweight and carries a pair induced in the disc by the other.
of spring contact fingers at its free end. Under normal
operating conditions, the current through the relay coil C is
such that counterweight holds the armature in the position
shown. However, when a short-circuit occurs, the current
through the relay coil increases sufficiently and the relay
armature is attracted upwards. The contacts on the relay
armature bridge a pair of stationary contacts attached to the
relay frame. This completes the trip circuit which results in the
opening of the circuit breaker and, therefore, in the
Important Terms used in relays
disconnection of the faulty circuit.
It is desirable to define and explain some important terms
The minimum current at which the relay armature is attracted
much used in connection with relays.
to close the trip circuit is called pickup current.
a) Pick-up current. It is the minimum current in the relay coil
at which the relay starts to operate. So long as the current in
b) Solenoid type relay. It consists of a solenoid and movable iron
the relay is less than the pick-up value, the relay does not
plunger arranged as shown.
operate and the breaker controlled by it remains in the closed
position. However, when the relay coil current is equal to or
greater than the pickup value, the relay
operates to energize the trip coil which opens the circuit
breaker.

b) Current setting. It is the adjustment of pick-up current to

any required value. This is known as current setting and is
usually achieved by the use of tappings on the relay operating
coil.
Under normal operating conditions, the current through the
relay coil C is such that it holds the plunger by gravity or
spring in the position shown. However, on the occurrence of a
fault, the current through the relay coil becomes more than
the pickup value, causing the plunger to be attracted to the
solenoid. The upward movement of the plunger closes the trip
circuit, thus opening the circuit breaker and disconnecting the
faulty circuit.
c) Balanced beam type relay. The figure below shows the

2|Page B Y : M R . PIUS 0 7 42024075

The taps are brought out to a plug bridge as shown in the above number of active turns on the relay operating coil can be
figure. The plug bridge permits to alter the number of turns on varied, thereby giving the desired current setting. The
the relay coil. This changes the torque on the disc and hence secondary winding is energized by induction from primary
the time of operation of the relay. The values assigned to each and is connected in series with the winding on the lower
tap are expressed in terms of percentage full-load rating of C.T. magnet. The controlling torque is provided by a spiral spring.
with which the relay is associated and represents the value The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges
above which the disc commences to rotate and finally closes the two fixed contacts (connected to trip circuit) when the disc
trip circuit. rotates through a pre-set angle. This angle can be adjusted to
Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T. Current any value between 0o and 360o. By adjusting this angle, the
setting travel of the moving contact can be adjusted and hence the
c) Plug-setting multiplier (P.S.M.). It is the ratio of fault current relay can be given any desired time setting.
in relay coil to the pick-up current i.e. Operation. Under normal operating conditions, restraining
Fault Current in relay Coil torque is greater than the driving torque produced by the relay
P.S.M =
Pick−up current
coil current. Therefore, the aluminium disc remains stationary.
d) Time-setting multiplier. A relay is generally provided with
However, if the current in the protected circuit exceeds the pre-
control to adjust the time of operation. This adjustment is set value, the driving torque becomes greater than the restraining
known as time-setting multiplier. The time-setting dial is torque. Consequently, the disc rotates and the moving contact
calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 sec (see Fig. 21.15). bridges the fixed contacts when the disc has rotated through a
These figures are multipliers to be used to convert the time pre-set angle. The trip circuit operates the circuit breaker
derived from time/P.S.M. curve into the actual operating time. which isolates the faulty section.
2. Induction Type Directional Power Relay
Functional Relay Types This type of relay operates when power in the circuit flows in
Most of the relays in service on power system today operate a specific direction. Unlike a *non- directional overcurrent
on the principle of electromagnetic attraction or relay, a directional power relay is so designed that it obtains
electromagnetic induction. Regardless of the principle its operating torque by the interaction of magnetic fields
involved, relays are generally classified according to the derived from both voltage and current source of the circuit it
function they are called upon to perform in the protection of
protects. Thus this type of relay is essentially a wattmeter and
electric power circuits.: the direction of the torque set up in the relay depends upon the
i)Induction type overcurrent relays direction of the current relative to the voltage with which it is
ii)Induction type reverse power relays associated.
iii)Distance relays
iv)Differential relays
v)Translay scheme

1. Induction Type Overcurrent Relay (non-

directional)
This type of relay works on the induction principle and initiates
corrective measures when current in the circuit exceeds the
predetermined value. The actuating source is a current in the
circuit supplied to the relay from a current transformer. These
relays are used on a.c. circuits only and can operate for fault
current flow in eitherdirection.

Constructional details. The figure above shows the essential

parts of a typical induction type directional power relay. It
consists of an aluminum disc which is free to rotate in between
the poles of two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet
carries a winding (called potential coil) on the central limb
which is connected through a potential transformer (P.T.) to
the circuit voltage source. The lower electromagnet has a
separate winding (called current coil) connected to the
secondary of C.T. in the line to be protected. The current coil
is provided with a number of tappings connected to the plug
setting bridge (not shown for clarity). This permits to have any
Constructional details. It consists of a metallic (aluminium) disc desired current setting. The restraining torque is provided by a
which is free to rotate in between the poles of two spiral spring.
electromagnets. The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges
two fixed contacts when the disc has rotated through a pre-set
The upper electromagnet has a primary and a secondary angle. By adjusting this angle, the travel of the moving disc
winding. The primary is connected to the secondary of a C.T. can be adjusted and hence any desired time-setting can be
in the line to be protected and is tapped at intervals. The given to the relay.
tappings are connected to a plug-setting bridge by which the

3|Page B Y : M R . PIUS 0 7 42024075

Operation. The flux 1 due to current in the potential coil will reverse direction. Should this happen, the disc of the upper
be nearly 90º lagging behind the applied voltage V . The flux element rotates to bridge the fixed contacts 1 and 2. This
2 due to current coil will be nearly in phase with the operating completes the circuit for overcurrent element. The disc of this
current I. element rotates and the moving contact attached to it closes the
trip circuit. This operates the circuit breaker which isolates the
3. Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay faulty section. The two relay elements are so arranged that final
The directional power relay discussed above is unsuitable for tripping of the current controlled by them is not made till the
use as a directional protective relay under short-circuit following conditions are satisfied :
conditions. When a short-circuit occurs, the system voltage i) current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional
falls to a low value and there may be insufficient torque element.
developed in the relay to cause its operation. This difficulty is ii) current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-setvalue.
overcome in the directional overcurrent relay which is ii)excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time
designed to be almost independent of system voltage and setting of overcurrent element.
power factor. 4. Distance or Impedance Relays
This is another group of relays in which the operation is
governed by the ratio of applied voltage to current in the
protected circuit. In an impedance relay, the torque produced
by a voltage element opposes the torque produced by a current
element. The relay will operate when the ratio V/I is less than
a pre- determined value.In the figure below, the voltage
element of the relay is excited through a potential transformer
(P.T.) from the line to be protected.

Constructional details :It consists of two relay elements

mounted on a common case viz. The current element of the relay is excited from a current
i) directional element transformer (C.T.) in series with the line. The portion AB of
ii) non-directional element. the line is the protected zone. Under normal operating
a) Directional element. It is essentially a directional power conditions, the impedance of the protected zone is ZL. The
relay which operates when power flows in a specific direction. relay is so designed that it closes its contacts whenever
The potential coil of this element is connected through a impedance of the protected section falls below the
potential transformer (P.T.) to the system voltage. The current predetermined value i.e. ZL in this case.
coil of the element is energised through a C.T. by the circuit Now suppose a fault occurs at point F1 in the protected zone.
current. This winding is carried over the upper magnet of the The impedance Z (= V /I) between the point where the relay is
non-directional element. The trip contacts (1 and 2) of the installed and the point of fault will be less than ZL and hence
directional element are connected in series with the secondary the relay operates. Should the fault occur beyond the protected
circuit of the overcurrent element. Therefore, the latter zone (say point F2), the impedance Z will be greater than ZL
element cannot start to operate until its secondary circuit is and the relay does not operate.
completed.
b) Non-directional element. It is an overcurrent element similar Types.
in all respects to a non-directional overcurrent relay. The There are two types of distance relays in use for the protection
spindle of the disc of this element carries a moving contact of power supply, namely ;
which closes the fixed contacts (trip circuit contacts) after the i) Definite-distance relay which operates instantaneously for
operation of directional element. fault up to a pre-determined distance from the relay.
It may be noted that plug-setting bridge is also provided in the ii) Time-distance relay in which the time of operation is
relay for current setting but has been omitted in the figure for proportional to the distance of fault from the relay point. A
clarity and simplicity. The tappings are provided on the upper fault nearer to the relay will operate it earlier than a fault
magnet of overcurrent element and are connected to the farther away from the relay.
bridge. Definite Distanc e Type Impedanc e Relay
Operation. Under normal operating conditions, power flows in It consists of a pivoted beam F and two electromagnets
the normal direction in the circuit protected by the relay. energized respectively by a current and voltage trans- former
Therefore, directional power relay (upper element) does not in the protected circuit. The armatures of the two
operate, thereby keeping the overcurrent element (lower electromagnets are mechanically coupled to the beam on the
element) energized. However, when a short-circuit occurs, opposite sides of the fulcrum. The beam is provided with a
there is a tendency for the current or power to flow in the bridging piece for the trip contacts. The relay is so designed

4|Page B Y : M R . PIUS 0 7 42024075

that the torques produced by the two electromagnets are in the The speed of rotation of the disc is approximately proportional
opposite direction. to the operating current, neglecting the effect of control spring.
Also the time of operation of the relay is directly proportional
Operation. Under normal operating conditions, the pull due to to the pull of the voltage-excited magnet and hence to the line
the voltage element is **greater than that of the current voltage V at the point where the relay is connected. Therefore,
element. Therefore, the relay contacts remain open. However, the time of operation of relay would vary as V/I i.e. as Z or
when a fault occurs in the protected zone, the distance.

6,Differential Relays
Most of the relays discussed so far relied on excess of current
for their operation. Such relays are less sensitive because they
cannot make correct distinction between heavy load
conditions and minor fault conditions. In order to overcome
applied voltage to the relay decreases whereas the current this difficulty, differential relays are used.
increases. The ratio of voltage to current (i.e. impedance) falls A differential relay is one that operates when the phasor
below the pre-determined value. Therefore, the difference of two or more similar electrical quantities
exceeds a pre-determined value.
pull of the current element will exceed that due to the voltage Thus a current differential relay is one that compares the current
element and this causes the beam to tilt in a direction to close entering a section of the system with the current leaving the
the trip contacts. section. Under normal operating conditions, the two currents
5. Time-Distanc e Impedanc e Relay are equal but as soon as a fault occurs, this condition no longer
A time-distance impedance relay is one which automatically applies. The difference between the incoming and outgoing
adjusts its operating time according to the distance of the relay currents is arranged to flow through the operating coil of the
from the fault point i.e. Operating time, T V/ relay. If this differential current is equal to or greater than the
Construction. It consists of a current driven induction element pickup value, the relay will operate and open the circuit breaker
similar to the double- winding type induction overcurrent to isolate the faulty section.
relay. The spindle carrying the disc of this element is There are two fundamental systems of differential or
connected by means of a spiral spring coupling to a second balanced protection viz.
spindle which carries the bridging piece of the relay trip 1) Current balance protection
contacts. The bridge is normally held in the open position by 2) Voltage balance protection
an armature held against the pole face of an electromagnet
excited by the voltage of the circuit to be protected. 1) Current Differential Relay
The figure below shows an arrangement of an overcurrent
relay connected to operate as a differential relay. A pair of
identical current transformers are fitted on either end of the
section to be protected (alternator winding in this case).

The secondary’s of CT’s are connected in series in such a way

that they carry the induced currents in the same direction. The
operating coil of the overcurrent relay is connected across the
Operation. Under normal load conditions, the pull of the CT secondary circuit. This differential relay compares the
armature is more than that of the induction element and hence current at the two ends of the alternator winding.
the trip circuit contacts remain open. However, on the Under normal operating conditions, suppose the alternator
occurrence of a shortcircuit, the disc of the induction current winding carries a normal current of 1000 A. Then the currents
element starts to rotate at a speed depending upon the in the two secondary’s of CT’s are equal .These currents will
operating current. As the rotation of the disc proceeds, the merely circulate between the two CT’s and no current will
spiral spring coupling is wound up till the tension of the spring flow through the differential relay. Therefore, the relay
is sufficient to pull the armature away from the pole face of the remains inoperative. If a ground fault occurs on the alternator
voltage-excited magnet. Immediately this occurs, the spindle winding as shown in fig 21.24 (i), below, the two secondary
carrying the armature and bridging piece moves rapidly in currents will not be equal and the current flows through the
response to the tension of the spring and trip contacts are operating coil of the relay, causing the relay to operate. The
closed. This opens the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty amount of current flow through the relay will depend upon the
section. way the fault is being fed.
5|Page B Y : M R . PIUS 0 7 42024075
 The equivalent circuit of a biased beam relay is shown in Fig.
21.26. The differential current in the operating coil is
proportional to i2 i1 and the equivalent current in the
restraining coil is proportional to (i1 + i2)/2 since the operating
a) If some current (500 A in this case) flows out of one side
coil is connected to the mid-point of the restraining coil. It is
clear that greater the current flowing through the restraining
while a larger current (2000 A) enters the other side as shown
coil, the higher the value of current required in the operating
in Fig. 21.24 (i), then the difference of the CT secondary
currents i.e. 10 2·5 = 7·5 A will flow through the relay. winding to trip the relay. Thus under a heavy load, a greater
b) If current flows to the fault from both sides as shown in Fig.
differential current through the relay operating coil is required
21.24 (ii), then sum of CT secondary currents i.e. 10 + 5 = 15 for operation than under light load conditions. This relay is
A will flow through the relay. called percentage relay because the operating current required
to trip can be expressed as a percentage of load current.
Disadvantages
i) The impedance of the pilot cables generally causes a slight
2.Voltage Balance Differential Relay
It consist of two similar current transformers are connected at
difference between the currents at the two ends of the section
either end of the element to be protected (e.g. an alternator
to be protected. If the relay is very sensitive, then the small
winding) by means of pilot wires. The secondaries of current
differential current flowing through the relay may cause it to
operate even under no fault conditions. transformers are connected in series with a relay in such a way
that under normal conditions, their induced e.m.f.s’ are in
ii) Pilot cable capacitance causes incorrect operation of the
opposition.
relay when a large through-current flows.
iii) Accurate matching of current transformers cannot be
achieved due to pilot circuit impedance. The above
disadvantages are overcome to a great extent in biased beam
relay.

Biased Beam Relay. The biased beam relay (also called

percentage differential relay) is designed to respond to the
differential current in terms of its fractional relation to the
current flowing through the protected section
Under healthy conditions, equal currents (I1 = I2) flow in both
primary windings. Therefore, the secondary voltages of the
two transformers are balanced against each other and no
current will flow through the relay operating coil. When a
fault occurs in the protected zone, the currents in the two
primaries will differ from one another (i.e. I1, I2) and their
secondary voltages will no longer be in balance. This
voltagedifference will cause a current to flow through the
operating coil of the relay which closes the trip circuit.
Disadvantages
The voltage balance system suffers from the following
drawbacks:
i)A multi-gap transformer construction is required to achieve
It is essentiallyanovercurrent balanced beamrelaytype withan the accurate balance between current transformer pairs.
additional restrainingcoil. Therestraining coil produces a bias ii)The system is suitable for protection of cables of relatively
force in the opposite direction to the operating force. short lengths due to the capacitance of pilot wires. On long
Under normal and through load conditions, the bias force due cables, the charging current may be sufficient to operate the
to restraining coil is greater than the operating force. relay even if a perfect balance of current transformers is
Therefore, the relay remains inoperative. When an internal attained.
fault occurs, the operating force exceeds the bias force. The above disadvantages have been overcome in Translay
Consequently, the trip contacts are closed to open the circuit (modified) balanced voltage system.
breaker. The bias force can be adjusted by varying the number
of turns on the restraining coil. 7.Translay System
This system is the modified form of voltage-balance system.
Although the principle of balanced (opposed) voltages is

6|Page B Y : M R . PIUS 0 7 42024075

retained, it differs from the above voltage-balance system in Thus referring to Fig. 21.29, each line has an overcurrent relay
that the balance or opposition is between voltages induced in that protects the line. If a fault occurs on any line, it will be
the secondary coils wound on the relay magnets and not cleared by its relay and circuit breaker. This forms the primary
between the secondary voltages of the line current or main protection and serves as the first line of defense. The
transformers. Since the current transformers used with service record of primary relaying is very high with well over
Translay scheme have only to supply to a relay coil, they can be ninety percent of all operations being correct. However,
made of normal design without any air gaps. This permits the sometimes faults are not cleared by primary relay system
scheme to be used for feeders of any voltage. because of trouble within the relay, wiring system or breaker.
Constructional details. The figure below shows the Under such conditions, back-up protection does the required
simplified diagram illustrating the principle of job.
Translay scheme.
b) Back-up protection. It is the second line of defense in case of
failure of the primary protection. It is designed to

It consists of two identical double winding induction type

relays fitted at either end of the feeder to be protected. The
primary circuits (11, 11a) of these relays are supplied through a
pair of current transformers. The secondary windings (12, 13
and 12a, 13a) of the two relays are connected in series by pilot
wires in such a way that voltages induced in the former opposes
the other. The compensating devices (18, 18a) neutralize the
effects of pilot-wire capacitance currents and of inherent lack
of balance between the two current transformers. operate with sufficient time delay so that primary relaying will
Operation. Under healthy conditions, current at the two ends of be given enough time to function if it is able to. Thus referring
the protected feeder is the same and the primary windings (11, to Fig. 21.29, relay A provides back-up protection for each of
11a) of the relays carry the same current. The windings 11 and the four lines. If a line fault is not cleared by its relay and
11a induce equal e.m.f.s in the secondary windings 12, 12a breaker, the relay A on the group breaker will operate after a
and 13, 13a. As these windings are so connected that their definite time delay and clear the entire group of lines. It is
induced voltages are in opposition, no current will flow through evident that when back-up relaying functions, a larger part is
the pilots or operating coils and hence no torque will be disconnected than when primary relaying functions correctly.
exerted on the disc of either relay. In the event of fault on the Therefore, greater emphasis should be placed on the better
protected feeder, current leaving the feeder will differ from maintenance of primaryrelaying
the current entering the feeder. Consequently, unequal
voltages will be induced in the secondary windings of the
relays and current will circulate between the two windings, Objective 3 and 4
causing the torque to be exerted on the disc of each relay. 1) Types of unit protectection
It is worthwhile here to mention the role of closed copper i)Generator protection/Alternator
rings (18, 18a) in neutralizing the effects of pilot capacitive ii)Transformer protection
currents. Capacitive currents lead the voltage impressed across iii) Bus bars protection
the pilots by 90º and when they flow in the operating winding iv)Feeder protection
13 and 13a (which are of low inductance), they produce fluxes
that also lead the pilot voltage by 90º. Since pilot voltage is 2) Non Unit protection
that induced in the secondary windings 12 and 12a, it lags by a i)Directional overcurrent protection
substantial angle behind the fluxes in the field magnet air gaps ii)Distance protection
A and B. The closed copper rings (18, 18a) are so adjusted that iv) Grade time protection
this angle is approximately 90º. In this way fluxes acting on the
disc are in phase and hence no torque is exerted on the relay A) GENERATOR /ALTERNATOR PROTECTION
disc. types of faults that an alternator/Genarator may be protected
from include:
Types of Protection i. Failure of prime-mover
When a fault occurs on any part of electric power system, it ii. Failure of field
must be cleared quickly in order to avoid damage and/or iii. Overcurrent
interference with the rest of the system. It is a usual practice to iv. Over-speed
divide the protection scheme into two classes viz. primary v. Overvoltage
protection and back-up protection. vi. Unbalanced loading
a) Primary Protection. It is the protection scheme which is vii. Stator winding faults
designed to protect the component parts of the power system.
7|Page B Y : M R . PIUS 0 7 42024075
 mounted in each phase, having their secondaries connected in
a) Failure of prime-mover. When input to the prime-mover parallel. A relay is connected in parallel across the transformer
fails, the alternator runs as a synchronous motor and draws secondary’s.
some current from the supply system. This motoring condi-
tions is known as “inverted running”.
-In case of turbo-alternator sets, failure of steam supply may
cause inverted running. If the steam supply is gradually
restored, the alternator will pick up load without disturb- ing
the system.
-In case of hydro-generator sets, protection against inverted
running is achieved by providing mechanical devices on the
water-wheel. When the water flow drops to an insufficient rate
to maintain the electrical output, the alternator is disconnected
from the system.. The scheme comprises three line current transformers, one
mounted in each phase, having their secondaries connected in
-Diesel engine driven alternators, when running inverted, draw parallel. A relay is connected in parallel across the transformer
a considerable amount of power from the supply system and it secondaries. Under normal operating conditions, equal
is a usual practice to provide protection against motoring in currents flow through the different phases of the alternator
order to avoid damage due to possible mechanical seizure. This and their algebraic sum is zero. Therefore, the sum of the
is achieved by applying reverse power relays to the alternators cur- rents flowing in the secondaries is also zero and no
which isolate the latter during their motoring action. current flows through the operating coil of the relay. However,
b) Failure of field. The chances of field failure of alternators if un- balancing occurs, the currents induced in the
are undoubtedly veryrare. Even if it does occur, no immediate secondaries will be different and the resultant of these currents
damage will be caused by permitting the alternator to run will flow through the relay.The relay will trip the circuit
without a field for a short-period. It is sufficient to rely on the breaker to the alternator from the system.
control room attendant to disconnect the faulty alternator
manually from the system bus-bars. f.Stator winding faults. These faults occur mainly due to the
insulation failure of the stator windings. The main types of
c) Overcurrent. It occurs mainly due to partial breakdown of
stator winding.
winding insulation or due to overload on the supply system.
Overcurrent protection for alternators is considered Differential Protection of Alternators
unnecessary because of the following reasons
The modern tendency is to design alternators with very high (Merz-Price circulating current scheme.)
values of internal impedance so that they will stand a complete It is the most common system used for the protection of stator
short-circuit at their terminals for sufficient time without winding faults. It involves comparing currents at the two
serious overheating. On the occurrence of an overload, the ends of the protected section. Under normal operating
alternators can be disconnected manually. conditions, these currents are equal but may become unequal
on the occurrence of a fault in the protected section. The
ii)The disadvantage of using overload protection for difference of the currents under fault conditions is arranged to
alternators is that such a protection might disconnect the pass through the operating coil of the relay.
alternators from the power plant bus on account of some The relay then closes its contacts to isolate protected section
momentary troubles outside the plant and therefore interfere from the system. This form of protection is also known as
with continuity of the plant. Merz-Price circulating current scheme.
d) Over-speed. The chief cause of over speed is the sudden loss
of all or the major part of load on the alternator. Modern
alternators are usually provided with mechanical centrifugal
devices mounted on their driving shafts to trip the main valve
of the prime mover when a dangerous over speed occurs.
e)Over-voltage. The field excitation system of modern
alternators is so designed that over- voltage conditions at
normal running speeds cannot occur. However, overvoltage in
an alternator occurs when speed of the prime-mover increases
due to sudden loss of the alternator load.

f)Unbalanced loading. Unbalanced loading means that there In the schematic arrangement of current differential protection
are different phase currents in the alternator. Unbalanced for a 3-phase alternator. Identical current transformer pairs
loading arises from faults to earth or faults between phases on CT1 and CT2 are placed on either side of each phase of the
the circuit external to the alternator. The unbalanced currents, stator windings. The secondaries of each set of current
if allowed to persist, may either severely burn the mechanical transformers are connected in star ; the two neutral points and
fixings of the rotor core or damage the field winding. the corresponding terminals of the two star groups being
The diagram below shows the schematic arrangement for the connected together by means of a four-core pilot cable.
protection of alternator against unbalanced loading. The
scheme comprises three line current transformers, one Thus there is an independent path the current circulating in
8|Page B Y : M R . PIUS 0 7 42024075
each pair of current transformers and the corresponding pilot p iii. Winding short-circuits e.g. earth-faults, phase-to-
The relays are connected in star. The relays are generally of phase faults and inter-turn faults.
electromagnetic type and are arranged for instantaneous action a) An open circuit in one phase of a 3-phase transformer-
since fault should be cleared as quickly as possible . In case such fault occurs, relay protection is not provided
because this condition is relatively harmless. On the
Limitation. It is impossible to protect whole of the stator occurrence of such a fault, the transformer can be
windings of a star-connected alternator during earth-faults. disconnected manually from the system.
When an earth-fault occurs near the neutral point.
b) Overheating of the transformer is usually caused by
A modified differential protection for alternators is used to sustained overloads or short-circuits and very occasionally by
help in this case. the failure of the cooling system. The relay protection is also
not provided against this contingency and thermal accessories
Modified differential protection for alternators are generally used to sound an alarm or control the banks of
The modifications affect only the relay connections and fans.
consist in connecting two relays for phase-fault protection and
the third forearth-fault protection only. The two-phaseelements c) Winding short-circuits (also called internal faults) – This
(PC and PA) and balancing resistance (BR) are connected in star requires relay protection.
and the earth relay (ER) is connected between this star point Short circuit results into overheating or mechanical injury. When
and the fourth wire of circulating current pilot-circuit. an internal fault occurs, the trans- former must be disconnected
quickly from the system because a prolonged arc in the
transformer may cause oil fire. Therefore, relay protection is
absolutely necessary for internal faults.

Protection Systems for transformers

The principal relays and systems used for transformer
protection are:
1) Buchholz devices- providing protection against all kinds of
incipient faults i.e. slow-developing faults such as insulation
failure of windings, core heating, fall of oil level due to leaky
joints etc.
2. Earth-fault relays- providing protection against earth-faults
only.
3. Overcurrent relays -providing protection mainly against phase-
Operation to-phase faults and overloading.
Under normal operating conditions, currents at the two ends 4. Differential system -(or circulating-current system)
of each stator winding will be equal. Therefore, there is a providing protection against both earth and phase faults.
balanced circulating current in the phase pilot wires and no The complete protection of transformer usually requires
current flows through the operating coils of the relays. the combination of these systems.
Consequently, the relays remain inoperative
If an earth-fault occurs on any one phase, the out-of-balance Factors that affects the Choice of a particular combination
secondary current in CTs in that phase will flow through the of protection systems
earth relay ER and via pilot S1 or S2 to the neutral of the (a) Size of the trans- former
current transformers. This will cause the operation of earth (b) Type of cooling
relay only. If a fault occurs between two phases, the out- of- (c) Location of transformer in the network
balance current will circulate round the two transformer (d) Nature of load supplied and
secondaries via any two of the coils PA , BR, PC (the pair (e) Importance of service for which transformer is required. In
being decided by the two phases that are faulty) without the following sections, above systems of protection will be
passing through the earth relay ER. Therefore, only the phase- discussed in detail.
fault relays will operate.

B) PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 1.Buchholz relay

Transformers are static devices, totally enclosed and generally
oil immersed. Therefore, chances of faults occurring on them
are very rare. However, the consequences of even a rare fault
may be very serious unless the transformer is quickly
disconnected from the system.

Common transformer faults.

As compared with generators, in which many abnormal
conditions may arise, power transformers may suffer only
from :
i. Open circuits
ii. Overheating
9|Page B Y : M R . PIUS 0 7 42024075
Buchholz relay is a gas -actuated relay installed in oil
immersed transformers for protection against all kinds of
faults. Named after its inventor, Buchholz, it is used to give an
alarm in case of incipient (i.e. slow-developing) faults in the
transformerand to disconnect the transformer from the
supply in the event of severe internal faults.

c)BUS-BAR PROTECTION
Bus-bars in the generating stations and sub-stations form
important link between the incoming and outgoing circuits
The two most commonly used schemes for
busbar protection are :
i)Differential protection
ii)Fault bus protection

1. Differential protection. This is the basic method for busbar

When a pre- determined amount of gas protection in which currents entering and leaving the bus are
gets accumulated, it exerts sufficient totalised. During normal load condition, the sum of these
pressure on the float to cause it to tilt and currents is equal to zero. When a fault occurs, the fault current
close the contacts of mercury switch upsets the balance and produces a differential current to
attached to it. This completes the alarm operate a relay.
circuit to sound an *alarm.

Advantages
It is the simplest form of transformer protection.
It detects the incipient faults at a stage much earlier than is
possible with other forms of protection.
Disadvantages
It can only be used with oil immersed transformers equipped
with conservator tanks.
The device can detect only faults below oil level in the 2. Fault Bus protection. It is possible to design a station so that
transformer. Therefore, separate protection is needed for the faults that develop are mostly earth-faults. This can be
connecting cables. achieved by providing earthed metal barrier (known as fault
Earth-Fault or Le ak age Prot ect ion bus) surrounding each conductor throughout its entire length in
An earth-fault usually involves a partial breakdown of the bus structure. With this arrangement, every fault that might
winding insulation to earth. The resulting leakage occur must involve a connection between a conductor and an
earthed metal part. By directing the flow of earth-fault current,
current is considerably less than the short-circuit current. it is possible to detect the faults and determine their location.
The earth-fault may continue for a longtime and cause This type of protection is known as fault bus protection
considerable damage before it ultimately develops into a
short-circuit and removed from the system. Under these
circumstances, it is profitable to employ earth-fault
relays in order to ensure the disconnection of earth-fault
or leak in the early stage. An earth-fault relay is
essentially an overcurrent relay of low setting and
operates as soon as an earth-fault or leak develops. One
method of protection against earth-faults in a transformer
is the core-balance leakage protection

A fault involving a connection between a conductor and

earthed supporting structure will result in current flow to

10 | P a g e B Y : M R . PIUS 0 7 42024075
ground through the fault bus causing the relay to trip. The i)Using definite time relays. As shows in the figure above
operation of relays will trip all breakers connecting equipment ,The time of operation of each relay is fixed and is independent
to the bus. of the operating current. Thus relay D has an operating time of
0·5 second while for other relays, time delay is successively
c)PROTECTION OF LINES increased by 0·5 second. If a fault occurs in the section DE, it
Probability of fault occurring on the lines is much more due to will be cleared in 0·5 second by the relay and circuit breaker
the greater length and exposer to the atmospheric conditions. at D because all other relays have higher operating time. In
Many application of protection schemes have been adopted. this way only section DE of the system will be isolated. If the
relay at D fails to trip, the relay at C will operate after a time
Requirements of line protection delay of 0·5 second i.e. after 1 second from the occurrence of
The requirements of lineprotection are : fault.
i) In the event of a short circuit, the circuit breaker closest to
the fault should open, all other circuit breakers remaining in a Disadvantage
closed position. The disadvantage of this system is that if there are a number of
ii) In case the nearest breaker to the fault fails to open, back-up feeders in series, the tripping time for faults near the supply end
protection should be provided by the adjacent circuit breakers. becomes high (2 seconds in this case). However, in most
iii)The relay operating time should be just as short as cases, it is necessary to limit the maximum tripping time to 2
possible in order to preserve system stability, without seconds. This disadvantage can be overcome to a reasonable
unnecessary tripping of circuits. extent by using inverse-time relays.
The protection of lines presents a problem quite different from Inverse time relays in which operating time is inversely
the protection of station apparatus such as generators, proportional to the operating current. With this
transformers and bus-bars. While differential protection is
arrangement, the farther the circuit breaker from the
ideal method for lines, it is much more expensive to use. The
two ends of a line may be several kilometers apart and to generating station, the shorter is its relay operating time.
compare the two currents, a costly pilot-wire circuit is
required. This expense may be justified but in general less
The three relays at A, B and C are assumed to have
costly methods are used. inverse-time characteristics. A fault in section BC will
give relaytimes which will allow breaker at B to trip out
Methods of Line protection before the breaker at A .
The common methods of line protection are :
i)Time-graded overcurrent protection
ii)Differential protection
iii) Distance protection

i)Time graded overcurrent protection

It involves time setting of relays in so graded manner that in
the event of fault, the smallest possible part of the system is
isolated. This can be illustrated by the use of definite time
relay shown below.
2) Parallel feeders. Where continuity of supply is particularly
necessary, two parallel feeders may be installed. If a fault
occurs on one feeder, it can be disconnected from the system and
continuity of supply can be maintained from the other feeder.
The parallel feeders cannot be protected by non-directional
overcurrent relays only. It is necessary to use directional relays
also to grade the time setting of relays for selective tripping.

One of the terms we need to understand include:

1)Radial feeder
2) Parallel feeder
3)Ring main system

1) Radial feeder. The main characteristic of a radial system is

The protection of this system requires that
that power can flow only in one direction, from generator or
i) Each feeder has a non-directional overcurrent relay at the
supply end to the load. It has the disadvantage that continuity
generator end. These relays should have inverse-time
of supply cannot be maintained at the receiving end in the
characteristic.
event of fault. Time-graded protection of a radial feeder can be ii) Each feeder has a reverse power or directional relay at
achieved by using the sub-station end. These relays should be instantaneous type
(i) definite time relays and and operate only when power flows in the reverse direction
(ii) inverse time relays. i.e. in the direction of arrow at P and Q.

11 | P a g e B Y : M R . PIUS 0 7 42024075
Suppose an earth fault occurs on feeder 1 as shown in Fig.
above.It is desired that only circuit breakers at A and P should
open to clear the fault whereas feeder 2 should remain intact
to maintain the continuity of supply.

3. Ring main system. In this system, various power stations or

sub-stations are interconnected by alternate routes, thus
forming a closed ring. In case of damage to any section of the
ring, that section may be disconnected for repairs, and power
will be supplied from both ends of the ring, thereby
maintaining continuity of supply Under healthy conditions, current entering the line at one-end
is equal to that leaving it at the other end. Therefore, equal and
opposite voltages are induced in the secondary of the CTs at the
two ends of the line. The result is that no current flows through
the relays. Suppose a fault occurs at point F on the line as shown
in the figure above,. This will cause a greater current to flow
through CT1 than through CT2. Consequently, their secondary
voltages become unequal and circulating current flows through
the pilot wires and relays. The circuit breakers at both ends of
The above figure shows the single line diagram of a typical ring the line will trip out and the faulty line will be isolated.
main system consisting of one-generator G supplying four sub- The figure below shows the connections of MerzPrice voltage
stations S1, S2, S3 and S4. In this arrangement, power can flow in balance scheme for all the three phases of the line.
both directions under fault conditions. Therefore, it is
necessary to grade in both directions round the ring and also to
use directional relays. In order that only faulty section of the
ring is isolated under fault conditions, the types of relays and
their time settings should be as follows
i) The two lines leaving the generating station should be
equipped with non-directional overcurrent relays (relays at A
and J in this case).
ii) At each sub-station, reverse power or directional relays
should be placed in both incoming and outgoing lines (relays
at B, C, D, E, F, G, H and I in this case).
iii) There should be proper relative time-setting of the relays.
As an example, going round the loop G S1 S2 S3 S4 G ; the
outgoing relays (viz at A, C, E, G and I) are set with decreasing NOTE: To extract for one phase, follow one complete line
time limits e.g. (phase i.e Red –only ) from one end to the other.
A = 2·5 sec, C = 2 sec, E = 1·5 sec G = 1sec and I = 0·5 sec
Advantages
Differential Pilot-Wire Protection i) This system can be used for ring mains as well as parallel
The differential pilot-wire protection is based on the principle feeders.
that under normal conditions, the current entering one end of ii) This system provides instantaneous
a line is equal to that leaving the other end. As soon as a fault protection for ground faults. This
occurs between the two ends, this condition no longer holds decreases the possibility of these faults
and the difference of incoming and outgoing currents is involving other phases.
arranged to flow through a relay which operates the circuit iii) This system provides instantaneous
breaker to isolate the faulty line.: relaying which reduces the amount of
i. Merz-Price voltage balance system damage to over- head conductors
ii. Translay scheme resulting from arcing faults.
1. Merz-Price voltage balance system. The figure below shows
the single line diagram of Merz-Price voltage balance system Disadvantages
for the protection of a 3-phase line. Identical current i)Accurate matching of current transformers is very essential.
transformers are placed in each phase at both ends of the line. ii)If there is a break in the pilot-wire circuit, the system will
The pair of CTs in each line is connected in series with a relay not operate.
in such a way that under normal conditions, their secondary iii) This system is very expensive owing to the greater length
voltages are equal and in opposition i.e. they balance each of pilot wires required.
other. iv) In case of long lines, charging current
due to pilot-wire capacitance effects may
be sufficient to cause relay operation
even under normalconditions.
v) This system cannot be used for line

12 | P a g e B Y : M R . PIUS 0 7 42024075
 voltages beyond 33 kV because of
constructional difficulties in matching the
currenttransformers.

2. Translay scheme. This system is similar to voltage balance

system except that here balance or opposition is between the
voltages induced in the secondary windings wound on the
relay magnets and not between the secondary voltages of the It is a simple system consisting of lines in series such that power can flow
line current transformers. This permits to use current only from left to right. The relays at A , B and C are set to operate for
impedance Z1,Z2, and Z3 respectively.
transformers of normal design and eliminates one of the most Suppose a fault occurs between sub-stations B and C, the fault impedance at
serious limitations of original voltage balance system, namely power station and substation A and B will be Z1 + Z2 and Z3 respectively.
its limitation to the system operating at voltages not exceeding Similarly , if a fault occurs within sections A,B, then only relay at A will
33 kV. operate. In this manner, instantaneous protection can be obtained for all
conditions of operation

The modified Distance protection is as shown below

In this scheme of protection, three distance elements are

used at each terminal. The zone 1 element covers first
90% of the line and is arranged to trip instantaneously
for faults in this portion. The zone 2 element trips for
faults in the remaining 10% of the line and for faults in
However, it is possible to make further simplification by
combining currents derived from all phases in a single relay at
the next line section, but a time delay is introduced to
each end, using the principle of summation transformer prevent the line from being tripped if the fault is in the
next section. The zone 3 element provides back-up
protection in the event a fault in the next section is not
cleared by its breaker.

Example
A star connected 3-phase 10MVA, 6.6kV alternator has a phase
reactance of 10%. It is protected by Mertz price Circulating current
principle that is set to operate to a fault current not less than 175A.
Calculate the value of earthling resistor to be provided in order to ensure
that only 10% of the voltage winding is left unprotected.
sln 3
𝑉 = 6.6 𝑥 10 = 3810.5V
𝑝
√3
NOTE: Power = √3𝑉𝐿𝐼𝐿𝑉𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 10MVA
Advantages Where 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 1 (unity), then Power = √3𝑉𝐿𝐼𝐿𝑉𝐴
i. The system is economical as only two pilot wires are 6 10 𝑥 106
required for the protection of a 3-phase line. Full load current 𝐼𝐿 = 10 𝑥 10 = =874.77A
√3 𝑥 𝑉𝐿 √3 𝑥 6600
ii. Current transformers of normal design can be used. Percentage reactance % = 10
% 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐 𝑥 𝑉𝐿
iii. The pilot wire capacitance currents do not affect the 𝑥𝑛 =
√3 𝑥 𝐼 100
iv. operation ofrelays.
𝑥𝑛 = √3 𝑥10874.77
𝑥 6600
𝑥 100 = 0.4356Ω

Distanc e Protection Reactance of 10% winding = 0.4356 x 10 = 0.04356Ω

100

This is suitable for the protection of very long high E.m.f induced in the 10% winding
10
E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥
voltage transmission lines. The action of relay depends 100
10
= 3810.5 x = 381.05V
upon the distance (or impedance) between the point 100

where the relay is installed and the point of fault. This Impedance offered by the 10% winding Z = √(𝑅)2 + (0.04356)2

system provides discrimination protection with- out Earth fault current due to 10% = 175 A
𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝐸) 381.05𝑉
employing pilot wires. Therefore: 175A = =

13 | P a g e B Y : M R . PIUS 0 7 42024075
 𝑍 √(𝑅)2 +(0.04356)2
381.05𝑉
√(𝑅)2 + (0.04356)2 = = 2.17742
175𝐴
(𝑅)2 + (0.04356)2 = 4.74119
𝑅2 = 4.74119 – 0.001895 = 4.739
R = 2.177Ω

14 | P a g e B Y : M R . PIUS 0 7 42024075