Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department

Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Fluid Mechanics 2
Kinematics of fluid motion
Fundamentals of flow :
Streamline and stream tube:

A curve formed by the velocity vectors of each fluid particle at a certain time

is called a streamline.

By taking a given closed curve in a flow and drawing the streamlines

passing all points on the curve, a tube can be formulated:

This tube is called Stream tube.

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Steady flow and unsteady flow:

A flow whose flow state expressed by velocity, pressure, density, etc.,
at any position, does not change with time, is called a steady flow.
A flow whose state changed with time is called unsteady flow.

One dimensional (1D), two dimensional (2D), and three dimensional(3D) Flow:

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Laminar and Turbulent flow:

Reynolds used the device shown in Fig. below Colored liquid was led to
the entrance of a glass tube.

As the valve was gradually opened by the handle, the colored liquid
flowed, as shown in Fig.(a), like a piece of thread without mixing

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with the peripheral water. When the flow velocity of the water in the
tube reached a certain value, he observed, as shown in Fig. (b) that the
line of the colored liquid suddenly became turbulent on mingling with
the peripheral water. He called the former flow the laminar flow, the
latter flow the turbulent flow, and the flow velocity at the time when
the laminar flow had turned to turbulent flow the critical velocity.

Reynolds number: , IR

---------(1)

For flow in pipes, if IR is less or equal 2100 the flow is laminar, and if IR
is greater than 2100 and less than 4000 it is critical flow and if IR is
greater than 4000 the flow is turbulent.

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Incompressible and compressible fluids:

Distance(s), velocity(v), acceleration(a), and time(t) relation ships:

as = (d2s)/(dt2) = ( )= = * = v* ----------------------------(2)

ar = - ---------------------------------------------------------(3)

One-dimensional flow mechanism conservation of flow properties:

Continuity equation:

In steady flow, the mass flow per unit time passing through each section does not
change, even if the pipe diameter changes. This is law of conservation of mass.

For the pipe shown in Fig. below whose diameter decrease between sections 1
and 2, which have cross-sectional areas A1 and A2 respectively, and at which the
mean velocities are v1 and v2 and the densities ρ1and ρ2 respectively,

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----------------------------------------------------------(4)

If the fluid is incompressible, e.g. water, with ρbeing effectively constant, then:

------------------------------------------------------------(5)

ρAv is the mass of fluid passing through a section per unit time and this is called
the mass flow rate. Av is that volume and this is called the volumetric flow rate,
which is therefore constant is an incompressible pipe flow.

Equations (4), and (5) are called the continuity equations.

Flow of ideal and real fluids:

Ideal fluid is nonviscous and incompressible. Shear force between the

boundary surface and fluid or between the fluid layers is absent and
only pressure forces and body forces are controlling.

Real fluids have viscosity and surface shear forces are involved during
flow. However the flow after a short distance from the surface is not
affected by the viscous effects and approximates to ideal fluid flow. The
results of ideal fluid flow analysis are found applicable in the study of
flow of real fluids when viscosity values are small.

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Conservation of energy:

EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION FOR FLOW ALONG A STREAM LINE:

Consider a small element along the stream line, the direction being designated as
s.

The net force on the element are the body forces and surface forces(pressure).
These are indicated in the figure. Summing this up, and equating to the change in
momentum.

---------------------(6)

Where as is the acceleration along the s direction. This reduces to,

---------------------------------------------------------(7)

Note:
It will be desirable to add g to the first term for dimensional homogenity. As it is,
the first term will have a unit of N/kg while the other terms will have the unit of
m/s2. Multiplying by g, it will also have a unit of m/s2.

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and as cos ϴ= dz/ds, equation 7 reduces to,

------------------------------------------------(8)

For steady flow Cancelling and using total derivatives in place of

partials as these are independent quantities.

--------------------------------------------------------(9)

Note: in equation (9) also it is better to write the first term as g.dp/ρ for
dimensional homogenity. This equation after dividing bt g, is also written as,

------------------(10)

which means that the quantity within the bracket remains along the flow.
This equation is known as Euler,s equation of motion.
The assumptions involved are:
1. Steady flow
2. Motion along a stream line and
3. Ideal fluid (frictionless)
In the case on incompressible flow, this equation can be integrated to obtain
Bernoulli equation.

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Bernoulli equation for fluid flow:

Euler,s equation as given in (9) can be integrated directly if the flow is
assumed to be incompressible.

-------------(11)

The constant is to be evaluated by using specific boundary conditions. The unit of

the terms will be energy unit (Nm/kg).

In SI units the numerical values of g=1, kg.m/Ns2. Equation (11) can also be
written as to express energy as head of fluid column.

--------------------------------------------------(12)

ϒ is the specific weight N/m3. In this equation all terms in the unit of head of the
fluid. The constant has the same value along a stream line or a stream tube. The
first term represents(flow work) pressure energy, the second term the potential
energy and the third term the kinetic energy.

This equation is extensively used in practical design to estimate pressure/velocity

in flow through ducts, venturimeter, nozzle meter, orifice meter etc.

= pressure head

Z= potential head

V2/2g = velocity head

Total head (H) = constant

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Ex.1:

from bernulli

from continuity

Consequently, whenever A1>A2, then V1<V2 and P1>P2. In other words where
the flow channel is narrow (where the streamlines are dense), the flow velocity is
large and the pressure head is low.
Energy line and hydraulic gradient line:
The total energy plotted along the flow to some specific scale gives the nergy line.
When losses(frictional) are negligible, the nergy line will be horizontal or parallel
to the flow direction. Foe calculating the total energy kinetic, potential and flow
(pressure) energy are considered.
Energy line is the plot of (p/ϒ)+z+(v2/2g) along the flow. It is constant along the
flow when losses are negligible.
The plot of (p/ϒ)+z along the flow is called the hydraulic gradeient line. When
velocity increases this will dip and when velocity decreases this will rise. An
example of plot of these lines for flow a tank through a venturimeter is shown in

Fig.

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The hydraulic gradient line provides useful information about pressure

variations(static head) in a flow. The difference between the energy line and
hydraulic gradient line gives the value of dynamic head(velocity head).
Ex.2:
As shown in fig., whenever water flows from tank 1 to tank 2, the
energy equation for sections 1,2 and 3 are as follows from equation :

Or:

h2 and h3 are the losses of head between section 1 and either of the
respective sections. In fig. above, the line connecting the height of the
pressure heads at respective points of the pipe line is called the
hydraulic grade line, while that connecting the heights of all the heads
is called the energy line.

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EX.3:
The water tank in Fig. is being filled through section 1 at v= 5m/s and
through section 3 at Q3= 0.012 m3/s. If water level h is constant,
determine exit velocity v2.
Q1+Q3 = Q2
Q2= 0.01828 m3/s v2= Q2/A2 = 0.01828/[(∏)(0.060)2/4]=6.47 m/s

EX.4:

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EX. 5:

EX.6:

Note: H.G.L.= Z+ P/ϒ : E.L.= H.G.L. + V2/2g

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Ex.7: Compute the discharge and the pressures through the pipes shown in
Fig.

Bernoulli between the tank (section 1-1) and the orifice (section 0-0):
(Z0+p0/ϒ) +v02/2g = Z5 + p5/ϒ+v52/2g
(90) + zero = 60 + zero + v52/2g then v52/2g = 30m or v5= 24.3 m/s
Note: no flow inside water tank (v0=0 ) and p5= atm. pressure=0

Compute discharge Q5=V5*A5 = 24.3*(∏*0.1252/4) = 0.3 m3/s

Q= V1*A1 = V2 * A2 = V3 *A3 = V4 *A4 =V5*A5 THEN :
V1= 4.22 m/s : V2= 9.5 m/s : V3= V1= 4.22m/S: V4=4.22 m/s
V12/2g= 0.9m : V22/2g= 4.6m : V32/2g= 0.9m : V42/2g= 0.9m: V52/2g= 30m

Bernoulli between(0) and (1):

(Z0+p0/ϒ) +v02/2g = Z1 + p1/ϒ+v12/2g
90 +0 = 72 + p1/ϒ + 0.9 then p1/ϒ = 17.1m p1=167.6kPa.

Bernoulli between(0) and (2):

(Z0+p0/ϒ) +v02/2g = Z2 + p2/ϒ+v22/2g
90 + 0 = 87 + p2/ϒ +4.6 p2/ϒ = -1.58m p2=116mm Hg vacuum
Same approach p3/ϒ = 11.1 m p3= 108.8 kPa.
P4/ϒ = 30.1 m p4= 295 kPa.
Max height of jet (Zmax=Vy2/2g) : Vy= v5. Sin300=15m/s then Zmax=11.48m

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Application of Bernoulli’s equation

- pumps and turbines - Flow through a small hole
- flow over weir - Pitot tube
- Siphon - Venturi tube
Pump:
Ex. 8 : compute the power required to lift the water from tank A
to tank B.

Solution:
ZA+PA/ϒ = 0 : VA2/2g = 0
ZB+PB/ϒ = 72m : VB2/2g = 0
Bernoulli between A and B:
EP = Pump energy
Note ; pump included only if bernoulli between two points are contain the
pump.
(ZA+PA/ϒ ) + VA2/2g + Ep = ( ZB+PB/ϒ ) + VB2/2g -------------------(13) pump
0+ 0+ Ep = 72 + 0 if datum at tank A water surface or:
-6 + Ep = (-6+72) if datum at pipe 1 level.
Ep= 72m = 72 J/s = 72 N.m/s
IPP= ϒ*Q*EP ------------------------------------------------------------(14)
Note: if Q in m3/s and ϒ in N/m3 and EP in m then IP in Watt.
H.W. : Draw H.G.L. and E.L. if ZA=100m( water surface elevation) and ZB=130m and
pipe diameter is not given but Q=0.2 m3/s. and compute IP
Ans. IP= 58.724 kW.

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Ex.9: A 100mm diameter suction pipe leading to a pump, as shown in Fig.,

carries a discharge of 0.03 m3/s of oil (s.g.=0.85. If the pressure at point A in
the suction pipe is a vacuum of 180 mm Hg. Find the total energy head at
point A with respect to a datum at the pump.

Solution:
v = Q/A
= 0.03 /[(∏)( )2/4]
= 3.82 m/s

HA = -180 mm H.g = -0.18 m H.g

PA = ϒH.g. * HA = [(13.6)(9.81)](- ) = -23.97 kPa.
ϒoil = r.d. * ϒw = 0.85 * 9.8 = 8.33 kN/m3
PA/ϒoil = -23.97/8.33

H = z+v2/2g + p/ϒ
= -1.2 + 3.822/[(2)(9.8)]+ (-23.97)/[(8.33)]
= -3.337 m

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Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Ex.10: pump discharge water from a well with a maximum flow of

20 L/s, if the suction pipe diameter is 15 cm, compute:
a) minimum pressure in suction pipe if the elevation of the pump
is 5m higher than the water surface in the well.
b) max height for the pump that could be placed above well water
surface level, that prevent water from evaporated (i.e, prevent
cavitation in pump).
c) sketch how elevation change with Q.

Solution:

a) V2=
= 0.02 /[∏*d2/4]
= 0.02/[∏*.152/4] = 1.132 m/s : =0.065m

Bernoulli between 1-1 and 2-2

Z1+ + = Z2+ +
0+0+0 = 5+ + 0.065
Then:
p2/ϒ= -5.07 m : pmin= - 49.7kPa.

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
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b) to prevent cavitation in suction pipe Ps min. = Vapor

pvapor = (pv)abs. – patm.
= 0.33 – 10.33
= - 10 m of water.
Ps/ϒ = - 10m.

Bernoulli between 1-1 and 2-2

Z1+ p1/ϒ+ v12/2g = Z2 + p2/ϒ + v22/2g
0+ 0 +0 = z2+ (-10 ) + 0.065
then :
ZMAX.= 9.93m.

c) A= *∏*.152/4] = 176.71*10-2
v= Q/A
or v2 =
then:
V2= Q2/ (176.71*10-2)2

Bernoulli 1-1 and 2-2

Z1+ p1/ϒ + v12/2g = Z2 + p2/ϒ + v22/2g
0+ 0 +0 = Z2 + (-10) + [Q2/(176.71*10-2)2]/2g

Z2= 10- 1.6*10-4*Q2 ------------------------------------(1)

draw equation(1) to have relation between Z and Q

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Turbine:
Ex.11: Water flows through the turbine at rate 0.214 m3/s and presuure at
(A) and (B), respectively, are (147kPa.), and (-34.5kPa.) as shown in Fig.
Determine the power delivered to the turbine by the water?

Solution:
VA = QA/AA = (0.214)/(∏*0.32/4) = 3.03 m/s VA2/2g = 0.468 m
VB= QB/AB = (0.214)/(∏*0.62/4) = 0.758 m/s VB2/2g = 0.029 m
PA= 147.5 kPa. then PA/ϒ = 147.5/9.81 = 15.03 m
PB= -34.5 kPa. Then PB/ϒ = -34.5/9.81 = -3.52 m
Bernoulli between A and B and datum at B:

ZA+PA/ϒ + VA2/2g = ZB+PB/ϒ + VB2/2g+ ET ------------------(15)

1+15.03 +0.468 = 0+ 0.029 +( -3.52) + ET

16.498 = -3.491 + ET
ET= 19.99 m
IPT = ϒ*Q*ET = 9.81*0.214 *19.99 = 41.96 kW

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H.w. : Compute ET ?

Why we use Turbines?

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Flow through a small hole 1:

The case where water level does not change As shown in Fig., we study
here the case where water is discharging from a small hole on the side of a
water tank. Such a hole is called an orifice. As shown in the figure, the
spouting flow contracts to have its smallest section B a small distance from
the hole. Here, it is conceived that the flow lines are almost parallel so that
the pressures are uniform from the periphery to the centre of the flow. This
part of the flow is called the vena contracta. Assume that fluid particle A on
the water surface has flowed down to section B. Then, from Bernoulli's
theorem,

(ZA+PA/ϒ ) + VA2/2g = ZB+PB/ϒ + VB2/2g

(H) = 0+ 0 + VB2/2g since PB= Patm. =0 or:

------------------------------------------------------(16)

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---------------------------------------------------------------------------(17)

--------------------------------------------------------(18)

----------------------------------------------(19)

Cd = coefficient of discharge

= 0.6 for small hole sharpe edged

Q= Cd * a * ------------------------------------------------------(20)

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Flow through a small hole 2:

The case where water level changes, the theoretical flow velocity
is:

----------------------------------------------------------------(21)

- dH. Then:

--------------------------------(22)

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Flow through a small hole 3:

The section of water tank where the descending velocity of the
water level is constant. Assuming that the bottom has a small hole
of area a, through which water flows as shown in Fig., then :

Flow through small hole 3

------------------------(23)

----------------------------------------------(24)

-----------------------------------------------(25)

-----------------------------------------------(26)

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
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Ex.12: Prove that h1*y1= h2*y2 for the two orifices shown in Fig.

Bernoulli between (0) and (1) leads to √

or using equation (16) directly to reach same result Torricelli,s
Eqn.
vA= √ --------------------1

vB =√ --------------------2

x= vA*t1 = vB*t2 ------------------------(a)

t1= ---------------------------3

t2= ---------------------------4

y1= g t2 then t1= √ --------5

y2= 1/2 g t2 then t2= √ -----6

sub 1,2,5, and 6 in (a) then :

√ *√ =√ *√

√ =√ then y1.h1 = y2.h2

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
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Ex.13: compute the minimum discharge possible to flow from the

jet orifice and cross over the wall.

Vx= const.

Vy= g*t

In time, t, Vx must cover a distance of 3.0 m and Vy 1.5 m.

X= Vx*t

3= Vx * t -------------------------------1

Y= g* t2

1.5 = 0.5* g * t2 then t= 0.553 sec.

Vx= = = 5.42 m/s Sub. In 1 then:

Q= Vx * A = 5.42* (∏*0.052/4) = 0.011 m3/s

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
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Geometry of liquid jets:

H.W. : review

X= (V0)x * t ----------------------------(27)

Z= (V0)z *t - g t2 ------------------------(28)

(Vz)2 = (V0)2 + 2 g Z ----------------------(29)

Jet trajectory

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
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Ex. 14: A nozzle is attached to a pipe as shown in Fig. The inside diameter
of the pipe is 100mm. If the pressure at section 1 is 500 kPa. Determine the
water jet velocity. Assume head loss in the jet is negligible.

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Pitot tube:
Pitot, who was engaged in research work, hit upon an idea one day for a
very simple measuring device of flow rate. It was a device where the lower
end of a glass tube is bent by 90" and supported against the flow. The flow
velocity was to be measured by measuring the increased height of the
water level. It is said that, as soon as he had hit upon this idea, he rushed to
the River Seine carrying a glass tube with a bent end. The result of an
experiment as shown:
The tube is so designed that at the streamlined end a hole is opened in the
face of the flow, while another hole in the direction vertical to the flow is
used in order to pick out separate pressures.
Let pA and vA respectively be the static pressure and the velocity at of the
undisturbed upstream flow. At opening B of the Pitot tube, the flow is
stopped, making the velocity zero and the pressure pe. B is called the
stagnation point. Apply Bernoulli's equation between A and B,

Pitot,s first experiments

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Pitot tube

-------------------------------------------------(30)
Ps = pc+ ρ vA2

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
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Ex.15: Compute the discharge flowing from the pipe bend shown:

A (1)

(2)

(1)
Solution:

AA = [(∏*0.12)/4 ] = 7.85 *10-3 m2

A2 = *(∏*0.052)/4 ] = 1.96 *10-3 m2

Bernoulli between (1)-(1) and orifice (2):

+ + Z1 = + +Z2

+ +6 =0 + + 4.5 ----------------(1)

Manometer reading:

( + ) = 0.5 m H.g. since section 1-1 is stagnation point

= 0.5 * r.d. H.g. = 0.5 * 13.57 = 6.785m water -----(2)

Sub. (2) in (1) then V2= 12.75m/s and Q= v2*A2= 0.025m3/s

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Ex.16: Compute the theoretical velocity, actual velocity, and discharge

flow through the pipe ? assume Cv= 0.98.

1 2

Solution:
Datum at pipe centerline
Manometer equations:

Manometer (1) water level represent + Z1

Manometer (2) water level represent +

Then ( + )–( + Z1) = 0.6 --------------------(1)

Bernoulli between (1) and (2):

+ + Z1 = + +Z2 Z2=0 at datum level

( + )–( +Z1) = -----------------------------------------(2)

Equating (1) and (2) then v1=3.43 m/s

Or: directly theoretical velocity (Vth= √ )=√ = 3.43m

Vactual = Vact. = Cv* Vth. = 0.98* 3.43 = 3.36 m/s

Q= v1. A1 = 0.061 m3/s

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H.W. :
1) Compute manometer reading.

2) Compute the discharge and the manometer reading?

3) Find the discharge and the value of ϴ ?

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4) Compute the discharge flow through the pipe shown in Fig.

Note: r.d. Gasoline= 0.82

Ans. Q=0.22 m3/s

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Venturimeter:
Venturi tube: As shown in Figs. below, a device where the flow rate in pipe line
is measured by narrowing a part of the tube is called Venturi tube. In narrowed
part of the tube, the flow velocity increase. By measuring the resultant decreasing
pressure, the flow velocity increases. By measuring the resultant decreasing
pressure, the flow rate in the pipe line can be measured.

Bernoulli Equation between section 1 and section 2:

----------------------------------------------(31)

Assuming that the pipeline is horizontal (Z1=Z2):

----------------------------------------------(32)

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but: =H --------------------------------------------------(33)

then:
(V22- V12)/2g = H -------------------------------------------------(34)
Continuity equation between 1 and 2:

------------------------------------------------(35)
Sub. Value of v1 above in equation (34), V2= Q/A2 then:

----theoritical -----------(36)
The above equation is used to compute the theoritical discharge.

Qactual = Cd * Qth ------------------------------------------------------------(37)

Cd = coefficient of discharge for venturimeter (Cd <1)

Compute the value of H for different U- tube:

Case1: Manometer contains liquid which is heavier than the flowing liquid
through the pipe:

H= x( – 1) ---------------------------------------------------------(38)

Sh = Specific gravity (S.G. ) of the heavier liquid in U-tube.

S0 = Specific gravity (S.G. ) of the pipe flowing liquid.
X = Difference of the heavier liquid column in the U-tube.
Case2: Manometer contains liquid which is lighter than the flowing liquid through
the pipe:

H= x(1 - ) ---------------------------------------------------------(38)

SL = Specific gravity (S.G. ) of the lighter liquid in U-tube.

S0 = Specific gravity (S.G. ) of the pipe flowing liquid.
X = Difference of the heavier liquid column in the U-tube.

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Ex. 17: A horizontal venturimeter with inlet throat diameter 30 cm and 15 cm

respectively is used to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential
manometer connected to inlet and the throat is 20 cm of mercury. Determine the
rate of flow, assume Cd=0.98 ?

Solution:

A1= *(30cm)2 = 706.85 cm2 = 0.0706 m2

A2= *(15)2 = 176.7 cm2 = 0.0177m2

X= 20 cm case 1

H= x( – - 1) eqn. 38

H= 20( -1 ) = 251.4 cm = 2.51m

to compute theoritical Q eq.36
(A2/A1)2 = (176.7/706.85)2 = 0.0625

Qth = *√ = 36159.8 cm3/s = 36.15 L/s

√
Qact= Cd*Qth. = 0.98 * 36.15 = 35.44 L/s
Or using dimensions in m and g=9.81 then Qth.= 0.03615 m3/s
Which lead to same result.

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

H.W.: A horizontal venturimeter with diameter 20cm and throat 10 cm is used to

measure the flow of oil of r.d. 0.8. The discharge of oil through venturimeter is 60
L/s. Find the reading of the oil-mercury differential manometer (x=?), take
Cd=0.98.
Ans. X= 18.12 cm.

Weir:
As shown in Fig., in case where a water channel is stemmed by a board or a wall,
over which the water flows, such a board or wall is called a weir. A weir is used to
adjust the flow rate. In the Fig., assume a minute depth dz at a given depth Z from
the water level. Let b be the width of the water channel and assume a minute
area bdz as an orifice. From Bernoulli,s equation:

V= √ ---------------------------------------------------------(39)
The flow rate dQ passing here is as follows assuming the coefficient of discharge
Cd:
dQ= Cd *b *dz *√ --------------------------(40)
integrating above equation:

Q= Cd*b*√ ∫ √ *dz = *Cd*b* √ * -------(41)

By measuring H, the discharge Q can be computed from eqn. (41)

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Siphon:
Ex.18: A siphon is shown in Fig P. 6.12. Point A is 1m above the water level,
indicated by point 1. The bottom of the siphon is 8m below level A. Assuming
friction to be negligible, determine the speed of the jet at outlet and also the
pressure at A.

Solution:

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Conservation of momentum:
Equation of momentum:
A flying baseball can simply be caught with a glove. A moving automobile,
however, is dificult to stop in a short time as shown in Fig. below. Therefore, the
velocity is not sufficient to study the effects of body motion, but the product, Mv,
of the mass M and the velocity v can be used as an indicator of the consequences
of motion.

This is called the Linear momentum. By Newton ,s second law of motion, the
change per unit time in the momentum of a body is equal to the force acting on
the body.
Now, assume that a body of mass M (kg) will be at velocity v(m/s) in t seconds.
The acting force F(N) is given by the following equation:

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

In other words, the acting force is conserved as an increase in unit time in

momentum. This is the law of conservation of momentum.

Whenever the reaction force of a jet or the force acting on a solid wall contact
with the flow is to be obtained, by using the change in momentum, such a force
can be obtained comparatively dimply without examining the complex internal
phenomena.
In an actual computation, keeping in mind an assumed control volume in the flow,
the relation between the change in momentum and the force within that volume
is obtained by using the equation of momentum. In the case where fluid flows in a
curved pipe as shown in Fig, below:

Flow in a curved pipe

Let ABCD the control volume, then the equation of momentum:

-----(42)
Note: increase in momentum = momentum going out – momentum coming in

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

In this equation, m is the mass flow rate, If Q is the volumetric flow rate, then the
following relation exists:

------------------------------------------(43)
From equation (43), FX and Fy are given by:

∑ = ρ*Q*∆ -------------------------------------------(44)
F1X + FX – F2X = ρ *Q* ( V2X – V1X )
P1*A1*cos α1 + FX - P2*A2*cos α2 = ρ *Q* ( V2X – V1X )

∑ = ρ *Q* ∆ -------------------------------------------(45)

F1Y + FY - F2Y = ρ *Q* ( V2Y – V1Y )

P1*A1*sin α1 + FX - P2*A2*sin α2 = ρ *Q* ( V2y – V1y )

F= √ ------------------------------------ (46)

ϴ = tan-1 ------------------------------------------ (47)

Application of momentum equation:

- Forces on pipe bends
- Enlargement and contraction
- Force of a jet
- Forces on fixed blades
- Forces on moving blades
- Hydraulic Jump.
- Structures in open flow

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Forces on pipe bends

Ex.19: 300 L/S of water flow through the pipe bend (200mm *300mm)
shown in Fig. The pressure at the entrance (P1= 70 kPa.). Compute the
force of water on the bend if the volume of water inside the bend
=0.085m3.

Solution:
Continuity equation :
D1= 300 mm and Q=300 l/s then v1= Q /A1 = 4.24 m/s : v12/2g= 0.92m
D2= 200mm Q=300l/s v2= Q/A2 = 9.55 m/s : v22/2g=4.65m
Bernoulli equation:
Datum at section x-x
Z1=0 : P1/ϒ = 70/9.8 = 7.14m : v12/2g= 0.92
Z2=1.5m : P2/ϒ = ? : v22/2g = 4.65
Z1+v122g+P1/ϒ = Z2+V22/2g + P2/ϒ then = 1.91 m
P2= 1.91 *9.81 = 18.74 kPa.

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Momentum equation:
F1= p1*A1= 70 000 Pa. * (∏*0.32/4) = 4948 N Note: F1 is horizontal
F2= p2*A2= 18 740 Pa. * (∏*0. 22/4) = 588N not as missprinted in fig.

F1X= + 4948N → : F1Z= 0

F2X= 588 cos 600= 294 N → : F2Z= 588 sin600 = 509 N

V1X=+ 4.24 m/s → : V1Z= 0

V2X = V2 cos 600 : V2Z= V2 sin 600

= 9.55 cos600 = 9.55 sin 600
= 4.775 m/s ← = 8.27m/s ↑
= - 4.775m/s = +8.27 m/s
Ρwater = 1000kg/m3
Weight of water = ϒ* vol. = 9800* 0.085= 833N Wwater=833N↓
∑Fx = ρ*Q*∆Vx
F1- Fx + F2X = ρ*Q*( V2X-V1X)
4948 – FX + 294 = 1000 *0.3* (-4.775 -4.24) FX= 8197 N←

∑FZ = ρ*Q*∆VZ
F1+ FZ -F2Z = ρ*Q*( V2Z-V1Z)
0 + FZ – 509- 833 = 1000 *0.3* (8.27 -0)
FZ= 3823 N↑
Resultant of FX= 8197N← and Fy= 3823N↑
F= √ = 9044 N ϴ= tan-1 (Fy/Fx)= 27.780
to find r then moment about point of entrance center intersection:
-r*F+0.525 *W+1.5*F2cosϴ+0.6*F2sinϴ=ρ*Q**1.5(-v2cosϴ)+(0.6v2sinϴ)] then r=? m.

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

H.W.:

H.W.:

H.W.:

Ans. Fx=19.65 kN/m

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Deflectors and blades

The theory of turbomachines is based on the relation between jets and
vanes. When a free jet is deflected by a blade surface, a change of
momentum occurs and a force is exerted on the blade.
Assumptions:
1- The jet is assumed to flow on the vane in a tangential direction,
without shock.
2- The friction resistance between vane and the jet is small and can be
neglected.
3. uniform velocity through out the jet upstream and downstream from
the vane.
4. same pressure at each end of the vane.
5. The only force acting on the fluid is the reaction of the blade.

Fixed blades:
Fig. ©

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Moving blades:
Assuming the blade in Fig. © above moving to the right with velocity
U, were U<V1

then the relative velocity is Vr= (v1-U) and Q= Vr* AJET

∑ =-FX= ρ*Q*(Vr cos β –Vr )
∑ =Fy= ρ*Q*(Vr sinβ -0 )

Example of moving blade.

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

H.w.: Formulate the momentum equation in X and Y direction.

H.W.

H.W.

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Hydraulic Jump (H.J.)

Hydraulic jump is a phenomenon in the science of Hydraulics which is
frequently observed in open channel flow such as rivers and spillways.
When liquid at high velocity discharge into zone of lower velocity, a
rather abrupt rise occurs in the liquid surface.

Hydraulic jump could be defined as a sudden usually turbulent rise of

water flowing rapidly in an open channel where it encounters an
obstruction or change in the channel slope.

Hydraulic jump is standing wave formed when depth of water change

from definition of different depth in open channel flow

Hydraulic jump is an abrupt increase in the depth of fluid flowing in a

channel as its velocity is slowed and kinetic energy is converted to
potyentioal energy.

Change in channel slope.

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
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Obstruction spillway

Hydraulic jump:

Continuity:
Q= V*A : q= Q/B : B= width of the channel
q= y1 * v1 = y2 * v2

v1 = : v2= ----------------------------------------------------- (48)

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Bernoulli:

y1 + = y2 + + ∆E.L. ------------------------------------- (49)

Momentum :
F1 – F2 = ρ *Q* (v2- v1 ) divide by B

*ϒ* - *ϒ * = ρ *q* ( - ) divide by ρ

*g* - *g* = - divide by g

- = -

+ = + ----------------------------------------- --(50)

Solving eqn (48) from Continuity, eqn.(49) from Bernoulli, and (50) from
Momentum:

∆E.L. = E1-E2 = ------------------------------------------- (51)

Solving eqn(50) and (48) then:

= [ -1 +√ ] ----------------------

Or: I -------------- (52)

= [ -1 +√ ] -----------------------

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Notes:

1- IFr = Froude No. = if channel is rectangular :

√

if not replace y by DH=A/T : A = cross sectional area :T= channel Top width
⁄
IFr2 =[ ]2 = = =
√

then eqn. (52) could be in the form :

= [ -1 + √ or = [ -1 + √

Were Fr1 = and Fr2 =

√ √

2- If :
Fr = 1 then the flow is critical
Fr>1 then flow change from super critical depth to subcritical flow
This is happened when y2>y1 ( H.J. is possib;e to occur)
Fr<1 y2<y1
3- power dissipated through the hydraulic jump (IP= ϒ*Q* ∆E.L.)

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Ex. Water flow in horizontal channel, with depth of 0.6 m and q=3.7
m3/s.m. if the hydraulic jump is possible, compute the depth of the flow
just downstream and the dissipated power though the jump.
Solution:

q= 3.7 m3/s.m
check first does the hydraulic jump occur ?
v1= q/v1 = 3.7/0.6 = 6.2 m/s

IFr1 = = = 2.54 >1 then Hydraulic jump possible.

√ √

Y2= ? : y1=0.6m : g=9.81 m/s2 : q= 3.7 m3/s.m

Then y2= 1.88m : ∆E.L. = = 0.46m. IP= ϒ*Q* ∆E.L. = 16.7 kW.

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

DYNAMIC OF FLUID MECHANICS

Pressure variation in accelerated bodies of fluid:

1- Equiaccelerated straight-line motion (horizontal) :

---------------------------------(1)

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

or

P= ϒ * h ----------------------------------(2)

Ex 23: A van moving to the right, ( its tank dimension L= 6m, W= 4m, and height
2m), accelerated with a=2m/s2. Water depth inside the tank y= 1m. compute
the pressure at the beginning and ends of the tank.

Solution:

the water raise ∆y at the end of the tank ( point c) and lowered ∆y at the
beginning (point d):

tan ϴ = (a/g) = (2/9.8) = 0.204 m

but tan ϴ = (∆y/3) were 3= L/2 then

∆y= 3 tan ϴ = 3* 0.204 = 0.612 m

yc= static depth + ∆y = 1m + 0.612m = 1.612 m

yd = static depth - ∆y = 1m – 0.612m = 0.388 m

pc = ϒ water * yc = 9800 N/m3 * 1.612 m = 15800 Pa.

pd = ϒ water * yD = 9800 N/m3 * 0.388m = 3800 Pa.

Fmax = ϒ water * hc * A

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

= 9800 N/m3 * (yC/2) * [yC*W]

= 9800 N/m3 * (1.612/2)*[1.612*4]

= 50931 N ←

2- Vertical acceleration of fluid masses:

ϒ=ρ*g

dw = ϒ* volume = ϒ * (h*dA)

mass(m) = ρ * (h*dA)

F= m* a

pdA- ϒ (h*dA) = (ρ * (h*dA)) * a divided by dA

p- ϒ*h = ρ*h*a but ρ= (ϒ/g)

p - ϒ*h = (ϒ/g) * h* a

p= ϒ*h + (ϒ/g) * h* a

p= ϒ*h ( 1+ ) -----------------------------------(3)

it can be noticed that the pressure increase when a is accelerated

upward.

If a is downward then p= ϒ*h ( 1-a/g ) --------------------(4)

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
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This mean pressure is decreased if a is downward.

Notes:

If a is ↓and equal to g then sub in (4) lead p=0 free fall condition.

Ex.24 An open tank of water is accelerated vertically upward at

4.5m/s2.Calculate the pressure at a depth of 1.5m.
Solution:

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Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

3- Fluid pressure variation of rotational fluid bodies(az=0 ):

dz/dr= - ar/g

ar = -(v2/r) = (- ω2r2)/r since v= ω*r

and for constant water pressure :

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Z ------------------------------(5)

= -------------------------(6)

at r=0 P=Pc then :

P= +c -----------------------------(7)

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Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Fluid flow in pipes:

- Laminar flow in pipes
- Turbulent flow- smooth pipes
- Turbulent flow- rough pipes
- The viscous sub-layer
- Blasius equation
- Definition of smoothness and roughness
- Losses in pipes
- The three reservoir problem

Pipe Fittings Sanitary

Industrial Water pumping station

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
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Mechanical and Piping Works:

• Supply, installation and maintenance of power plants (diesel
generators), pumping stations and sewage purification facilities
• Fabrication, supply and installation of mechanical equipment,
water, fuel, gas, steam pipes, including high pressure pipes suitable for
radiography, ultrasound and other tests
• Supply, installation and assembly of rotating equipment - e.g.,
machines, turbines - including leveling, balancing, commissioning and
operation
• Supply and installation of pumping stations for water, fuel,
sewage, including fabrication and installation of manifolds,
measurement systems and instrumentation
• Supply and installation of laboratory equipment, including copper,
PVC, polypropylene and other tubing, and assembly of laboratory
equipment and instruments
• Supply, installation and assembly of stainless steel pipes for
various pressure ratings, including clean pipes, as well as high
temperature pipes made of specialty alloys (Inconel, Incolloy)
• Routine maintenance service for institutions and factories, with
continuous presence of work teams at the sites according to annual
contracts, including execution of modifications, upgrades and additions

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Laminar flow in pipes:

Laminar flow IR≤ 2100

y= R-r
dy= -dr
Linear shear stress distribution
τ=( )r = μ =-μ -------------------------------------------------- (1)

at r= R, τ=τ0 then =0

from geometry τ = τ0 = -μ

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

=- r integrating:

v= - ( )+c ------------------------------------------------------------- (2)

at r= R at the wall (no slip ) v=0 sub. In equation (2):

0=- ( )+c then c= R2 sub. in (2) :

V= (R2 – r2 ) ---------------------------------------------------------- (3)

at r=0 v = vc sub. in equation (3)

vc = ---------------------------------------------------------- (4)

sub. equation (4) in equation (3) :

v = vc (1- ) ---------------------------------------------------------- (5)

writing μ= ρ * ʋ in equation (3) :

v= (R2 – r2 ) : and since v* = √ then :

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

v= (R2 – r2 )
or:

= (R2 - r2 ) ----------------------------------------------------------- (6)

but

r = (R-y) then r2 = (R-y)2 sub above:

= [ R2 – (R- y)2]

= [ R2 – (R2 – 2Ry + y2)]

= [ 2R(y - )]

= (y- ) --------------------------------------------------------------- (7)

for small values of y , y<<R then is negligible:

= *y for y<<R -------------------------------------------------------- (8)

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

but τo = ( )*R and

from equation (4) vc = *R then:

vc = R2 --------------------------------------------------------------- (9)

Parabolic profile:

or :

Vc= 2 vav.

Then from equation (9) with d= 2r :

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

V= R2 = d2 ----------------------------------------------- (10)

or:

hL = ------------------------------------------------------------ (11)

but ϒ = ρ * g * then :

hL = *

hL = ( )( ) ( )

hL = -------------------------------------------------------- (12)

hL = f Darcy equation

then from Darcy equation and equation (12) :

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

f= -------------------------------------------------------- (13)

The friction factor (f) for laminar flow could be calculated

directly from equation (13) or refer to Moody diagram to get
the same value:

Writing equation (11) in terms of Q then :

Q= Hagen- Poiseuille eq. ----------------------------- (14)

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Turbulent flow:
IR>4000

Turbulent flow rough pipe:

In rough pipes at high Re , pipe friction is governed mainly by
pipe roughness (e/d) disruption of viscous sublayer will make
viscous action negligible, experiments show that logarithmic
velocity profile applicable.
e: roughness heigh
d: diameter of the pipe
e/d : relative roughness

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Nikuradses
experiments for rough pipe show that :
= 2.5 ln + 8.5 ------------------------------------------------- (15 a)

Or:
=5.75 log +8.5 ------------------------------------------------ (15 b)

v = velocity at any height y

e: pipe roughness height

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
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= 5.75 log + 4.75 -------------------------------------------- (16)

at y=R then v= vc sub. in equation (1b):

= 5.75 log + 8.5 ----------------------------------------------- (17)

Subtracting eq.(17) from eq.(16) :

= 8.5 - 4.75 = 3.75

However 3.75 must br adjusted to 4.07 to conform to
experimental results, thus :

= 1+ 4.07 = 1 + 4.07 √ ------------------------- (16)

Note: hL = f and v* = v√ then:

= 2.03 log + 1.68 which must be adjusted to

√
conform experiments:

= 2 log + 1.74 = 2 log + 1.14 ----------------(17)

√

e: mean roughness height.

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Baghdad University/Engineering College Civil Department
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Ex.2: The mean velocity in a 300mm pipe line is 3m/s. The

relative roughness of the pipe is 0.002, and the kinematic
viscosity of water is 9*10-7 m2/s. Determine the friction factor,
centreline velocity, velocity 50mm from the pipe wall, and the
head lost in 300m of this pipe under the assumption that the
pipe is rough.
Solution:
= 2 log + 1.14 ----------(17) and e/d = 0.002 so d/e= 1/0.002
√

= 2 log + 1.14 f= 0.0234

√
v* = v√ = 3√ = 0.162 m/s
or using equation 16 to get v* with same result.
e= ( ) *d = 0.002 * 0.3 = 0.006 m
=5.75 log +8.5 -----------------------------------------(15b)

at y=R= d/2 = (0.3)/2 = 0.15 m v= vc

=5.75 log +8.5 then =5.75 log +8.5

Vc = 3.62 m
to find velocity 50mm from the wall re-use eq.( 15b )with y=0.05

=5.75 log +8.5 = =5.75 log +8.5

V50 = 3.17 m/s
hL = f = 0.0234 * = 10.7m of water

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Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

Turbulent flow smooth pipe:

Nikuradses experiments for rough pipe show that :
= 2.5 ln + 5.5 ------------------------------------------------------ (18 a)

= 5.75 log + 5.5 ------------------------------------------------- (18 b)

To compute friction factor(f):

= - 0.8 + 2.0 log IR √ ------------------------------------------------ (19)

√

Also for smooth pipe turbulent flow

Blasius equation ( Seventh – root law) for 3000 < IR> 100 000
could be used to compute f :

f= ----------------------------------------------------------------- (20)

or
f is computed from Moody diagram ( the smooth curve )

also
= ( )1/7 ----------------------------------------------------------------------- (21)

= ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- (22)

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Dr. Khalid A. Abdul-Razzaq and Lec. Raghad Sameer Mohmood 2024/2025

τo = 0.0332 μ0.25 R-0.25V7/4ρ3/4 ----------------------------------------(23)

also :

τo = 0.0464 ( )0.25 --------------------------------------------- (24)

Note:

V* = √ =v√ ------------------------------------------------------------ (25)

τo = ------------------------------------------------------------- (26)

Ex. 3: Smooth brass pipe diameter of (d=75 mm), water flow

with an average velocity (Vav.= 1.29 m/s), and the kinematic
viscosity of water is (ʋ=1*10-6 m2/s), ρ = 998 kg/m3, calculate
the friction factor, wall shear stress, centreline velocity, and the
velocity 25 mm from the pipe centreline, using the seventh-
root law.
Solution:
IR = = = 96750 : Blasius 3000<IR< 100 000 OK.

f= =f= = 0.018
or :
refer to Moody diagram for IR= 96750 then f=0.018

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Fig. (1): Moody Diagram

↑IR=96750

= -----(22)

V= 1.29 m/s then vc= 1.58 m/s

at d= 75 mm then R= 37.5 mm so r= 25mm from pipe center
line means y= (R-r ) = ( 37.5- 25) = 12.5 mm from the wall
= ( )1/7 ------------(21) and for y= 12.5mm : R=37.5mm: vc= 1.58m/s

Vr=25mm = 1.35 m/s : the velocity at r=25mm or y= 12.5mm.

τo = 0.0464 ( )0.25 ---------- (24) then τ0 = 3.7 Pa.

or : τo = --------------- (26) then τo= 3.7 Pa.

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The viscous sub-layer (δv):

A viscous sub-layer must exist near the smooth wall, in it the
laminar flow relation holds as given by the dimensionless
profile :

= -------------------------------------------------------------------- (27)

also :

= 11.6 -------------------------------------------------------------------- (28)

but v* = v √ :

sub. in (28) then :

= ------------------------------------------------------------------- (29)
√

Then:

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√ = ------------------------------------------------------------------ (30)

where: δv = thickness of viscous sub-layer

From equation (19) turbulent smooth pipe :

= - 0.8 + 2.0 log IR √

√

Sub. (30) in (19) then:

= - 0.8 + 2.0 log [ ] ----------Turbulent smooth ---------- (31)

√

= 5.75 log + 1.75 ----------------------------- ----------------- (32)

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Ex.4: Water (at 200c) flows in a 75mm diameter smooth brass

pipeline. According to a wall shear meter ( τ0 =3.68 N/m2 ).
Calculate the thickness of the viscous sublayer, the friction
factor, the mean velocity and flow rate, the centreline velocity,
the shear stress and velocity 25 mm from the pipe centreline,
and the head lost in 1000m of this pipe.
Solution:

V* = √ =√ = 0.061 m/s : but ʋ= 1*10-6 m2/s

= 11.6 then = 1.9*10-4m = 0.19 mm

= - 0.8 + 2.0 log [ ] --------------(31)
√
for =0.19mm and d= 75mm f= 0.018
= 5.75 log + 1.75 ------------------------(32)

v* = 0.061 m/s and R=37.5 mm = 0.0375 m : ʋ= 1*10-6 m2/s

then the mean velocity from eq.(32) v= 1.29 m/s
= 1 + 4.07 √ -----------------(16) , vav= 1.29m/s : f=0.018

Then vc = 1.54 m/s

To find shear stress 25mm from pipe centreline:
= : τ wall=3.68 Pa. then = 2.45 Pa.
From equation (18b):
= 5.75 log + 5.5: v*=0.0375 : y= .0125m then v25 = 1.35 m/s :

hL = f then for L= 1000m, f=0.018, v= 1.29m/s, hL=20.4m

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Definition of smoothness and roughness:

Smooth pipe:
If *IR*√
or:
or: < 3.5
Wholly rough pipe:
If *IR*√
or:
or: >70
Transition:
<
3.5 70
Commercial pipes:
Roughness patterns of commercial pipes are different from artificially
roughned pipes.
Colebrook found results of commercial pipes to fit the equation for
smooth, transition, and rough pipes.
= 1.14 – 2 log [ + ] ------------------------------------- (33)
√ √
Note: assume f R.H.S. find f compare till solution complete.

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Fig.( 2 ) Roughness of commercial pipes

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Pipe friction losses in Bernoulli equation:

hf = hL = f
Minor losses in pipelines:

+ + = + + + +∑

= minor losses

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Minor losses: losses in energy due to change in pipe cross

sectional area, bends, elbows, valves, fittings, ------etc.

① Entrance losses:

= kL ------------------------ (34)

V= pipe velocity

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② Abrupt contraction :

= kL ------------------------ (35)

Ac = contraction area
A1 = area in the first bigger pipe
A2 = area in the second smaller pipe
CC = coefficient of contraction
CC = -------------------------- (36)

A2/A1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.617 0.624 0.632 0.643 0.659 0.681 0.712 0.755 0.813 0.892 1.00
CC
0.5 0.46 0.41 0.36 0.3 0.24 0.18 0.12 0.06 0.02 0
KL

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③ Gradual contraction :
KL = 0.02 to 0.04 computed from equation (35) and the losses are
very small( could be neglected).
④ Abrupt enlargement :

---------------------------------------------------- (37)
KL= 1
⑤ Exit losses :

= kL ------------------------ (38)

KL= 1

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⑥ Gradual enlargement :

or:

---------------------------------------------------- (39)
KL = f( , Ɵ)

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⑦ Pipe bends:

= kL ------------------------------------------------------- (40)

a) meter bends

b) Smooth bends

R = Radius of curvature : IR = Reynolds No.

KL = f( Ɵ, )

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⑧ Fittings :

= kL ------------------------------------------------------- (41)

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Ex. 5 : Find the discharge through the pipeline in Fig. below for
H= 10m. and determine the head loss for Q= 60 L/s, ʋ =
1.01*10-6 m2/s. Note: clean cast iron.

Solution:
a) Bernoulli (1) and (2) :

+ + = + + +( )+[ ∑ ]

0+ 0 +H =0 + + 0 + (f )+[∑ ]

H = + (f )+[∑ ]

H = + (f ) + [ kentrance* + 2*kelbow* + kglobe valve* ]

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H = + (f ) + [ 0.5* + 2*0.9* + 10* ]

10 = (13.3 +680 f) --------------------------------①

Cast iron assume f= 0.022 then sub in eq. ① v2= 2.63 m/s
From fig(2) page 166:
= 0.0017 for cast iron pipe, IR= = = 391000
From Fig. (1) Moody page 161: for = 0.0017 and IR= 391000
f=0.023 which close to assumption 0.022 o.k.
note: if not close enough re-calculate using new f to check the
latest f.
then v2= 2.63 and Q= v2 A2 = 2.63 (π ) = 0.046 m3/s ← Ans.
b) for known Q= 60 L/s:
v2= Q2/A2 = 0.06/( π ) = 3.4 m/s. then
IR= = = 5*105
From Moody diagram f= 0.023
Sub. in ① then :
H= (13.3 +680 f)

H= ( 13.3 + 680 * 0.023)

H = 17.06 m ← Ans.

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Expression of hL in term of Q:

hL = f

hL = f : and A2 = ( )2 =
then:

hL = f

hL = 8 *f* * Q2

hL = Q2 ---------------------------------------- (41)

Equation (41) could be written as:

hL = Q2 ----------------------------------------- (42)

where:

= ----------------------------------------- (43)

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Ex.5: Water is flowing. For Q3= 110 l/sec, calculate Q2, Q1 and
pump power.

Solution:
Using equation (43) then :
8 fl fl
k 5  0.08271
g 2 d d5
 0.18
k1  .08271 450  275.7
( 0.3 )5
 0.18
k 2  .08271 600  15030
( 0.15 )5
 0.18
k1  .08271 300  1550.8
( 0.25 )5
Energy

30  k1Q12  Ep  k 3 .Q32  60 (1) & (2)

30  k1Q12  Ep  18.765  60
Ep  k1 .Q12  48.765 ...........(1)
30  k1Q12  Ep  k 2 .Q22  90 (1) & (3)
Ep  k1 .Q12  60  k 2 .Q22 ..............(2)
60  k 2 .Q22  48.765  k 2 .Q22  11.235

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So Q2 is in opposite direction:
11.235
Q22  , Q 2  0.027 m 3 / s
15030

Q1  Q2  Q3

Q1  0.1101  .027  0.083 m 3 / s

EP  48.765  k1Q12  48.765  1.899  50.664m

P   .Q1 .EP  9.8( 0.083 )( 50.665 )  41.21 kW ← Ans.

Ex.6: Two reservoirs have a constant difference of levels of

70m and are connected by a 250mm diameter pipe which is 4
km long. The pipe is tapped mid-way between the reservoirs and
water is drawn at the rate of 0.04 m3/s. Assuming friction
factor=0.04, determine the rate at which water enters the lower
reservoir.

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Solution:

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The three reservoir problem:

Case 1: flow from Res. A. to B & C

In this case the energy level at junction O is higher than Res. B and less
level than Res. A.
ENERGY
ZA - KA – KB = ZB
ZA - KA – KC = ZC
CONTINUITY
QA = Q B + Q C
Case 2: flow from Res. A. to C& NO Flow to B
In this case the energy level at junction O is at the same level of Res. B
ENERGY
ZA - KA = ZB
ZA - KA – KC = ZC
CONTINUITY
QA = Q C

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Case 3: flow from Res. A. to C & Flow from Res. B to C also

In this case the energy level at junction O is lower than level of Res. A
and B respectively.
ENERGY
ZA - KA – KC = ZC
ZB – KB – KC = ZC
CONTINUITY
QA + Q B = Q C
Single series pipe problems:

H= hf1 + hf2 + hf3

Pipes in parallel:

hf = = =

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EX.7:

Ex.8:
5 brass pipes 25 mm in diameter each, deliver total flow of 2.4
L/s of water at 200c between two reservoirs with constant
elevation. Compute the required diameter of brass single pipe
to deliver same discharge.

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Solution:
Total Q= 2.4 L/s
then each pipe deliver = = 0.48 L/s

So each pipe d= 25mm, Q1pipe= 0.48 L/s

hL1 = K1 Q2 =

Total hL = ----------------------------(1)

to compute the hL in the equivelant single pipe d= ?, Q= 2.4 L/s

hL2 =K2 Q2 = ---------------------------(2)

Total hL = hL2

Assume same friction factor in same both cases (multiple 5 pipes and
single equivalent pipe) since the brass is the material in both cases
(actually f1 not equal to f2 exactly but very close)
In both cases the length of the pipe is the same (5 pipes in parallel and
single pipe),
then L1=L2 =L.

equating (1) and (2) and d1= 25 mm = 0.025 m:

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hL1 = hl2

k1 = K2

Q1 = 0.48 L/s = 0.00048 m3/s

Q2 = 2.4 L/s = 0.0024 m3/s
K1 (0.00048)2 = K2 (0.0024)2 then k1= 25 k2 ------------------(3)
K1 = and k2 = ---------------------(4)

sub. (4) in (3) then:

= 25 ( ) divide by

= 25 ( )
d1= 25mm

= 25 ( ) then d2 = 47.5 mm ←Ans.

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Hazen–Williams equation
The Hazen–Williams equation is an empirical relationship which relates
the flow of water in a pipe with the physical properties of the pipe and the
pressure drop caused by friction. It is used in the design of water
pipe systems[1] such as fire sprinkler systems,[2] water supply networks,
and irrigation systems. It is named afterAllen Hazen and Gardner Stewart
Williams.
The Hazen–Williams equation has the advantage that the coefficient C is
not a function of the Reynolds number, but it has the disadvantage that it is
only valid forwater. Also, it does not account for the temperature
or viscosity of the water.[3]

General form
Henri Pitot discovered that the velocity of a fluid was proportional to the
square root of its head in the early 18th century. It takes energy to push a
fluid through a pipe, and Antoine de Chézy discovered that the head loss
was proportional to the velocity squared.[4] Consequently, the Chézy
formula relates hydraulic slope S(head loss per unit length) to the fluid
velocity V and hydraulic radius R:

V= C√ = C. R0.5.S0.5
The variable C expresses the proportionality, but the value of C is not a
constant. In 1838 and 1839, Gotthilf Hagen and Jean Léonard Marie
Poiseuille independently determined a head loss equation for laminar flow,
the Hagen–Poiseuille equation. Around 1845, Julius Weisbach and Henry
Darcy developed the Darcy–Weisbach equation.[5]

The Darcy-Weisbach equation was difficult to use because the friction

factor was difficult to estimate.[6] In 1906, Hazen and Williams provided
an empirical formula that was easy to use. The general form of the
equation relates the mean velocity of water in a pipe with the geometric
properties of the pipe and slope of the energy line.

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V= K.C.R0.63.S0.54

where:

 V is velocity
 k is a conversion factor for the unit system (k = 1.318 for US customary
units, k = 0.849 for SI units)
 C is a roughness coefficient
 R is the hydraulic radius
 S is the slope of the energy line (head loss per length of pipe or hf/L)


The equation is similar to the Chézy formula but the exponents have been
adjusted to better fit data from typical engineering situations. A result of
adjusting the exponents is that the value of C appears more like a constant
over a wide range of the other parameters.[7]

The conversion factor k was chosen so that the values for C were the same
as in the Chézy formula for the typical hydraulic slope of S=0.001.[8] The
value of k is 0.001−0.04.[9]

Typical C factors used in design, which take into account some increase in
roughness as pipe ages are as follows:[10]

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Material C factor low C factor high reference

Steel 90 110 -
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 150 150 [10]
Polyethylene 140 140 [10]
Galvanized iron 120 120 [10]
Fibre-reinforced plastic 150 150 [10]
(FRP)
Copper 130 140 [10]
Concrete 100 140 [10]
Cement-Mortar Lined 140 140 -
Ductile Iron Pipe
Cast iron new 130 130 [10]
Cast iron 40 years 64 83 [10]
Cast iron 30 years 75 90 [10]
Cast iron 20 years 89 100 [10]
Cast iron 10 years 107 113 [10]
Asbestos-cement 140 140 -
Fibre-reinforced plastic 150 150 [10]
(FRP)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 150 150 [10]
Asbestos-cement 140 140 -
Cement-Mortar Lined 140 140 -
Ductile Iron Pipe
Polyethylene 140 140 [10]
Copper 130 140 [10]
Concrete 100 140 [10]
Cast iron new 130 130 [10]
Galvanized iron 120 120 [10]
Cast iron 10 years 107 113 [10]
Steel 90 110 -
Cast iron 20 years 89 100 [10]
Cast iron 30 years 75 90 [10]
Cast iron 40 years 64 83 [10]

Pipe equation[edit]
The general form can be specialized for full pipe flows. Taking the
general form:

V=K.C.R0.63.S0.54
and exponentiation each side by ⁄ gives (rounding exponents to 2
decimals):

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V1.85 = K1.85.C1.85.R1.17.S
Rearranging gives

S=

The flow rate Q = V A, so

S= =

The hydraulic radius R (which is different from the geometric radius r)

for a full pipe of geometric diameter d is d/4; the pipe's cross sectional
area A is ⁄ , so

S= = =

S=
U.S. customary units (Imperial)
When used to calculate the pressure drop using the US customary
units system, the equation is:[11]

Spsi per foot = =

Where:

 Spsi per foot = frictional resistance (pressure drop per foot of pipe) in psig/ft
(pounds per square inch gauge pressure per foot)
 Pd = pressure drop over the length of pipe in psig (pounds per square
inch gauge pressure)
 L = length of pipe in feet
 Q = flow, gpm (gallons per minute)
 C = pipe roughness coefficient
 d = inside pipe diameter, in (inches)

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Note: Caution with U S Customary Units is advised. The equation for head
loss in pipes, also referred to as slope, S, expressed in "feet per foot of
length" vs. in 'psi per foot of length' as described above, with the inside pipe
diameter, d, being entered in feet vs. inches, and the flow rate, Q, being
entered in cubic feet per second, cfs, vs. gallons per minute, gpm, appears
very similar. However, the constant is 4.75 vs. the 4.52 constant as shown
above in the formula as arranged by NFPA for sprinkler system design. The
exponents and the Hazen-Williams "C" values are unchanged.
SI units:
When used to calculate the head loss with the International System of
Units, the equation becomes:[12]

S= = -----------------------------------(1)

 S = Hydraulic slope
 hf = head loss in meters (water) over the length of pipe
 L = length of pipe in meters
3
 Q = volumetric flow rate, m /s (cubic meters per second)
 C = pipe roughness coefficient
 d = inside pipe diameter, m (meters)
Note: pressure drop can be computed from head loss as hf × the unit
weight of water (e.g., 9810 N/m3 at 4 deg C)
References
1. "Hazen–Williams Formula". Retrieved 2008-12-06.
2. Jump up^ "Hazen–Williams equation in fire protection systems". Canute LLP. 27 January 2009.
Archived from the original on 2013-04-06. Retrieved 2009-01-27.
3. Jump up^ Brater, Ernest F.; King, Horace W.; Lindell, James E.; Wei, C. Y. (1996). "6".Handbook of
Hydraulics (Seventh ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. p. 6.29. ISBN 0-07-007247-7.
4. Jump up^ Walski, Thomas M. (March 2006), "A history of water distribution", Journal of the American
Water Works Association, American Water Works Association, 98 (3): 110–121, p. 112.
5. Jump up^ Walski 2006, p. 112
6. Jump up^ Walski 2006, p. 113
7. Jump up^ Williams & Hazen 1914, p. 1, stating "Exponents can be selected, however, representing
approximate average conditions, so that the value of c for a given condition of surface will vary so little
as to be practically constant."
8. Jump up^ Williams & Hazen 1914, p. 1
9. Jump up^ Williams & Hazen 1914, pp. 1–2
10. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l Hazen-Williams Coefficients, Engineering ToolBox, retrieved7
October 2012
11. Jump up^ 2007 version of NFPA 13: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, page 13-213,
eqn 22.4.2.1
12. Jump up^ "Comparison of Pipe Flow Equations and Head Losses in Fittings" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-
12-06.

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Darcy–Weisbach equation

In fluid dynamics, the Darcy–Weisbach equation is

a phenomenological equation, which relates the head loss, or pressure
loss, due to friction along a given length of pipe to the average velocity of
the fluid flow for an incompressible fluid. The equation is named after Henry
Darcy and Julius Weisbach.
The Darcy–Weisbach equation contains a dimensionless friction factor,
known as the Darcy friction factor. This is also variously called
the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor, friction factor, resistance coefficient,
or flow coefficient.[a]

hL = f Darcy equation
or:

hL = f -------------------------------(2)

Hardy Cross method:

The Hardy Cross method is an iterative method for determining the flow in
pipe network systems where the inputs and outputs are known, but the flow
inside the network is unknown.[1] The method was first published in
November 1936 by its namesake, Hardy Cross, a structural engineering
professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.[2] The Hardy
Cross method is an adaptation of the Moment distribution method, which
was also developed by Hardy Cross as a way to determine the moments in
indeterminate structures.

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The introduction of the Hardy Cross method for analyzing pipe flow
networks revolutionized municipal water supply design. Before the method
was introduced, solving complex pipe systems for distribution was
extremely difficult due to the nonlinear relationship between head loss and
flow. The method was later made obsolete by computer solving algorithms
employing the Newton-Raphson method or other solving methods that
prevent the need to solve nonlinear systems of equations by hand.

Derivation:
The Hardy Cross method is an application of continuity of
flow and continuity of potential to iteratively solve for flows in a pipe
network.[1] In the case of pipe flow, conservation of flow means that the flow
in is equal to the flow out at each junction in the pipe. Conservation of
potential means that the total directional head loss along any loop in the
system is zero (assuming that a head loss counted against the flow is
actually a head gain).

Hardy Cross developed two methods for solving flow networks. Each
method starts by maintaining either continuity of flow or potential, and then
iteratively solves for the other.

Assumptions:

The Hardy Cross method assumes that the flow going in and out of the
system is known and that the pipe length, diameter, roughness and other
key characteristics are also known or can be assumed.[1] The method also
assumes that the relation between flow rate and head loss is known, but
the method does not require any particular relation to be used.[1]

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In the case of water flow through pipes, a number of methods have been
developed to determine the relationship between head loss and flow. The
Hardy Cross method allows for any of these relationships to be used.

The general relationship between head loss and flow is:

hf = k.Qn
where k is the head loss per unit flow and n is the flow exponent. In most
design situations the values that make up k, such as pipe length, diameter,
and roughness, are taken to be known or assumed and the value of k can
be determined for each pipe in the network. The values that make up k and
the value of n change depending on the relation used to determine head
loss. However, all relations are compatible with the Hardy Cross method.[4]

Head Loss Equation Relation k n

Hazen-Williams equation 1.85

hf = L. L.

Darcy-Weisbach equation 2
Hf = L.

It is also worth noting that the Hardy Cross method can be used to solve
simple circuits and other flow like situations. In the case of simple circuits,

V= K I
is equivalent to

hf = k.Qn

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By setting the coefficient k to K, the flow rate Q to I and the exponent n to

1, the Hardy Cross method can be used to solve a simple circuit. However,
because the relation between the voltage drop and current is linear, the
Hardy Cross method is not necessary and the circuit can be solved using
non-iterative methods.

Method of balancing heads

The method of balancing heads uses an initial guess that satisfies
continuity of flow at each junction and then balances the flows until
continuity of potential is also achieved over each loop in the system.[1]

Proof(r denotes k)
The following proof is taken from Hardy Cross's paper, “Analysis of flow in
networks of conduits or conductors.”,[1] and can be verified by National
Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning Water and Wastewater
Engineering page,[4] and Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering Systems
by Robert J. Houghtalen.[5]
If the initial guess of flow rates in each pipe is correct, the change in head
over a loop in the system ∑ , would be equal to zero. However, if the
initial guess is not correct, then the change in head will be non-zero and a
change in flow,ΔQ must be applied. The new flow rate,Q= QO+ΔQ is the
sum of the old flow rate and some change in flow rate such that the
changed in head over the loop is zero. The sum of the change in head over
the new loop will then be ∑ n
=0 The value of
∑ n

can be approximated using the Taylor expansion.

∑ n
=∑ =0

And solving for

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∑ =-∑
∑
=-∑

The change in flow that will balance the head over the loop is approximated
∑
by =-∑ . However, this is only an approximation due to the

terms that were ignored from the Taylor expansion. The change in head
over the loop may not be zero, but it will be smaller than the initial guess.

Multiple iterations of finding a new will approximate to the correct

solution.[1]

Process

1. Guess the flows in each pipe, making sure that the total in flow is
equal to the total out flow at each junction. (The guess doesn't have
to be good, but a good guess will reduce the time it takes to find the
solution.)
2. Determine each closed loop in the system.
3. For each loop, determine the clockwise head losses and counter-
clockwise head losses. Head loss in each pipe are calculated using
hf= r.Qn . Clockwise head losses are from flows in the clockwise
direction and likewise for counter-clockwise.
4. Determine the total head loss in the loop, ∑ , by subtracting the
counter-clockwise head loss from the clockwise head loss.
5. For each loop, find ∑ without reference to direction (all values
should be positive).
∑
6. The change in flow is equal to
∑
7. If the change in flow is positive, apply it to all pipes of the loop in the
counter-clockwise direction. If the change in flow is negative, apply it
to all pipes of the loop in the clockwise direction.
8. Continue from step 3 until the change in flow is within a satisfactory
range.

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Method of balancing flows (section incomplete)

The method of balancing flows uses an initial guess that satisfies continuity
of potential over each loop and then balances the flows until continuity of
flow is also achieved at each junction.
Advantages of the Hardy Cross method
Simple math
The Hardy Cross method is useful because it relies on only simple math,
circumventing the need to solve a system of equations. Without the Hardy
Cross methods, engineers would have to solve complex systems of
equations with variable exponents that cannot easily be solved by hand.
Self correcting
The Hardy Cross method iteratively corrects for the mistakes in the initial
guess used to solve the problem.[1] Subsequent mistakes in calculation are
also iteratively corrected. If the method is followed correctly, the proper flow
in each pipe can still be found if small mathematical errors are consistently
made in the process. As long as the last few iterations are done with
attention to detail, the solution will still be correct. In fact, it is possible to
intentionally leave off decimals in the early iterations of the method to run
the calculations faster.

Example
The Hardy Cross method can be used to calculate the flow distribution in a
pipe network. Consider the example of a simple pipe flow network shown at
the right. For this example, the in and out flows will be 10 liters per second.
We will consider n to be 2, and the head loss per unit flow r, and initial flow
guess for each pipe as follows:

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Pipe Q12 Q13 Q23 Q24 Q34

r 1 5 1 5 1
Q guess (L/s) 5 5 0 5 5

We solve the network by method of balancing heads, following the steps

outlined in method process above.
1. The initial guesses are set up so that continuity of flow is maintained at
each junction in the network.

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2. The loops of the system are identified as loop 1-2-3 and loop 2-3-4.

3. The head losses in each pipe are determined.

Loop 1-2-3 Q12 Q13 Q23
Head loss = rQ^2 25 125 0
Direction Clockwise Counter-clockwise Clockwise
For loop 1-2-3, the sum of the clockwise head losses is 25 and the sum
of the counter-clockwise head losses is 125.
Loop 2-3-4 Q23 Q24 Q34
Head loss = rQ^2 0 125 25
Direction Counter-clockwise Clockwise Counter-clockwise
For loop 2-3-4, the sum of the clockwise head losses is 125 and the
sum of the counter-clockwise head losses is 25.

4. The total clockwise head loss in loop 1-2-3 is 25-125 = -100. The total
clockwise head loss in loop 2-3-4 is 125-25=100

5. The value of ∑ is determined for each loop. It is found to be

60 in both loops (due to symmetry), as shown in the figure.

∑
6. The change in flow is found for each loop using the equation
∑
.

For loop 1-2-3, the change in flow is equal to -100/60 = -1.66 and for
loop 2-3-4 the change in flow is equal to 100/60 = 1.66 .

7. The change in flow is applied across the loops. For loop 1-2-3, the
change in flow is negative so its absolute value is applied in the clockwise
direction. For loop 2-3-4, the change in flow is positive so its absolute value

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is applied in the counter-clockwise direction. For pipe 2-3, which is in both

loops, the changes in flow are cumulative.
Pipe Q12 Q13 Q23 Q24 Q34
Q (L/s) 6.66 3.33 3.33 3.33 6.66
The process then repeats from step 3 until the change in flow becomes
sufficiently small or goes to zero.
3. The total head loss in Loop 1-2-3 is
Loop 1-2-3 Q12 Q13 Q23
Head loss=rQ 2 44.4 55.5 11.1

Direction Clockwise Counter-clockwise Clockwise

Notice that the clockwise head loss is equal to the counter-clockwise head
loss. This means that the flow in this loop is balanced and the flow rates
are correct. The total head loss in loop 2-3-4 will also be balanced (again
due to symmetry).
Loop 2-3-4 Q23 Q24 Q34
Head loss=rQ 2 11.1 55.5 44.4

Direction Counter-clockwise Clockwise Counter-clockwise

In this case, the method found the correct solution in one iteration. For
other networks, it may take multiple iterations until the flows in the pipes
are correct or approximately correct.

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