3010 Chap01

Chapter 1
Basic Concepts used for

Description of Motion and
Deformation of a Continuum
1 Lagrangian and Eulerian Description of Motion
Within the scope of classical mechanics, all particles of a continuous medium (or,
more briefly, continuum) can be distinguished each from other, i.e., can be individ
ualized. The individual particles are associated with triples of numbers (£1,6.6)-
Such a triple is called the Lagrangian coordinates of the corresponding individual par
ticle. The Lagrangian coordinates are used to indicate this particle, i.e., to serve as
its "name" (in the same manner as integers serve as "names" of particles in the case
of their discrete configuration). The coordinates of the point occupied by a particle
at the initial instant are ordinarily used as the Lagrangian coordinates of this par
ticle. The motion of a continuum and processes taking place in it are described by
fields of physical quantities (velocity, pressure, temperature, etc.). If these quantities
are considered as functions of the Lagrangian coordinates ( 6 1 6 . 6 ) a n d t i m e '. t n e
description is referred to as Lagrangian or material. From this viewpoint, events are
considered to take place in the individual particles. The function r(fi, 6 , 6 , 0 . o r
motion law, is used as a basic kinematical characteristic in the Lagrangian descrip
tion. The vector r ( 6 , 6 . 6 . t) is the position (relative to a chosen frame of reference)
of the particle ( 6 - 6 . 6 ) at the instant t. If a coordinate system is chosen in the
three-dimensional Euclidean space of vectors r (i.e., a one-to-one correspondence is
set between the vectors and triples of numbers r «-» (xu x2, £3)). then the motion law
is represented also by the functions re* = / . ( 6 . 6 . 6 . O . » = !. 2 > 3 - T h e velocity and
3
4 BASIC CONCEPTS
acceleration of the particles of a continuum are defined by the formulae
where £ = (£i>&2,60- In general, the rate of change in some quantity A in an

individual particle of a continuum is called the substantive or total derivative of this
quantity with respect to time. In the Lagrangian description this is simply the partial
derivative dA(£, t)/dt. Physical quantities characterizing motion of a continuum and
processes taking place can be considered as functions of the spatial coordinates (ii, x2,
£3) and time t. From this viewpoint, events are considered to take place at the points
of the space. Such viewpoint is referred to as Eulerian or spatial. The velocity field
v(x\, x 2 ,13, t) is used as a basic kinematical characteristic in the Eulerian description;
spatial coordinates are called Eulerian. The vector v(xi, x 2 , 13, t) is the velocity of a
particle occupying the point (xi,x 2 ,x 3 ) at the instant t. In the Eulerian description
the substantive derivative of some quantity A is denoted with dA(x, t)/dt, where
x = (xi,X2,£3), and computed by the formula
dA{x,t) dA(x,t) . A,dA{x,t) . A.dA(x,t) , ,dA(x,t)
In particular, the acceleration a(x,t) in Eulerian description is determined by the

formula
. dv(x, t) , .dv(x,t) . .dv(x,t) . .dv(x,t)
where Vi(x,t) are velocity components.

Lagrangian and Eulerian viewpoints are equivalent: if processes are described
from one of them, the description from the other is obtained with a simple proce
dure. To change over the description from Lagrangian to Eulerian, the functions
representing the motion law x, = /.(fi.&i&.Oi * = 1.2,3, should be resolved with
respect to the Lagrangian coordinates, i.e., the inverse functions £<» = ga(xi, x 2 , x 3 , t),
a = 1,2,3, should be found. Then, for any quantity, the Lagrangian description of
which ^(Oi&ifoiO is known, the Eulerian description is obtained as the composite
function A(gl(x, t),g2(x, t), g3(x, t), t). To change over the description from Eulerian
to Lagrangian, the solution of the ordinary differential equations
dxi
-jj- =v,(x 1 ,x 1 ,x 3 , t) , 1= 1,2,3,
subjected to the initial conditions
X\\t=0 ~ £l . X2\t=0 = & . X3\t=0 = £3

1. Lagrangian and Eulerian Description ot Motion 5
should be found. This solution x, = /i(£i,f2.&5.0. * = 1,2,3, when found for all
values of the parameters (^1,^2,^3)1 gives the motion law in Lagrangian description,
and (f 1, £2,61) are the Lagrangian coordinates of the particles. Then, for any quantity
B(xi,X2-,X3,t), the Eulerian description of which is known, the Lagrangian descrip
tion is obtained as the composite function B(f\(£,t), fc(£,t),f3(£,t),t). A motion
of a continuum is well, although incompletely, represented by the particle paths and
streamlines. The locus of the positions of a particle (^1,^2.^3) at all instants is called
the path of this particle. A curve, determined for a given instant to, whose tangent
at any point x is in the direction of the velocity vector v(x, to), is called a streamline.
The equation of a streamline at an instant to has the following form
dX\ dl2 d.X3
v\{x,t0) v2{x,t0) v3(x,tQ) '
In general, streamlines depend upon the instant t0 for which they are found. When
a motion is steady, the streamlines do not depend upon the instant to and coincide
with the particle paths. A motion is referred to as steady if the velocity field in the
Eulerian description does not depend upon the time t. In the problems of this sec
tion, (x1.x2.i3) and (£1,^2, £3) denote respectively spatial Cartesian and Lagrangian
coordinates.
— PROBLEMS —
0 1.1 Introduce a spatial coordinate system and Lagrangian coordinates of the

particles in the following cases: a) a rigid body executes a translatory motion in a
fixed direction at constant speed v; b) a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis at
constant angular speed u>.
0 1.2 For translatory motions of a rigid body, find the general form of the velocity
field in the Lagrangian description and that of the motion law.
0 1.3 The motion law of a medium is represented by the functions
xi = £1 + a t £2 , *2 = 62 + b t £1 , x 3 = f3 (a, b = const).
Verify that the numbers (£1,^2,^3) for an individual particle have the meaning of
coordinates X\, x2, X3 of the point occupied by this particle at the instant t = 0. Find
velocity and acceleration fields in the Lagrangian description. What particle occupies
the point (x\,x^,x%) at the instant t = 0?
0 1.4 The motion of a medium is represented by the functions
* ! = & ( ! + £), *2=&(l+2£), 1 3 = 6 (l + £ )

6 BASIC CONCEPTS
(T — const).
a) Find the velocity and acceleration fields in the Lagrangian description, b) A
particle occupied the point (a, b, c) at the instant t = r. Find its position at the
instant t = 3r.
0 1.5 Consider the functions £a = ga(xi,x2,X3,t), a = 1,2,3, inverse, at instant
t, to the functions ij = /,(î,^2,^3> 0> * = 1.2,3, representing a motion law. What is
the physical meaning of their values? Find the values of the substantive derivatives
dta/dt.
0 1.6 Find velocity and acceleration fields in the Lagrangian and Eulerian de
scriptions if the motion is a) a three-axis extension:
i i = a(t) & , x2 = b{t) & , i 3 = c(t) & ;
b) a simple shear:
*i = fI + b(t) & , x2 = & , x3 = & ;
c) a uniform deformation and simultaneous rotation of a body with a fixed point:
x, = i4 n (0€i + >M*)& + AaMk , (det\\A„\\ ± 0).
0 1.7 Introduce Lagrangian coordinates and find the motion law of a medium if
the motion is described by the velocity field
Xi 2ti 2 3<2X3 . „,
vi = —— , v2 = , v3 = (r = const > 0 .
t +T t* + T* ts + Tl
0 1.8 Introduce Lagrangian coordinates and find the motion law of a medium, the
streamlines, and the particle paths, if the motion is described by the velocity field
•> — ii??- * - irP' * - ° <" - v^>-«(«> "■") * - ^w

i = 1,2,3 {R = ijxl + xl + xl), Q{t) > 0; c) vx = -Axu v7 = Bx2, v3 =
0, A = const > 0, B = const > 0.
© 1.9 Introduce Lagrangian coordinates and find the motion law of a medium if
the motion is described by the velocity field
vi = -A(t)xi , v2 = B(t)x2 , v3 = 0 ,
A{t) > 0 , B(t) > 0 .
Find the streamlines and compare them with the streamlines for the special case
A, B = const (Problem 1.8). Give an example of the functions A(t), B(t) at which
the streamlines and particle paths do not coincide.
1. Lagrangian and Eulerian Description of Motion 7
0 1.10 a) Can the functions representing a motion law be found from the known
particle paths? b) Can a velocity field at a given instant be found from the streamlines
known for this instant?
0 1.11 Find and sketch the streamlines and particle paths if motions of a
medium are described by the velocity fields a) V\ = —uix2, v2 = u;xi, v3 =
u (UJ,U = const); b) Vi — — Ax2, v2 = Bxit v3 = 0 (A = const >
0, B = const > 0); c) V\ = —Vsinuit, v2 = Vcosuit, v3 = 0 (u>, V =
const).
© 1.12 Can the particles of a medium move with nonzero acceleration if a) the
velocities of all the particles are identical? b) the velocity at any point of the space
does not vary depending on the time?
0 1.13 The density of every individual particle of an incompressible medium is
constant. Can the density at any point of the space depend upon the time?
0 1.14 While a medium moves with the velocity field
Vi = —wx2 , v2 — CJXI , f3 = 0 (u> = const),
the temperature field
zl _ Kf£l) 2 _ K(—)2 _ {I—)
!
2
T = T0er a' b' c (T 0 ,r,a,6,c = const).
is created in the space (with the help of appropriately distributed sources). Find the
rate of change in temperature in an individual particle at an instant t0 if this particle
is situated at the point of the space with the coordinates Xi = a, x2 = b, 13 = c at
this instant.
0 1.15 A medium moves with the velocity field
vi = kx\ , t>2 = —kx2 , v3 = 0 (fc = const)
and the density field
p = po + Ax2ekt (po, A = const).
Find the rate of change in density in each of the particles of the medium.
0 1.16 The position of an individual particle (C1.C2.f3) at any instant t is given
by the relationships
*i = /i(Ci + W , & , 6 ) , t = 1,2,3, (U = const).
Show that a) the motion is steady, b) the parametric equations of the streamlines
have the form x{ = /j(r,C2.C3). * = 1.2,3, where T is a parameter, and the pair of
numbers C2. C° specifies a streamline.
8 BASIC CONCEPTS
Q 1.17 A medium moves so that the paths of all particles lie on rays originating
from a point O, and the speed v and density p depend only upon the instant t and
distance x to the point O. The mass contained, at the instant t = 0, within the sphere
with the center O passing through some particle is often used as one of Lagrangian
coordinates f of this particle to describe such a motion (referred to as spherically
symmetric). Show that the expression
X
f = f AirR2p(R,t)dR
is valid for the Lagrangian coordinate f of a particle at a distance a; from the point O
at an instant t. Show that the speed and density of the medium depends only upon
£ and t in the Lagrangian description. Find the equation for these functions v(£, t),
p~(£, t) (including also the function x(£, t)) with transforming the equation
dp dp dv pv _
dt dx dx x
expressing the mass conservation law in the Eulerian description.
0 1.18 The motion of a medium is represented by the functions
I =
xi=£u x2 = & (1 + - J , 3 ^J-T (r = const).
T
a) Find the velocity and acceleration fields, b) Find the velocity, at the instant t = IT,
of the particle situated at the point with the coordinates (a, a, a) at the instant t = r.
0 1.19 Find the velocity and acceleration fields in Lagrangian and Eulerian de
scriptions if the motion of the medium is represented by the functions
Xl = 6 + c(<)£2 , X2 = 6 + C(t)& , X3 = £3.
© 1.20 A medium moves with the velocity field
vi(x, t) = at , u 2 (i, t) = —«— , v3(x, t) = 0 (a,u = const)

Xl
and the temperature field
T = T0 (l + ^ j (To, r = const).
Find the rate of change in temperature at the instant t = r in the individual particle
situated at the point with the coordinates
Xi = if/a , i 2 = 2u 2 /a , x 3 = 3w2/a .
2. Tensors and their Cartesian Components 9
2 Tensors and their Cartesian Components

Expressions with indices. Quantities of the same type are often denoted by one
letter equipped with some number of indices. The Kronecker symbols <5y (<5y = 1 at
i = j , Sij =0 a.t i ^ j) is an example of a set of such quantities. Further, in absence
of special notes, different indices are implied to take independently each of the values
1, 2, 3.
To shorten the notation, the following summation convention is adopted: If in a
one-term expression composed of letters with indices some index appears twice, this
expression denotes the sum of the corresponding terms taken for every value of this
index. For example, <Zy bju denotes the sum ati 6i« +a i 2 hu +&i3 ksu- There may be
several such pairs of indices in a term; every pair denotes independent summation.
Tensors. For a pair of vectors a, b, their tensor product ab is introduced. Tensor

products can be added and multiplied by a number. A tensor product is linear with
respect to each of the cofactors:
(QIOI + a2a2)(/?i&i + fob2) = ai&ai&i + anfoafo + a 2 /?ia 2 6i + a202a2b2 .

All possible linear combinations of tensor products form a linear space, elements of
which are called tensors of second rank. The set of the tensor products e ^ can be
used as a basis in this space (e< is a basis of the original vector space). In particular,
if et is an orthonormal basis of the Euclidian space, a tensor of second rank t can
be written in the form t = Ujetej. The numerical coefficients ty are called the
components of the tensor t in this basis.
Let ej and e'j be two orthonormal bases, such that e* = ■Aye'j. Then t,j and t?u
are the components of a tensor of second rank t in these bases if and only if
Uj = AikAjit kt ■
This formula is referred to as the tensor transformation rule (in orthonormal bases).
Only orthonormal bases will be used further in this section.
Tensors of third, fourth, etc., ranks and their components are introduced with the
help of the tensor products abc, abed, etc. (similar to tensors of second rank). The
tensor products eêêt, eie.,efcef, etc., can be used as bases in the spaces of tensors of
third, fourth, etc., ranks. A vector is a tensor of first rank. A number (independent
of a chosen basis) is called a scalar and is a tensor of zeroth rank.
Multiplication by a number a is defined for any tensor t, the components of the
product a t being (at)ij„,m = aty...m where t„...m are the components of the tensor t.
Addition of two tensors a and b of the same rank is defined, the components of the
sum a + b being the sum of the components (a + b)y...m = Oy...m + 6y...m. Besides of
these operations, multiplication of any two tensors is determined. For example, the
10 BASIC CONCEPTS
tensor product A B of the tensors A = ^ e ^ and B = B W m e k eje m is the tensor of

rank 5
AB = AijBkimeiejekeiem .
For any tensor of rank not less than 2, the contraction with respect to a chosen
pair of indices is defined, the result also being a tensor. Components of the contracted
tensor are obtained from summation of the components of the original tensor with
equal values of indices in the chosen pair; the summation is performed for every
specified set of values of the rest indices. For example, the contraction of the tensor
Q = Qijkiî^j^kî with respect to the first and the third indices is the tensor
q = qêi, qjt = Qiju .
A contraction is often performed in a tensor product, e.g., the tensor with the
components Ca — AijBji is the result of the contraction in the tensor product with
the components AijBki. Contractions can be performed simultaneously with respect
to every of chosen pairs of indices, e.g., the tensor with the components Py = Aijkieu is
the result of the two contractions in the tensor product with the components >ly«em„.
For any second rank symmetric tensor t (ty = tji), there exists an orthonormal
basis e* in which the components t\2 = t2l, *i3 = t^x, t23 = t32 vanish. The straight
lines, along which the vectors of this basis are directed, are called the principal axes
of the tensor t. The components t*lt t22, t33 in this basis are called the principal
components or eigenvalues of the tensor t.
The eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a tensor t are defined as the numbers A and
vectors with components Vi satisfying the following system of equations
Up, = Xvi .
Therefore the eigenvalues can also be obtained from the criterion for existence of a
nonzero solution vt of this system det ||ty — A<5y|| = 0, i.e.,
A3-/1A2 + / 2 A - / 3 = 0
where
h = Ui , h = -^{Uitjj ~ UjUj) , I3 = det ||ty|| .
The numbers Ix, I2, h are independent of the orthonormal basis in which the com
ponents Uj are considered in these formulae (see Problem 2.15). They are called the
invariants of the tensor t. Any number-valued function of Uj possessing the same
property is also called an invariant of the tensor t. Any invariant of the tensor t can
be expressed in terms of the invariants I\, I2, h-
2. Tensors and their Cartesian Components 11
— PROBLEMS —
Expressions w i t h indices
0 2.1 Write out in detail the following expressions using only numerical values of
the indices (not their letter notations)
a) Uu
b) pijUj, Ujpih p^m, UiPij\
c) qijdibj, qijbjd,, b^di, a ^ f y , a.fyqy, fya^y, flyO,^;
d) Oijbij, cijibji, ciijbji, bijdji.
Indicate equal expressions.
0 2.2 Compute
a) sums 6it, 6^, tfyfybfa;
b) the same sums if all the indices run the values 1,2,..., n.
0 2.3 Write the formula for computation of the substantive derivative in Eulerian
description dA/dt in the short form using the summation convention.
Tensors
0 2.4 Let t{j be the components of a tensor in an orthonormal basis e*.
a) Show that the numbers Ty = tjt (for example, Tj2 = £21) are the components of a
certain tensor.
b) If Ui and Vj are the components of vectors, is TyUjiij = UjUiVjl Is UjUiUj = TyUjUj?
0 2.5 a) In some orthonormal basis, the components of a tensor of second rank
satisfy the relationship ty = tj{. Show that a similar relationship is valid for its com
ponents in any orthonormal basis. In this case, the tensor is referred to as symmetric.
b) Components of a tensor of second rank in some orthonormal basis satisfy the
relationship ty = —tji. Show that a similar relationship is valid for its components
in any orthonormal basis. In this case, the tensor is referred to as antisymmetric.
0 2.6 Consider the sums ayt + by* of the components of tensors a and b in every
orthonormal basis and show that they are the components of a tensor.
© 2.7 Consider the products flyju£mn of the components of tensors B and e build
in every orthonormal basis and show that they are the components of a tensor. Show
that their sums By«eti are the components of a tensor as well.
12 BASIC CONCEPTS
0 2.8 Let Sij and a« be the components of symmetric and antisymmetric tensors.
Show that Sijdij — 0 (the "complete contraction" of a symmetric and an antisymmet
ric tensors equals zero).
© 2.9 Show that any tensor of second rank can be represented as the sum of a
symmetric tensor and an antisymmetric one. Is this representation unique?
0 2.10 Show that for a symmetric tensors the contraction syUjVj can be expressed
in terms of contractions of the form SyiOji^ (ttj, t>j, Wi are the components of vectors).
In other words, the values of a symmetric bilinear form can be expressed in terms of
the values of the corresponding quadratic form.
© 2.11 Show that if a tensor of second rank t satisfies the relation UjViVj = 0 for
any vector v, it is antisymmetric.
0 2.12 The tensors t (5) and t (d) with the components
Uj = ^tkk6ij , ttj = tij - -tkk6ij
are called respectively the spherical component and the deviator of a symmetric tensor
t.
Find
a) the deviator of a spherical component (t w ) ( < i ) ;
b) the spherical component of a deviator (t^)'*'.
© 2.13 Find the general form of a tensor of second rank t if its component t12 is
known to equal zero in any orthonormal basis.
© 2.14 Find the principal components and principal axes of the tensor with the
following matrix of components in an orthogonal basis e^
/ 1 -v/3 0 \ / 1 -\/3 0 \
a) -y/3 -1 0 b) -N/3 -1 0
V 0 0 3y V 0 0 2/
© 2.15 Show that the following functions of the components ty of a second rank
symmetric tensor t are its invariants
a) J\ = ta, Jz = UjUj, J3 = Ujtjietid;
b) h = tu, h = \{tatii - 1^), I3 = det ||ty||.
© 2.16 Are the principal components of a second rank symmetric tensor its in
variants?
3. Curvilinear Coordinate Systems 13
0 2.17 Express the invariants Ii, I2, h, J\, J2, J3 (see Problem 2.15) in terms of
the principal components of the tensor t.
3 Curvilinear Coordinate Systems

Solving some problems calls for use of curvilinear coordinate systems although there
exists a Cartesian coordinate system in a Euclidean space. Normally, this depends
upon a symmetry of the problem. For example, to study an axially symmetric body
subjected to an axially symmetric load is more convenient in the cylindrical coordinate
system.
Coordinate systems, local bases. A coordinate system sets a correspondence

r <-> (x',x 2 ,x 3 ) between vectors and triples of numbers; such a triple (x',x 2 ,x 3 )
is also called a point with coordinates (xl,x2,x3). Numbers x 1 , x2 and x3 are the
components of a vector r only in special rectilinear coordinate systems. Note that we
use upper indices for coordinates in this section. If a coordinate system is given in the
space, then lines along which two coordinates are constant (coordinate lines), can be
drawn through each point. A coordinate system fixes a local basis of the Euclidean
space e< = dr/dxl corresponding to a point (x 1 ,! 2 ,! 3 ). In general, this basis is not
orthonormal. The basis e* satisfying the relationships ek ■ e< = 5k (a • 6 is the scalar
product of vectors a, b) is referred to as dual to ek. The dual basis exists, is unique,
and can be found by a standard procedure (Problem 3.1). If </y is a set of the scalar
products gjj = e-i ■ ej, and g'i is a set of the elements of the matrix \\gx*\\ reciprocal
to the matrix ||<7y||, the following relationships are valid
e* = g,kek, e, = gjkek, gv = ex ■ eP .
Vector and tensor fields. A vector-valued function on a domain (surface, curve)

is called a vector field on the domain (surface, curve) or, often, simply a vector. If a
coordinate system x' is chosen, a vector field is represented with use of local bases e*
or the dual bases e-7 in the form
v = vlei=Vjei, with vl = gtkvk, Vj = gjkvk. (3.1)
The quantities vl and Vj are called respectively the contravariant and covariant com
ponents of the vector field v in the coordinate system x\ Thus, we use upper indices
for contravariant components and lower ones for covariant components. In the case
of an orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system physical components are also often
used (see Problems 3.17, 3.19). If, besides coordinate system x', another coordinate
system x'k is used, its basis, dual basis and the components of a vector field v in it
14 BASIC CONCEPTS
(denoted with primes) are bound with the bases e^, e-* and the components of the
vector field v in the coordinate system x' by the relationships
dx dx
e'i = -en, v\ = ——-vk - the covariant transformation rule,
ox" ox' fi o\
dx" dx" ^ '
e" = 7T-re*i v" = TTT W * ~ the contravariant transformation rule.
ox" ox*
The following relationships are also valid
dx'k , dxlk ,
Ci =
-dxTek' Vi =
-dVVk>
dx' lk 4 dx*
d^C ' V=
dx*<
dx* dx'k ri da? dxk d

= } ,
O,- -r-r -z—7 = O,
0x'k dxi ' dxk dx" ]
'
A tensor-valued function on a domain (surface, curve) is called a tensor field on the
domain (surface, curve) or, often, simply a tensor. If a coordinate system x' is chosen,
a tensor field, e.g. of second-rank, is represented in the following forms
t = tij eê, = tkj e*e, = <', eê1 = tkt ekel .
The numerical coefficients tli, tju and t'J, t'j are called respectively the contravariant,
covariant and mixed components of the tensor in the coordinate system i*. The dots
in the notations tk^_, t*| are used to indicate the sequence of the indices. For example,
in the expression A1^, the index i is the first, and the index k is the second. The
components of a tensor in a coordinate system xik are bound with its components
in a coordinate system x* by the so-called tensor transformation rule: the covariant
transformation rule is used for every lower index, and the contravariant one is used
for every upper index, e.g.,
y. =d^_d_^_d^
■k 1
dxP dx» dx " r
'
For any two coordinate systems xl and x'k, tpqr and t?xjk are the components of a
tensor t in these coordinate systems if and only if they are bound by the tensor
transformation rule. The tensor of third-rank is considered here as an example; the
formulated statement is valid for a tensor of any rank.
Metric tensor. The quantities

gij = ei-ej, gi3=g3i=63, g,] = e' • e3
are the components of some tensor of second-rank g referred to as metric (see Prob
lem 3.4). The length squared of an arc element is determined by the relationship
ds2 = dr ■ dr = <fcj dx*dxk.

Contravariant, covariant and mixed components of a second-rank tensor are bound
by the following relationships
tl)=9lktkv tf' = ftt^, ty=sV*H.

Similar formulae are valid also for a tensor of any rank, e.g.,
1 l
...i —9 ki
an index is raised or lowered as if it is the only one, cf. Formulae 3.1.
Tensor operations. The product of a tensor t and a number a is the tensor with
components obtained by multiplying the components of a t by a, e.g.,
a t = a(i y ejej) = {at'ê^j = (af ê3 = ( c r f ^ e , - = (crfy)eV

A sum is defined for any two tensors a and b of rank r, and its components are
obtained by adding the components of a and b with the same location of indices. For
example, the sum of a = aê3 and b = bkiekel is
a + b = {an + bê'e3 = {aj + ^)e% = (o^ + Vê3 = {a13 + fiê,- .
A tensor product is defined for any two tensors. For example, the tensor product AB
of A = Aij&e3 and B = Bkimeke'em is a tensor of rank 5
AB = AijBktmeie3ekelem .
It can also be expressed in terms of the components with another location of indices,
e.g., AB = AijBklmeie3ekeiem. For any tensor of rank not less than two, a contrac
tion is defined with respect to a chosen pair of indices one of which must be upper,
and the other, lower. For example, the contraction of the tensor Q = Q^k\exejekel
with respect to the first and the third indices is the tensor
q = q!leiel, (f.\ = Qfi-

It makes no difference which of the two chosen indices is upper and which is lower,
since the equality Q^'lj = Q'3'it is valid (see Problem 3.25).
16 BASIC CONCEPTS
Covariant differentiation. The partial derivatives of a vector field v with respect

to coordinates xk can be expressed in terms of the components of a second rank tensor
Vv according to the formulae
0 = (vfcl/)ei = (vfc^V •
Here we use special notation for the components of the tensor Vw: (Vw)^' = V**;',
(Vu)jfcj = VfcVj. The quantities V*w*, Vfct); are called covariant derivatives of, respec
tively, contravariant and covariant components of a vector field t;. They are found
with the use of the formulae
where the quantities T)k are the coefficients in the decomposition of the derivatives
of the basis vectors into components in this basis
^ k - r'r e,
e
dx ~ " '
(leading to one more formula dej/dxk = -Tê')- The quantities I>fc are called the
Christoffel symbols. They can be expressed in terms of derivatives of the metric tensor
components
ik +
2^ [dx* dxk dx'
The partial derivatives of any tensor field t with respect to coordinates xk are ex
pressed in terms of the components of some tensor with rank one higher than t,
namely Vt. The components of Vt are called covariant derivatives of the corre
sponding components of the tensor t and found with the use of formulae similar to
(3.3),e.g., ift = «' tn n e,e m e n ,
J ^ = (V^' m n )e<e m e n ,
Fit1 n
V ,l n vv
-m- ■ p( is- n ps A n , p n A- »
m
' ~ ~8xk~ k mfc
'■ +l»klm- ■
k
In particular, if T is a scalar, VfcT = dT/dx are the components of the vector grad T:
gradT = VfcTe* = g e * .
— PROBLEMS —
Coordinate system
0 3.1 a) Show that the dual basis e* with respect to the given basis ei exists and
is unique, and that the following relationships are valid
e' = gtkek, d = gjkek
where g,k are the components of the matrix ||<7,J|| reciprocal to the matrix ||<7y||,
gij = ej • er b) Verify the relationship e' ■ e? = glk. c) Verify the relationships
u • v = u'vi = UiV1, v' = e' • v, Vi = e{- v .
d) Verify that a basis and its dual basis are expressed in terms of each other according
to the formulae
! e2 x e3 2 e3 x d 3 Jd x e2
e = —^—, *■ = — - — , e = —-—, V. = d • (e 2 x e 3 )
e2 x e3 e3 x e1 e1 x e2 , 2 ,
ei = — y — , e2 = — ^ ^ , e3 = - ^ ^ , K* = e 1 • (e 2 x e3) .
© 3.2 a) Find the basis dual to an orthonormal one. b) Is the basis dual to an
orthogonal basis of non-unit vectors orthogonal? c) A basis ej is formed by unit
vectors every two of which make the angle 7r/3. Find the basis dual to it. Find the
contravariant components of the vector v = ae1 + be2 + ce 3 .
0 3.3 Prove the statement formulated in Problem 2.5 in the case when the basis
ej is arbitrary.
© 3.4 For every coordinate system, the sets of numbers are considered: 1) g^ =
Ci • ej, 2) g1' - the components of the matrix ||<7y|| reciprocal to the matrix ||<7ij||.
Show that they are respectively covariant and contravariant components of one and
the same tensor (metric tensor). Find mixed components of this tensor.
0 3.5 Show that the following sets of relationships for components of a tensor are
equivalent a) Sy = Sji <=> skl = slk <=$■ smn = snm b) Oy = — a,* <=> a w =
-alk ■<=> a m n = — anm It means that any of the sets of relationships (a) or (b)
can be accepted as a definition of, respectively, a symmetric or antisymmetric second
rank tensor (see Problems 2.5 and 3.3).
0 3.6 Are the following equalities valid for a second rank tensor t? a) t{ • = £'•'
b) t\ = tkk
18 BASIC CONCEPTS
Figure 3.1
@ 3.7 Cylindrical coordinates x1 = r, x2 = ip, x3 = z (see Figure 3.1) are bound

with Cartesian ones x' 1 , x'2, x'3 by the relationships
;1 ;2 /3
x = r cos ip, x = r sm <p, x =z .
a) Find the basis of a cylindrical coordinate system at the points Mi (r = 5, <p =
0 ,z = 0) and Mi (r = 10, cp = 7 r / 6 , 2 = 1 ) (express in terms of the basis e\
of a Cartesian coordinate system x"). b) Find covariant, contravariant and mixed
components of the metric tensor in a cylindrical coordinate system, c) Find the dual
basis at Mi and M2.
0 3.8 Decompose the basis vectors e' 1 , e' 2 of plane Cartesian coordinates x' 1 , x' 2
over the basis of the polar coordinate system x 1 = r, x2 = (p bound with the Cartesian
coordinates by the relationships
/i a
x =rcos<p, x =rsmip.
0 3.9 A tensor of second rank p has the following components in a cylindrical

coordinate system: pn = a, p22 = b/r2, the other components equal zero. Find its
components in the Cartesian coordinate system (see Problem 3.7).
© 3.10 Spherical coordinates x1 = r, x2 = 0, x 3 = A (see Figure 3.2) are bound

with Cartesian ones x ' \ x' 2 , x' 3 by the relationships
x'1 = r sin # cos A, x' =rsin0sinA, x' ==7-cos0.
Find the basis of a spherical coordinate system (express in terms of the basis e\ of
a Cartesian system). Find covariant, contravariant and mixed components of the
metric tensor in a spherical coordinate system.
Figure 3.2
© 3.11 A vector field is given in a Cartesian coordinate system x":
x'le\ + x'2e'2 + x'3e'3

V
~ J(x>l)2 + {x>2)2 + (x'3)2'
Find its components in the spherical coordinate system (see Problem 3.10).
0 3.12 Find the length squared of the differential element dxle\ + dx2e.2 + dx3e$
in elliptic coordinates x1 = r, x2 = ip, x3 = z bound with Cartesian coordinates x, y, z
by the relationships
x = vV2 + a2 cos>p, y = rsmtp (r > 0).
© 3.13 Find the length squared of the element dx1ei + dx2e2+dx3e3 in ellipsoidal
coordinates x1 = r, x2 = 9, x3 = <p (with the coordinate surfaces r = const in the
shape of oblate ellipsoids of revolution) bound with Cartesian coordinates x, y, z by
the relationships
x = Vr2 + a2 sin 6 cos ip, y = Vr2 + a2 sin 6 simp, z = r cos 6.
© 3.14 Express in terms of the basis vectors e* or e' of a curvilinear coordinate

system x' a) a unit tangent vector to a coordinate line x 1 (i.e., to a curve x2 = const,
x 3 = const); b) an angle crossed at by coordinate lines x2 and x 3 in a given point; c)
a unit normal to a coordinate surface (x2x3) (i.e., to a surface x1 = const).
© 3.15 Sometimes, e.g., when studying a stream that flows about a body, it is
convenient to use a special curvilinear coordinate system associated with the surface
of the body. For a planar stream considered in its plane, such a coordinate system is
introduced as follows. Let, in the plane of the stream, the boundary of the body be
20 BASIC CONCEPTS
Figure 3.3
a smooth curve L given in the parametric representation r = f(s) = a(s)ex + b(s)ey

where s is the length of the arc of L, ex,ey is the basis of a Cartesian coordinate
system x, y on the plane. Then, in the vicinity of the curve, this coordinate system
associates the point r = f(s) + n(s)h with the pair of numbers (s, /i), where n(s) is
the unit normal to L, and h is the distance from L (see Figure 3.3). For the coordinate
system x 1 = s, x 2 = h, find the basis and the covariant, contravariant, and mixed
components of the metric tensor.
P h y s i c a l c o m p o n e n t s of vectors and t e n s o r s .
0 3.16 In mechanics, the length dimension is often assigned to Cartesian coor
dinates, and their basis vectors are regarded as dimensionless. In this case, for a
spherical coordinate system (see Problem 3.10), find the dimensions of a) the coordi
nates, b) the vectors of the basis and dual basis, c) the covariant and contravariant
components of the metric tensor, d) the covariant and contravariant components of a
velocity vector.
0 3.17 Components of a vector (having identical dimensions in a Cartesian co

ordinate system) may have different dimensions in a curvilinear coordinate system,
e.g., see the preceding problem. To avoid this, so-called physical components vPi of a
vector v
vP1 = t^leil, vP2 = v2\e2\, vP3 = t> 3 |e 3 |
are introduced in orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems (e* J. e ; at i ^ j), and
the vector is expressed in the form
ei e2 e3
v = V U + w
PU—T + P21—T
V2 P 3V3
i—f •
Meil \e2\ \e3\
a) Show that
u P1 = t/i|e 1 |, vP2 = v2\e2\, t>P3 = t>3|e3|
and
ei e1 e2 e2 e3 e3
(This triple of vectors is called the physical basis associated with the considered
orthogonal coordinate system), b) Express a scalar product u ■ v in terms of physical
components of the vectors u and v. c) Similarly to physical components of a vector,
introduce physical components of a second rank tensor.
0 3.18 a) Express the physical basis er, ev, ez associated with a cylindrical coor
dinate system (see Problems 3.7, 3.17) in terms of bases e^ of the cylindrical and e'i of
the Cartesian coordinate systems, b) A body rotates around an axis with the angular
speed oj{t). Regarding the rotation axis as the coordinate line x3 of a cylindrical coor
dinate system, find the physical components of the velocity and acceleration vectors
of the body points in this system.
0 3.19 Show that the physical basis associated with a cylindrical coordinate
system x' (see Problem 3.18a) is not the local basis of any coordinate system
yk (x1, x2, x3).
Tensor transformation rule.

© 3.20 a) Show that the elements of the matrix ||6y|| of a bilinear form are the
covariant components of a tensor of second rank. (A bilinear form b is a scalar-
valued function of two vector arguments linear with respect to each of them. For
every coordinate system, a matrix ||6y || exists such that b(u, v) = 6yuV for any two
vectors u, v; this matrix is called the matrix of the bilinear form b.) b) A bilinear
form sets into correspondence to a pair of vectors their scalar product. Find the
matrix of this bilinear form.
0 3.21 a) Show that the elements of the matrix \\a'-\\ of a linear operator are
the mixed components of a tensor of second rank. (A linear operator a is a linear
vector-valued function of a vector argument. For every coordinate system a matrix
||a'j|| exists such that av = a'-v'ej for any vector v; the matrix Ha^H is called the
matrix of the linear operator a), b) A linear operator projects a vector on the plane
orthogonal to the given unit vector n = n'e^. Find the matrix of this operator.
© 3.22 Find the general form of a second-rank tensor t if its component ti 2 is

known to equal zero in any coordinate system.
22 BASIC CONCEPTS
Tensor operations
0 3.23 For two second rank tensor a and b, consider the sums a,J + 6y of their
components in every coordinate system. Show that they are not components of tensor
unless a = 0 or b = 0.
0 3.24 Find the contravariant components of the sum of the tensors a = eiei and
b = e 2 e 2 where e* is the basis of the coordinate system x*, x1 = x[ + x'2, x2 — x'2,
x3 = x'-, and x[ are Cartesian coordinates.
© 3.25 Prove the following equality for the components of a tensor Q

3ijkleiejeke'
=
Qij l Q jil ■
0 3.26 Consider the components of tensors B = Bijkie'eieke' and e = eê'e^

in every coordinate system and prove that a) sums Bijklekl are the components of a
tensor, b) the following equalities are valid
&iaeu = 5' J k 'e*, = B ^ , e t ' = Biiklekl. .
0 3.27 Consider the numbers tu, UjUji Ujtjktki determined by the components of
a second-rank tensor t in an arbitrary coordinate system. Do they depend upon this
system?
0 3.28 Consider the numbers J\ = trt, J2 = tyiy, J3 = Ujtjktki determined by

the components of a second-rank tensor t in a Cartesian coordinate system (they do
not depend upon this system, see Problems 2.15, 3.27). Find the formulae expressing
these numbers in terms of the mixed components of the tensor t in an arbitrary
coordinate system.
0 3.29 For a second-rank symmetric tensor t, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors

are defined as the numbers A and vectors with components v[ satisfying the system
of equations
<^ =H
in a Cartesian coordinate system, a) Derive the equations determining the numbers A
and components v[ in an arbitrary coordinate system in terms of (i) covariant, (ii) con
travariant and (iii) mixed components of the tensor t. b) Express the coefficients of
equation determining eigenvalues A
A3 - Â 2 + 72A - I3 = 0
in terms of the mixed components of tensor t in an arbitrary coordinate system.

Levi-Civita tensor. Calculations in curvilinear coordinate

systems
0 3.30 Show that the numbers eijk = e{ • (e^ x ek) are the components of a
third-rank tensor (called Levi-Civita tensor).
0 3.31 Verify that Levi-Civita tensor has the following properties: a) it is anti
symmetric with respect to every pair of indices, i.e., the relationships
are valid; b) only those its components do not equal zero whose values of the indices
are obtained by permutation of the values 1,2,3; the corresponding components equal
«i23 or — f 123 if the permutation is, respectively, even or odd, i.e., the relationships
£ = € €
£ 123 = 231 312, 213 = ^132 = «321 = "^123
are valid; c) the component £123 is expressed in terms of g = det ||py|| according to
the formula
{ ^g,
— y/g,
if ei, e 2 , e 3 - is a right-handed basis,
if e-i, e2, e 3 - is a left-handed basis.
0 3.32 a) Formulate the properties of contravariant components of Levi-Civita

tensor similar to those of covariant components from Problem 3.31a,b. Prove that
they are valid, b) Show that the component e123 is expressed in terms of g = det \\gij\\
according to the formula
123 _ / V\/5> if ei, e 2 , e 3 - is a right-handed basis,
c
~~ 1 - 1/y/g, ifei, e 2 , e 3 - is a left-handed basis.
© 3.33 Verify the validity of the following relationships for Levi-Civita tensor
ey*e„r = W +W + W 5 -
-ftffi - * # « * - £«}«$
eiikepqk = Sft-Sft
eMejkl = 26)
eiiketjk= 6
© 3.34 Show that a vector product a x b may be represented with the use of
Levi-Civita tensor in the form
a x b = e,jka,ibjek = epqTapbqeT
in any coordinate system. (This is one of the reasons for which Levi-Civita tensor is
convenient in calculations.)
24 BASIC CONCEPTS
Q 3.35 a) Show that the mixed product of vectors a, b, c may be represented with
the use of Levi-Civita tensor in the form
a (6 x c) = tljka'b'ck.
in any coordinate system, b) Express components of the double vector product a x
(6 x c) of vectors a, b, c in terms of the components of these vectors.
0 3.36 Show that the volume of the parallelepiped constructed on vectors a, 6, c
equals le.jja'fe'c*].
© 3.37 Consider a set of numbers ?y* defined for any right-handed basis: e 123 =
«23i = «3i2 = 1, «2i.i = «i32 = «32i = - 1 , the other ei]k = 0. They are called
Levi-Civita symbols and often used in calculations (the notation eV* is used for them
as well, a) Does a tensor exist, the components of which are P]k in every basis?
b) Express the determinant of a given matrix and the components of the matrix
reciprocal to it in terms of the components of this matrix using Levi-Civita symbols.
© 3.38 a) Derive the formula for the differential of the determinant of a matrix
d(det||a' ; ||)=det||aV||6Va' f c
where ||6*J| is the matrix reciprocal to the matrix ||aV||. b) Derive the formula for
the differential of the determinant g = det \\g,j\\
dg = gg'3dgtj .
© 3.39 a) Derive the formula for the differentials of the elements of the matrix
J]6* -1| reciprocal to a matrix \\a'A\
dbkt = - 0 : > a m n .
b) Derive the formula for the contravariant components of the metric tensor
dg'} = -Wdgu .
Covariant differentiation.
0 3.40 Do the derivatives dvl/dx3, where v' are the contravariant components of
a vector, represent the components of a tensor?
© 3.41 Are Christoffel symbols n t the components of a tensor?
© 3.42 Is the following statement valid: if the component vl of a vector field
vanishes in some coordinate system, then Vû1 = 0?
0 3.43 Find the covariant derivatives of components a) of the metric tensor, b)

of Levi-Civita tensor.
0 3.44 Find the Christoffel symbols a) for a cylindrical coordinate system (see
Problem 3.7), b) for a polar coordinate system on a plane (see Problem 3.8).
0 3.45 Find the Christoffel symbols for a spherical coordinate system (see Prob
lem 3.10).
© 3.46 Find the Christoffel symbols for the curvilinear coordinate system de
scribed in Problem 3.15.
0 3.47 Derive the formula T^ = diny/g/dx' where g = det ||<7y||.
0 3.48 The scalar field div v calculated by the formula
dlvv =
d7>
in a Cartesian coordinate system x" is called the divergence of the vector field v. Show
that the following formulae are valid in any coordinate system x': a) div v = V;v',
M V-y* = -i- a(v^.v')
0 3.49 The vector field curl v calculated by the formula
e i e 2 e3
curl v =
¥ ¥ ¥
in a right Cartesian coordinate system x" with the basis e'i is called the curl (rotor)
of the vector field v. Show that the formula
curl v = t,ikV{Vjek
is valid for all coordinate system.
© 3.50 Show that, for a symmetric tensor of second rank b, the formula
, = J_ djjgby) _ i dgu
j
' y/g dxi 2 dx>
is valid.
© 3.51 Show that the expression of ViVj - VjV{ (vi are the components of a
vector) in terms of the partial derivatives and Christoffel symbols, in fact, does not
contain Christoffel symbols.
26 BASIC CONCEPTS
© 3.52 Show that, for an antisymmetric second rank tensor LJ, a) the formula
Viu/fc = J= ■gp(y/gujtk) is valid, b) the expression e'jfcVjU>Jfc does not contain the
Christoffel symbols (similarly to the preceding problem).
® 3.53 Show that a vector field k = k^(x')ej(x'), by choice of a certain new

coordinate system x"(x'), can be reduced locally (in the vicinity of such a point at
which k does not vanish) to the form k = ei(x").
© 3.54 a) Consider a vector field v with the components
dxi dxk
in a curvilinear coordinate system xk (a and b are scalar fields). Show that the field v
is solenoidal, i.e. satisfying the condition div v = 0. b) Consider a solenoidal vector
field v, d i w = 0. Show that, in a neighborhood of a point where v does not vanish,
there exist two scalar fields a and b such that the formula
vi = y* da_ db_
dxi dxk
is valid for the components of v in any coordinate system xk. Thus, the previous
formula gives locally general solution v of the equation div v = 0.
4 Deformation. Deformation Rate. Vorticity.

Deformation. Strain tensors.
Deformation of a continuum is variation of distances between its particles. Deforma
tion causes a response of the continuum and, in particular, results in the appearance
of internal forces in it. So it is necessary to introduce quantitative deformation mea
sures. For example, longitudinal deformation of an extended rod can be characterized
by the relative elongation (/ - l0)/l0 where I and l0 are respectively the lengths of the
rod in the current state and in a state relative to which deformation is measured
(called the reference state). The absolute elongation I — l0 is not a reasonable defor
mation measure: rods with lengths IQ = 10 cm and lo = l m when extended by the
same elongation I — /0 = 1 mm are in different states. The choice of a reference state
is rather conventional but is also often naturally grounded; e.g., as the reference state
for an elastic rod, the state with zero internal forces is normally chosen. In what
follows we assume that the reference (undeformed) state, where, by definition, strain
equals zero, is realized at the initial instant t = 0. Let i i , 121X3 be a spatial coor
dinate system (Cartesian unless otherwise stipulated) with basis eit Xi(£,t) be the
functions describing the motion, and £ = (6,62.£3) be the Lagrangian coordinates
4. Deformation. Deformation Rate. Vorticity. 27
equal to the spatial coordinates of the particle in its position at the initial instant,
i.e., & = Xi(£,0). As a deformation measure the Green strain tensor
o o o 1 / dxi dxi
e-ea0eae0, ea0 - - ^ — — - 6a0
and Almansi strain tensor
,J
2 \ dxi dxj
are often used; here, €a(x, 0 are the Lagrangian coordinates of the particle situated at
the instant t at the point x. A material line element emanating from the particle f and
corresponding to the vector d£ = d£a ea is the collection of particles with Lagrangian
coordinates within the limits from (£1,62,£3) to (£1 +d£i,£2 + ^621 £3 + ^3) occupying
the infinitesimal segment. At an instant t, the position of a material line element is
determined by the position x(£, t) of its initial point and by the vector
dx~
dx = dxi Ci — -£— d£a e{
Ota
(see Figure 4.1). Each of the tensors e and e allows one to immediately express the
(£,+<*£,,£, + </£„ £, + </£,) (x^dx^x. + dx^x^dx,)
A
(^1.^2-Sj) ""
Y dx
(X„X2,X3)
the intial instant ( = 0 the current instant t
Figure 4.1
change in length squared ds2 of a material line element (one of them, in terms of d£,
the other, in terms of dx)
ds2 - dsl = 2 ea0 d£,a d^0 = 2e„ dxi dxj .
Here, dso is the length of the material line element at instant t = 0. The strain tensors
also allow one to find the relative elongation of any material line element, change in
angle of any two material line elements (see Problems 4.3-4.4) and relative change in
volume of a material solid element
dV - dV0 r ~i ~~o " V t 1
— - — - 2 = V I + 2 / i + 4 72 + 8 / 3 - l =
dV0 VI - 2/i + 4/a - 8/ 3
28 BASIC CONCEPTS
where I * and U, i = 1,2,3 are the invariants of the corresponding tensors defined
as h = £u, h = \{I\ - £ij£ij), h = det||ey|| (see Problem 2.15). The mechanical
meaning of components of Green strain tensor is illustrated by their relationship to
a) the relative elongations l\, I2, I3 reached at the current instant of the material line
elements directed, at instant t = 0, along the basis vectors ei, e.i, 63 respectively,
b) the angles ipap (a ^ /?) reached at the current instant made by these elements
(e.g., t/>23 is the angle between elements directed along e 2 and e 3 at the instant t = 0)
£<*0 = 2 K1 + U ( l + h) cos
4>a0 ~ <W]
(no summation over a, j3). In particular, for components with identical indices
(no summation over a). Similarly, components of Almansi strain tensor are de
termined by "reverse" characteristics of deformation: with the changes in length
"reached" at instant t = 0, relative to the length at instant t, of the material line
elements directed along the basis vectors es and angles made by these elements (see
Problem 4.17). Components of the strain tensors can be expressed in terms
of the displacement field in the Lagrangian description
u(Z,t) = {xa(Z,t)-£a)ea
or in Eulerian description
w(x,t) = (xi-Zi(x,t))ei
(where, certainly, u(f, t) = w(x(£,t),t)). Namely, the formulae
%o MIf t\) - I (^b. 4. {** +-u ^b. f*b\

^ ' " 2 \d& dZ" d? d&) '
dWk
e j[x( t) +\ - I (*tb.+ 4. î _ ^ * \
' ' ~2\dxj dx, dx{ dxj •
are valid. In the case when relative elongations and rotations of all the material line
elements are small, i.e., when all the derivatives dua/d£p ~ 6 <C 1 are small (or,
identically, all the derivatives dii)i/dxj ~ 6 -C 1 are small), Green and Almansi strain
tensor differ only by a value of order <52 from linearized strain tensors e'"', e(1'
I =|W + 0(S2) , e= eM+0(62),

l
%W -?(')„ o ?« _ (dUa 4. dU
A
-eye,e, , e ti - 2 ^ ^ + ^ J •
Green and Almansi strain tensors also differ by a value of order 62

°e(Z,t)=e(x(Z,tU) + 0(62),
°e®(Z,t)=e®(x(S,t),t) + 0(62).
Normally one neglects the difference between the two linearized tensors and considers
both as one linearized strain tensor. Depending on what is more convenient, its
components are calculated by either of the two sets of formulae
1 (dua dup\ 1 fdwi dwj\
+ +
2\d^ d^) ' 2[dx~ ~dx~) ■
This tensor is often called also the small strain tensor. The mechanical meanings of
its components are as follows: en is the relative elongation of a material line element
directed along e\ at instant t = 0); £22 and £33 have the similar meanings; £y when
i 7^ j is half of the decrease in angle made by material line elements directed along
ei and e^ at the instant t = 0.
Transformation of a small volume of a continuum

Consider a small volume of a continuum that contains a particle f and consists of all
material line elements emanating from f and corresponding to all possible infinitesimal
vectors d£. The positions of all these elements at instant t are determined by the
position of the particle £, i.e., by the point with coordinates Xj(£, t), and by the vectors
dx (see Figure 4.1) related to d£ by the linear transformation
Ox
dxi = ^-dtc
or, briefly,
dx = Fd£ , dxi = Fiad£a
where the notation dxi/d(,a = Fia is used. The linear transformation F is called
the distortion, its matrix F = \\Fia\\ is called the distortion matrix or deformation
gradient. The components of the strain tensors are obviously expressed in terms of
the deformation gradient
£
a0 = -z(FkaFk0 - 6ap) , £ij = -((5y — H^Hyj)
30 BASIC CONCEPTS
where \\Hyj\\ is the matrix reciprocal to F: F^H^ = <5y. According to the theorem
of polar decomposition, the matrix F can be written in the form
F = RU , Fia = RtpUpa
where R — \Rip\ is an orthogonal matrix, and U — \\Upa\\ is a symmetric positive-

definite matrix. The linear transformation d£ —> U • d£ determined by the matrix U
performs three extensions along the principal axes of the Green strain tensor, and the
linear transformation d£ —> R • d£ determined by the matrix R maps the principal
axes of the Green strain tensor to the principal axes of the Almansi strain tensor (see
Problem 4.19). So a transformation of a small volume of a continuum with center in a
particle £ can be represented as sequential performance of a) extensions along the three
mutually orthogonal directions — transformation U, b) rotation — transformation R
(see Figure 4.2); besides that, the translation turning the point £ into the point x(f, t)
must be performed. The transformation U has the meaning of pure deformation. It
the principal axes the principal axes

of Green strain tensor of Almansi strain tensor
Figure 4.2
is closely connected with the Green strain tensor (see Problem 4.19).
Deformation r a t e , vorticity, divergence of velocity.

Many continua respond not so much to the strains, i.e., to relative elongations of
material line elements, as to their rates. To describe them quantitatively, the strain
rate tensor is introduced. Components of the strain rate tensor are expressed in terms
of the velocity field v according to the formulae
_ 1 / dvi dvj\
The mechanical meanings of these components are as follows: en is the rate of relative
elongation of the material line element directed along e.\ at the current instant; e22
and 633 have the similar meanings; e^ at i ^ j is half of the rate of decrease in angle
made by the material fine elements directed along e* and e, at the current instant.
The rate of relative change in volume of a particle is equal to the first invariant of
the strain rate tensor which in turn is equal to divergence of the velocity vector
dv,
en = ^— = divw .
OXi
The distribution of velocity in a small volume of a continuum is expressed in terms

of the strain rate tensor and the vorticity vector
1 . 1 dvk
w = - c u r l « = - e 0 * — et
where e^* are the components of Levi-Civita tensor. Namely, if Vo is the velocity
of the particle situated at a point r 0 , the velocity of the particle situated at a point
r0 + p is expressed by the Cauchy-Helmholtz formula
v = v0 + — ei + uxp + O(p')
dpi
where 3> = (l/2)eyPiP J . According to this formula, rotation with the angular veloc
ity w equal to the vorticity vector is superimposed on the velocity connected with
deformation (the second term in the formula) and the velocity of translation v0.
Use of curvilinear coordinate systems

Solution of some problems is essentially simplified if appropriate curvilinear coor
dinates are used instead of Cartesian ones. For example, oscillation of a spherical
bubble in unbounded liquid is conveniently studied in the spherical coordinate sys
tem. Transition to a curvilinear coordinate system requires some modification of
formulae valid in a Cartesian coordinate system. This is connected with the fact that
the basis e{ = dr/dxi of a curvilinear coordinate system x\ in general, depends upon
the point x of the space. In particular, the basis ei(x[£, t)) at the point where a par
ticle f is situated at instant t, in general, differs from the basis ej(x(£,0)) = e;(£) at
the point where the particle was situated at instant t = 0 (here, as usual, the spatial
coordinates of a particle at the initial instant are used as its Lagrangian coordinates:
£ = x(£,0)). The displacement vector in the Lagrangian description is ordinarily
decomposed in the basis e^)
u((,t)=«»K,f)ea(C),
and, in the Eulerian description, in the basis e^x)
w(x,t) = wl(x,t)ei(x) ;
32 BASIC CONCEPTS
here, certainly, w(x(£, t),t) = u(£,t). To make notation briefer, the arguments of
functions are often omitted. Then, to avoid confusion, the notations e a (f) = e a and
e<(x) = e.i are introduced, in particular, u = ua e a, w = wxei. Then, the Green
strain tensor can be written in the form
o o ° a og o 1 / dx' dx* o \
e =ea0 e e" , ea0 = - ^——gij- ga0j
where e ^ is the basis dual to the basis e„ (see Section 3), 9a0 =ea- e0, and the
components of the metric tensor <7y = e< • e ; are calculated for the point x = x(£, t).
The Almansi strain tensor can be written in the form
<* 1/ d$a d^ c \
e = e«ee», £ij = - ^ fli , - — — 3a , j
where e m is the basis dual to the basis e„, #y = e^ • e,, and the components of the
metric tensor 9a0 =ea- e0 are calculated for the point £ = £(x, t). The expressions
of the components of the strain tensors in terms of displacement field remains the
same, but the partial derivatives are replaced by the covariant ones
o
where the covariant derivative V Q is calculated with use of the Christoffel symbols
o
r$ M (0 determined by the usual formulae (see Section 3) in terms of the components
o
of the metric tensor 9py{0- H t n e relative elongations and rotations of all material
line elements are small, the small strain tensor is used. It can be written in either of
the two forms
£< = aU0+ 0Ua e
" 2 {^ ^ ) ° ° *" '
£"> = - (ViWj + VjWi) e V .
Components of the strain rate tensor are expressed in terms of the velocity field by
the formula
In some cases, a special coordinate system, determined by the motion of the contin-
uum itself, is useful and referred to as concomitant. It, as any coordinate system, sets
correspondence between a point of the space and three numbers, namely, Lagrangian
coordinates £Q = £Q(x, t) of the particle situated at the point x at the current instant.
Thus, this system is differently determined for different instants: different triples of
numbers correspond to the same point of the space; rigorously speaking, they must
be denoted with (^m^m^m)- The coordinate lines £° at the instants ti ^ ti occupy
different positions, but pass through the same particles; this is why this coordinate
system is referred to as concomitant (with the motion of the continuum). Its basis
dr dr dxx dxx
In the concomitant coordinate system, the Almansi strain tensor can be written in
the form
e = iij&e3 , itj = - ^ - <?i;J
where e m is the basis dual to the basis e n , and #y = e, ■ e,- are the components of
the metric tensor. As in any coordinate system, the components e^ are expressed in
terms of the displacement field by the formula
i^ = - (ViWj + V > , - Vi«>*VjU>fc) .
The components of the Almansi tensor in the basis e* coincide with the components
of the Green tensor in the basis e a , ia0 =£ap-
Conditions of compatibility
In some important cases, the velocity field v of a flow in the continuum is determined
by one function <p and can be written in the form v = grad^x In this case, the vector
field v is referred to as potential, and the function <p is called its potential. By far not all
vector fields v are potential. It is clear that, to be potential, a vector field must satisfy
some conditions, since the three functions — its components — are expressed in terms
of one function — potential. The necessary condition for potentiality of a field v is
the relationship curl v = 0; it is called also the compatibility condition for components
of a potential field v. If the field w is considered in a simply connected domain, this
is the sufficient condition for existence of a single-valued potential. Similarly to the
relationship v = grad tp, the six components of a small strain tensor are expressed in
terms of the three components of the displacement w, and, consequently, cannot be
arbitrary. They satisfy the relationships
d2ekl | 6% d2eu ^ _Q
dxidxj dxkdxi dxÔxj dxidxi
(xi is a spatial Cartesian coordinate system); these relationships also are called the
compatibility conditions for strain components. These are the necessary conditions,
34 BASIC CONCEPTS
and, when the tensor field of small strains e is considered in a simply connected
domain, are the sufficient conditions for the relationships
_ 1 Idnii dwA
£iJ
~ 2 \dx~j + ~dx~j
to be valid, w being a vector field. In other words, the compatibility conditions for
strain components are the conditions of possibility, in principle, to obtain the strain as
a result of a displacement. In all the problems of this section, i* are spatial (Eulerian)
coordinates, and £a are Lagrangian coordinates. As Lagrangian coordinates of a
particle, spatial coordinates of the point, at which the particle was situated at the
initial instant (in the undeformed state), are taken. Unless otherwise stipulated, the
spatial coordinate system is Cartesian.
— PROBLEMS —
Deformation. Strain tensors.

0I
0 4.1 As a result of displacement, the particles (£1*62.6) a continuum are
situated at the points with the coordinates
zi = & + a£i , x2 = & i x3 = £3 (a = const)
with reference to a spatial Cartesian coordinate system ii. (This deformation is called
a uniform uniaxial extension along the axis ij.) What happened to the material line
elements initially situated parallel to the coordinate axis xt and those orthogonal to
this axis? Consider the two cases: a > 0 and —1 < a < 0?
0 4.2 For a uniaxial extension (see Problem 4.1), find the displacement field in
Lagrangian and Eulerian descriptions, and calculate the components of the Green
and Almansi strain tensors.
© 4.3 a) A material line element emanating from a particle £ corresponds to a

vector d£. Regarding the components eap of the Green strain tensor in this particle
as known, find the relative elongation of the material line element by deformation.
b) For a uniaxial extension (see Problem 4.1), find the relative elongations of material
line elements perpendicular to the axis x 3 and making the angles ±7r/4 with the axis
i i before deformation.
© 4.4 a) Two material line elements emanating from a particle £ correspond to

vectors d£(1) and d£ (2) . Regarding the components I a0 of the Green strain tensor
in this particle as known, find the angle made by these material line elements after
deformation, b) For a uniaxial extension (see Problem 4.1), find the angle made after
deformation by the material line elements perpendicular to the axis x3 and making
the angles ±7r/4 with the axis i j before deformation.
0 4.5 Find relative change in volume caused by a uniaxial extension (see Prob
lem 4.1).
0 4.6 As a result of displacement, the particles (£1,62, £3) of a continuum are
xi = & > *2 = - ( 1 + b)£i , x3 = £, (b = const > - 1 )
with reference to a spatial Cartesian coordinate system Xj. a) What happened as

a result of deformation to material line elements initially situated parallel to the
coordinate axes? b) Find the Green and Almansi strain tensors, c) Can the Green
and Almansi tensors be regarded as coincident at |6| -C 1? Compare with the answer
to Problem 4.2 at a «C 1.
OI a
© 4.7 As a result of displacement, the particles (&J&.&) continuum are
*\ = £1 + a sin(fc^) , x2 = £2 , ^3 = 6
(Q = const, \a\ < 1, k = const)
with reference to a spatial Cartesian coordinate system x<. Show that a uniaxial
extension takes place in a small vicinity of each particle of the medium (see Prob
lem 4.1). What is the relative elongation of the material line element emanating from
a given point f and parallel to the axis Xi before deformation? Calculate the Green
deformation tensor. Indicate the particles in a small vicinity of which there is no
deformation.
© 4.8 As a result of displacement, the particles (£1,62. £3) of a continuum are
i , = { j + ( ^ j , (i = 1,2,3) (a = const > - 1 )
with reference to a spatial Cartesian coordinate system Xj. Show that the relative
elongations of all material line elements are identical. Note that such deformation is
called a uniform extension or compression to what signs of a do they correspond?.
0 4.9 A simple shear is deformation of a continuum described by the formulae
xi = f 1 + a(t)£2 , x2 = 6 , x3 = £3
36 BASIC CONCEPTS
where Xj is a spatial Cartesian coordinate system, fQ are Lagrangian coordinates, and

a(t) is a function of time with a(0) = 0. Regarding the function a(t) as given, find
the Green and Almansi strain tensors. Find their principal components and principal
axes. Simplify the formulae for the case \a(t)\ <C 1.
0 4.10 Find the components of the displacement field for a simple shear (see
Problem 4.9) in Lagrangian and Eulerian descriptions. Determine the components of
the Green and Almansi strain tensors, expressing them in terms of the derivatives of
the displacement field. Find the small strain tensor.
0 4.11 For a simple shear (see Problem 4.9), find a) relative elongations of mate
rial line elements emanating from particle f and parallel to the axes x\, x2,13 before
deformation; b) all possible material line elements whose relative elongations at the
instant t equal zero.
0 4.12 Find the relative change in volume of a small material element during a
simple shear (see Problem 4.9) by two methods: with the use of the invariants of the
Green strain tensor and those of the Almansi strain tensor.
0 4.13 The small strain tensor at a point where small deformation takes place has
the following matrix of components in a Cartesian coordinate system
0.01 0.03 0 \
0.03 0.01 0
0 0 0.01 /
Find the maximal and minimal relative elongations of material line elements at this
point. Find the direction of the material elements whose relative elongation is a) max
imal, b) minimal. Calculate the relative change in volume at this point.
0 4.14 A double shear is deformation of a continuum described by the formulae
xi = £1 + b(t)£2 , z a = & + 6(t)6 , 13 = 6

where Xi are spatial Cartesian coordinates, £a are Lagrangian coordinates, and b(t) is
a function of time with 6(0) = 0. Treating the function b(t) as given, find the Green
and Almansi strain tensors.
0 4.15 Find the components of the displacement field for a double shear (see
Problem 4.14) in the Eulerian description. Find the small strain tensor.
0 4.16 The positions of three material line elements in a deformed state are char
acterized by the vectors dx® = dse{, i = 1,2,3 (ej are the vectors of the orthog
onal basis of a Cartesian coordinate system). Their "inverse" relative elongation
dsg /ds — 1 (where dsg is the length of the corresponding element before defor
mation) equal /*. The elements characterized by the vectors dx^ and dx^ in the
deformed state make the angle Vy before deformation. Prove the formula showing
the mechanical meaning of the components of the Almansi strain tensor
£y = 2 H i + fc)(l + h) cos^3 + 6n}
(no summation over i and j).

o
© 4.17 Prove that the eigenvalues of a Green strain tensor Aa and the eigenvalues
of an Almansi strain tensor Aj satisfy the inequalities
l+2Ao>0, l-2Aj>0.
© 4.18 Prove that for deformation with the Green strain tensor e and the Almansi
strain tensor e a) the material line element directed along a principal axis of the tensor
e before deformation is directed along a principal axis of the tensor e in the deformed
state, b) on the contrary, the material line element directed along a principal axis of
the tensor e in the deformed state was directed along a principal axis of the tensor
o °
e before deformation, c) the eigenvalues of the Green strain tensor A and of the
Almansi strain tensor A are related to each of them by
1
1 + 2A =
1-2A
© 4.19 Prove the following polar decomposition theorem. The deformation gra
dient F = \\Fia\\ (and, in general, any nonsingular matrix) can be written in the
form
F = RU , F{0 = RiaUafj
where R = \\Ria\\ ls a n orthogonal matrix, and U = \\Ua0\\ is a symmetric positive-
definite matrix. The principal axes of the matrix U coincide with the principal axes
of the Green strain tensor, and the corresponding eigenvalues ka of the matrix U are
o J o
expressed in terms of the eigenvalues AQ of the Green tensor: ka = \ \ +2 \ a . The

linear transformation determined by the matrix R rotates the principal axes of the
Green tensor into the principal axes of the Almansi tensor.
0 4.20 For a uniaxial extension (see Problem 4.1) at a > 0, find the initial posi
tions of the three mutually orthogonal material line elements which remain mutually
orthogonal after deformation. Find the directions of these elements after deforma
tion. Indicate the directions of the material line elements whose relative elongation
is maximal.
38 BASIC CONCEPTS
0 4.21 Show that the following motions cannot be reduced to each other by
imposing a rigid motion (i.e., a rotation and a translation): a) a rotation around the
axis X3, b) a uniaxial extension along the axis X\ (Problem 4.1), c) a simple shear in
the plane xi,x 2 (Problem 4.9), d) a double shear (Problem 4.14).
© 4.22 Represent the transformation of a small vicinity of a particle $ resulted
from a simple shear (see Problem 4.9) in the form of the extensions along three
mutually orthogonal directions, rotation and translation.
0 4.23 For a uniaxial extension (Problem 4.1) with the parameter a as a function
of time a = a(t) such that a(0) = 0, a) write the formula describing transition, for an
instant t, from a spatial coordinate system Xj to the concomitant coordinate system
£Q, b) draw the coordinate lines, find the basis vectors and the components of the
metric tensor for the concomitant coordinate system £a for an instant t, c) find the
components of the Green tensor for an instant t in the coordinate system x* as well
as the covariant, mixed and contravariant components of the Almansi strain tensor
for an instant t in the concomitant coordinate system £°.
0 4.24 For a uniaxial extension (Problems 4.1, 4.23), choose the coordinates Xj
of the space point at which a particle is situated at the instant t, as new Lagrangian
coordinates rf of this particle. Draw the coordinate lines, find the basis vectors and
the components of the metric tensor in the concomitant coordinate system rf at the
instant t = 0.
© 4.25 For a simple shear (Problem 4.9), find, for an instant t the coordinate
lines of the concomitant coordinate system passing through the space point with
the coordinates (0,0,0). Do they vary in time? Find also the basis vectors of the
concomitant coordinate system and the components of the metric tensor in it.
© 4.26 The axis of a cylindrical rod with circular cross section is positioned along
the axis x 3 of a spatial Cartesian coordinate system x{. The rod deforms according
to the formula
xi = fi - a(*)6£$ , x2 = & + «(*)£ 16 , x3 = £3

where £a are the Lagrangian coordinates, and a(t) is a function of time with a(0) = 0.
Regarding the function a(t) as given, a) find the position at an instant t of the
particles forming, at the instant ( = 0, a cross section of the rod, the circumference
bounding this cross section, its radius as well as a segment parallel to the axis of the
rod and lying on its surface; b) find the displacement field in Eulerian description;
c) if |Q| < < 1, find the small strain tensor, the value of maximal relative elongation
for the material line elements emanating from the point x and the direction of the
element experiencing the maximal elongation, d) write the formulae describing the
motion in the cylindrical coordinate system, taking the (cylindrical) coordinates of a

particle at the instant t = 0 as the Lagrangian coordinates.
0 4.27 A tube (thick-walled circular cylinder) expands under action of internal
pressure. Its deformation is described by the formulae
r = r0 + f{r0, t) , <p = <p0 , z = z0
where r, ip, z are the spatial cylindrical coordinate system (see Problem 3.7), ro, <p>o, ZQ
are the Lagrangian coordinates (the cylindrical coordinates of the initial position of
the particle), and /(r 0 ,0) = 0. Let the function f{r0,t) be given. Find a) the Green
strain tensor, b) the Almansi strain tensor, c) the relative elongations of the material
line elements emanating from a particle (r0, ipo, ZQ) directed along the coordinate lines
of the cylindrical coordinate system before deformation.
0 4.28 The components of Green and Almansi strain tensors can be of order 1
in the cases when the components of the linearized strain tensor are small or even
equal zero. Verify this, using as an example the displacement field Wi(x) = x 2 ,
w2(x) = -xi, w3 = 0 where x = (11,12,12) are spatial Cartesian coordinates.
0 4.29 The components of the linearized strain tensor can be of order 1 in the
case when the components of Green and Almansi strain tensors are small or even
equal zero. Verify this, using as an example the displacement field x^ = flyf j where
Xi is a spatial Cartesian coordinate system, £Q are the Lagrangian coordinates, ||fly||
is an orthogonal matrix.
Strain rate tensor, vorticity, divergence of velocity.

0 4.30 Find the velocity field and components of the strain rate tensor in Eulerian
description for a) a uniaxial extension (Problem 4.1), treating the parameter a as a
given function of time t, b) a simple shear (Problem 4.9) and c) a double shear
(Problem 4.14).
0 4.31 Calculate the components e^ of the strain rate tensor in a spatial Cartesian
coordinate system x, and the components of its deviator 4 , ' = e^ - |efcfc<5y for the
flows of a medium with the velocity fields described, in this coordinate system, by
the formulae a) vi = Axu v2 = Bx2, v3 = 0 {A = const, B = const); b) Vi = ottxu
v2 = 1,3 = 0 (Q = const); c) Vi = (3tx3, v2 = v3 = 0 (0 = const).
© 4.32 Calculate the components e,; of the strain rate tensor in a spatial Carte
sian coordinate system Xj for the flow of a medium with the velocity field described,
in this coordinate system, by the formulae
40 BASIC CONCEPTS
Does a change in volume of material solid elements take place during this motion?
0 4.33 The components of the velocity field of a medium in a spatial Cartesian

coordinate system Xi at a given instant have the form
V\ = kx2 , v2 = v3 = 0 (k = const) .
Find, for this instant, the rate of change in angle made by material line elements
emanating from the point x and situated along two straight lines making the angles
7r/4 with the axis Xi and n/2 with the axis 2:3.
0 4.34 The covariant components of a velocity field in a spatial cylindrical coor

dinate system i 1 = r, x2 = tp, x3 = z have the form
V\ = 0 , v2 = k , v3 = 0 (k = const)
everywhere except the point r = 0. a) Draw the particle paths of the medium, find
the value of the velocity of a particle and the physical components of the velocity.
b) Calculate the components of the strain rate tensor, c) Find the vorticity vector.
d) Find the principal axes of the strain rate tensor. Do they rotate in time in an
individual particle? e) What is, at an instant, the angular velocity of the material
line elements which are situated at this instant along the principal axes of the strain
rate tensor?
0 4.35 A medium experiences a uniaxial extension, i.e., its motion is described

by the formulae
xi = 6 + a(*)f 1 , *2 = 6 , x3 = £,
where Xi are spatial Cartesian coordinates, f0 are the Lagrangian coordinates, a(t) is
a function of time with o(0) = 0. Verify that the vorticity vector field is zero during
this motion. Show that there are material line elements which rotate (simultaneously
varying in length).
© 4.36 Find the vorticity vector field tt> for a simple shear (Problem 4.9). Indicate
the material line elements angular velocity of which equals u; at an instant t. Find
the angular velocity of the material line elements directed at the considered instant t
along the axes X\, x2, X3.
0 4.37 The velocity distribution in a rigid body is determined by the Euler formula
v = v0 + fl x r where Q{t) is the angular velocity, r is the radius-vector with respect
to a point 0, v0(t) is the velocity of the point O. Calculate the vorticity vector for
this velocity field.
© 4.38 Prove that, if the strain rate tensor is identical for all particles of a medium
at an instant, then the vorticity vector is also identical for all the particles at this
instant.
0 4.39 The strain rate tensor equals zero in all particles of a medium. Show
that, in this case, the velocity field is described by the Euler formula for the velocity
distribution in a rigid body v = v0 + fi x r where r is the radius-vector relative to
a point O, Vo{t) is the velocity of this point, and f2(t) is a vector independent of r
(the vector of instantaneous angular velocity).
0 4.40 Consider the second rank antisymmetric tensor wye'eJ determined by a

vector field v
a) Show that in any curvilinear coordinate system x', the following equality holds
1 (dvj b\ii
UJn = '
2 ydx* dxi
b) Show that the vorticity vector w = 1/2 curl v can be represented by the above-
introduced tensor, since the following formulae are valid
0 4.41 For a motion of a continuum with acceleration a satisfying the condition

curia = 0, consider the components of vorticity vector OP with respect to a con
comitant coordinate system. Consider also the components ujap of the second-rank
antisymmetric tensor representing the vorticity vector as indicated in the preceding
problem. Show that the following formulae are valid
a ) ^ ^ = 0, b)!(wV£) = 0
where g = det \\ga0\\
© 4.42 For a given in the Problem 4.41 motion of a continuum, consider at any
moment a vorticity line, that is, a line whose tangent is a vortex vector (at every
point of the line). Show that a vorticity line is frozen into the medium, that is it
passes through the same particles of the medium at any moment.
42 BASIC CONCEPTS
Compatibility conditions
© 4.43 Verify that the equality curlv = 0 is the necessary condition for poten
tiality of the vector field v.
0 4.44 Verify that the field velocity for a uniaxial extension (Problem 4.1) satisfies
the condition for potentiality. Find the potential of this velocity field.
0 4.45 Show that the compatibility condition for the small strain tensor can be
written, using Levi-Civita tensor, in the form a) ekip€ijq8z ^ = 0 in a Cartesian
coordinate system, b) ckipeljqVkS7ieij = 0 in any coordinate system. Here, e,jk are the
components of Levi-Civita tensor.
0 4.46 Indicate the conditions which a symmetric tensor field must satisfy to be
the strain rate tensor for a velocity field.
0 4.47 The tensor field is given by the formulae for its components in a Cartesian
coordinate system xi,x2, £3 &) £11 = Ax\, £22 = Bx\, £33 = Cx\, en = £13 = £23 = 0,
A,B,C = const; b) en = 2AxiX2, £22 = 2BxiX2, £12 = \{Ax\ + Bx%), £ i3 = e23 =
£33 = 0, A, B = const Is it the small strain tensor for a displacement field?
© 4.48 The components /y of a second-rank tensor field are given in a Cartesian

coordinate system xk. Consider the possibility of finding a vector field v for which
the relationships dvi/dxj — /y hold. Prove that this is possible if and only if the
components /y satisfy the following conditions
dxk
(eikj are the components of Levi-Civita tensor). Formulate this statement in a curvi
linear coordinate system.
© 4.49 The components ey and tJj of a second rank symmetric tensor field and
a vector field satisfying the condition divw = 0 are given in a Cartesian coordinate
system. Consider possibility to find the velocity field v for which e and w are the
strain rate and vorticity fields. Prove that this is possible if and only if the components
ey and c<y satisfy the following conditions
3ey du>i
3
dxk dxi
(eikj are the components of Levi-Civita tensor). Formulate this statement in a curvi
linear coordinate system.
5. Principles of Symmetry and Tensor Functions. 43
5 Principles of Symmetry and Tensor Functions.

Let us consider algebraic properties of tensor characteristics of a medium at a given
point of the three-dimensional Euclidian space with local basis et. Let T ] , . . . , TN be
a set of tensors among which there is the metric tensor g. The symmetry group G
of this set of tensors is the set of orthogonal transformations of the basis e\ = aê-j
preserving the values of the components of each of these tensors. For example, if for
the contravariant components of a tensor of a rank r,
or
bl,jl...birjrTjl "•»'- = Til-ir (5.1)
l
where (b j) is the matrix inverse to the matrix (a'j), then it is said that the tensor T
is invariant relative to the group G, determined by (a'j). The symmetry group of the
tensor g itself (isotropy) is the complete group of rotations and reflections represented
by orthogonal matrices. The symmetry group of a given set of tensors containing g is
a subgroup of the complete group of rotations and reflections or coincides with that
group.
A tensor function T = F ( T i , . . . , T N ) is a dependence of the components of the
tensor T upon the components of the tensors T 1 , . . . > T W which is invariant with
respect to choice of the basis ej. It means that, for a set of functions of the form
the relationships
JV»I—«r _ pil...ir(rHJl—JTl rjtjl—JTN\
are valid for any nonsingular matrix (aV,), i.e. in all coordinate systems the com
ponents of T are the same functions of the components of Ti, T 2 , ..., TN. This
condition can be written in the form
F ' " ( ^ . ..bfr^ 7 * ■"*",... ,fc* tl . . . ^ „ T*1 -*"') = 6 \ , . . . 6 ^ 7 * ' - * -

(5.2)
The equality (5.2) is a very strong restriction on the form of a function F. By use of
it one can prove, e.g., that
1. if a vector a is a function of a vector 6 only then
a = kb
where k is a scalar which may depend on |6| (in fact, the components of a metric
tensor g are needed to calculate |6|; so to be exact we should say that a is a function
of 6 and g).
44 BASIC CONCEPTS
2. if a second-rank tensor H is a function of a second-rank tensor T only (besides

of a metric tensor g which stands for a unit and is used to construct scalar invariants)
then
H = fcog + JbiT + fc2T2
where T 2 = T • T and fco, fci, £2 are scalar functions of invariants of the tensor T;
3. if a symmetric second-rank tensor H is a function of two independent symmetric
second-rank tensors T and P then
H = jfcog + fciT + k2P + A;3T2 + fc4(T • P + P • T) + k5(T2 • P + P • T 2 )
where ko,...k5 are scalar functions of invariants of the tensors T and P .

It follows from the definition of a tensor function that the symmetry group of
fixed values of the arguments of a tensor function is also the symmetry group of its
corresponding value. This property allows the determination of the general forms of
tensor functions with accuracy up to scalar coefficients without direct using of the
relation (5.2). The problem of determining the general form of a tensor function
T = F ( T i , . . . , TN) (let the rank of the tensor T be r) can be solved in the following
way: a) fix the arguments of the function F in the case of general situation, and,
with transformation of the basis e*, reduce them to the simplest possible form (e.g.,
two components of one of the vectors can be made zero, or, a second-rank symmetric
tensor can be reduced to the diagonal form); b) determine the symmetry group G of
the arguments; c) with the use of the relations (5.1) determine all r-rank tensors that
are invariant relative to G, choose among them a set of linearly independent ones
(the basis tensors), and express them in terms of the tensors T j , . . . ,TN; d) T is a
linear combination of the basis tensors with coefficients that are scalar functions of
invariants of tensors T i , . . . , TN.
Analytic tensor functions T = F(S), where T and S are second-rank tensors, are
defined by the power series of the form
T = a 0 g + aiS + a 2 S 2 + ...
which is equivalent to the series for the tensor components

Tj = FJ(S?) = oo^. + a,S3 + a2S£SJ= + ... .
Application of the Hamilton-Cayley theorem stating that any square matrix is a root
of its own characteristic polynomial, i.e.,
S 3 - /, S 2 + / 2 S - J3g = 0
obviates the use of powers of the matrix (Sp of orders more than two.
Let us extend the definition of a symmetry group of tensors at a point up to the
definition of a symmetry group of tensor fields. Let T i ( i ' ) , . . . , TN(xx), be a set of
tensor fields among which there is the metric tensor field g. The symmetry group
G of this set of tensor fields is the set of transformations of Cartesian coordinate
systems (x') preserving the form of each of these tensor fields. For example, for the
contravariant components of a tensor field of a rank r regarded as functions of the
variables x \
T'" - ( x " ) e : i - - - < = r > ^ ( x " ) e : i • • • < ,
or
bû ... V'jr T>""jV(o'i(irt - <*)) = r > • ''(x*)
on the transformations xH = Wjx'+d where (a^), {b>k) are orthogonal matrices each
of which is the inverse of the other. The tensor field is said to be invariant relative
to the group G. The symmetry group of the metric tensor field g is the complete
group of motions of the Euclidian space. The tensor field invariant relative to the
group of translations of the coordinate origin x" = x' + c* is referred to as uniform.
Let us indicate the method of construction of tensor fields invariant with respect to
a given group G of the transformations x'* = bljXj preserving the position of the
coordinate origin O. That method is based on the definition of the tensor function.
Let G be a symmetry group of a set of tensors Tu..., TN given at a point O, and
r be the radius-vector of an arbitrary point P relative to O. Compose, for the point
0, the tensor function T = F(r, Tu ..., T„) whose components satisfy obviously all
the necessary conditions of symmetry as functions of the components of the radius-
vector r. The remaining step is to translate (without variation of the components)
the tensor T to the point P.
— PROBLEMS —
0 5.1 Find the eigenvalues of the matrix of rotation by the angle <p around the
axis x
© 5.2 Determine the general form of a matrix of rotation around a unit vector n
by an angle ip.
Q 5.3 Show that any orthogonal three-by-three matrix has at least one eigenvalue
equal to 1 or - 1 . To what transformation does the matrix
correspond ?
46 BASIC CONCEPTS
© 5.4 Show that an arbitrary orthogonal matrix can be represented either as a ma
trix of rotation around an axis (Problem 5.2) or as the product of a matrix of rotation
and a matrix of reflection in the plane perpendicular to the same axis (Problem 5.3)
0 5.5 Find the eigenvalues of an antisymmetric second rank tensor. Compare with
the eigenvalues of the orthogonal matrix of Problem 5.1.
© 5.6 Using the expansions of the functions of one variable F(x) in power series
over x, where 1) F(x) = ex, 2) F(x) = ln(l + 1 ) , 3) F(x) = (1 - x)" 1 , define the
corresponding analytic tensor functions F(S) replacing x by S.
© 5.7 Determine the relationship between the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a

tensor S and those of T = F(S) if F(S) is an analytic tensor function.
0 5.8 Show that 7 3 (e s ) = e/l<s> where / 3 (T) = det HT^H, 7,(T) = T \ .
© 5.9 Show that, if S is an antisymmetric matrix (Sijgik = -Sikgij), then e s is

orthogonal. Find such a matrix S so that the matrix e s is the matrix of rotation of
Problem 5.2.
© 5.10 Show that, if a tensor S is symmetric then any analytic tensor function of
S is also symmetric.
© 5.11 Let all the eigenvalues A< (i = 1,2,3) of a tensor S be real and different.
Show that, for any analytic tensor function F(S), the formula (called the Lagrange
interpolation polynomial)
(S - A3g) ■ (S - A lg ) (S - A,g) • (S - A2g)

W +
+ (A 2 -A 3 )(A 2 -Ax) (Aa-A.XAs-Aa) F ( A a )
is valid; here, g is the metric tensor.
© 5.12 Analyze, for the Problem 5.11, the cases of repeated eigenvalues of the
tensor S if there are three linearly independent eigenvectors.
© 5.13 Determine the symmetry group of the set of tensors (g, e) where g is the
metric tensor, e is Levi-Civita tensor.
© 5.14 Determine, for an orthonormal basis e<, the symmetry groups of the fol
lowing sets of tensors: a) g, e 3 ; b) g, c • e 3 ; c) g, e 3 e 3 (transverse isotropy with the
axes of symmetry parallel to e 3 ); d) g, e, e 3 ; e) g, 6, e 3 e 3 ; here, g is the metric
tensor, e is Levi-Civita tensor.
0 5.15 Determine the symmetry group of the tensors g, S where S is a symmetric

second-rank tensor of the general form, g is the metric tensor (orthotropy with the
planes of symmetry determined by principal axes of the tensor S). Consider the case
of coinciding eigenvalues of the tensor S.
0 5.16 a) Find all the second-rank tensors invariant relative to the symmetry
group of the tensor g. b) It is known that there are three linearly independent
fourth-rank tensors invariant relative to the complete group of rotations. Compose
their components of the components of the tensor g.
0 5.17 For the setting of Problem 5.14 find all the symmetric second-rank tensors
invariant relative to the corresponding symmetry groups. For what groups do there
exist invariant antisymmetric second-rank tensors?
© 5.18 Find all the symmetric second-rank tensors which are invariant relative to
the symmetry group of the tensors g, S (Problem 5.15), and compose them of the
tensors g, S.
© 5.19 Consider the matrix which is inverse to a nonsingular matrix of the co-
variant components of a second-rank tensor. Show that it is the matrix of the con-
travariant components of a certain new tensor, i.e., it defines a tensor function.
© 5.20 It is known that there exist ten linearly independent fourth-rank tensors
invariant relative to the group of transverse isotropy (Problem 5.14c). Compose their
components using the components of the tensors g and e3e3.
© 5.21 Determine the general form of the tensor function a) a = F(6, g) where
a, b are vectors, g is the metric tensor; b) c = F(a, 6, g) where c is also a vector.
© 5.22 Prove that the tensor function of Problem 5.21a has a scalar potential
$(b,g) such that a{ = —.
0 5.23 Let a tensor function F(S, g), where S is a symmetric second-rank tensor,
g is the metric tensor regarded as constant, have the form
F = (kl9ij + kiSij + k^'S^ye*
where the coefficients fci, k2, k3 are the functions of the invariants of the tensor S.
Show that the necessary conditions for existence of a scalar potential $ of the function
F, Fij = ^TT", can be represented in the form
dS*'
1 dka 1 dkp
a oJp p aJa
where Jx = SU, J2 = P'Sij, h = S^ShS*,.
BASIC CONCEPTS
48
0 5.24 Using the interpolation polynomial of Lagrange (Problem 5.11), determine

the form of the tensor functions e s , sin S, S 3 . Compare with the expansions in the
power series. Determine the form of the scalar coefficients of the representations
ag + 6S+cS 2 .
0 5.25 Calculate the tensor of moments of inertia relative to the center of mass
a) for a homogeneous solid sphere, using the properties of symmetry; b) for a homo
geneous ellipsoid, using the principal axes.
© 5.26 Show that the tensor of moments of inertia relative to the center of mass of
a homogeneous regular tetrahedron is spherical (proportional to the metric tensor g).
Show the same for a cube and a regular octahedron. Use the properties of symmetry.
0 5.27 Determine the general form of scalar, vector and second rank tensor fields
invariant relative to the symmetry group of Problem 5.14A Such fields are referred
to as axially symmetrical. How do the results change for the other groups of Prob
lem 5.14 ? Write the results in the cylindrical coordinate system.
9 5.28 Determine the general form of scalar, vector and second-rank tensor fields
which are invariant relative to the complete group of rotations and reflections. Such
fields are referred to as spherically symmetrical. Write the results in a spherical
coordinate system.

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Chapter 1

Basic Concepts used for

1 Lagrangian and Eulerian Description of Motion

acceleration of the particles of a continuum are defined by the formulae

where £ = (£i>&2,60- In general, the rate of change in some quantity A in an

dA{x,t) dA(x,t) . A,dA{x,t) . A.dA(x,t) , ,dA(x,t)

In particular, the acceleration a(x,t) in Eulerian description is determined by the

where Vi(x,t) are velocity components.

X\\t=0 ~ £l . X2\t=0 = & . X3\t=0 = £3

0 1.1 Introduce a spatial coordinate system and Lagrangian coordinates of the

* ! = & ( ! + £), *2=&(l+2£), 1 3 = 6 (l + £ )

•> — ii??- * - irP' * - ° <" - v^>-«(«> "■") * - ^w

© 1.20 A medium moves with the velocity field

vi(x, t) = at , u 2 (i, t) = —«— , v3(x, t) = 0 (a,u = const)

and the temperature field

2 Tensors and their Cartesian Components

Tensors. For a pair of vectors a, b, their tensor product ab is introduced. Tensor

(QIOI + a2a2)(/?i&i + fob2) = ai&ai&i + anfoafo + a 2 /?ia 2 6i + a202a2b2 .

tensor product A B of the tensors A = ^ e ^ and B = B W m e k eje m is the tensor of

q = q^ei, qjt = Qiju .

Uj = ^tkk6ij , ttj = tij - -tkk6ij

3 Curvilinear Coordinate Systems

Coordinate systems, local bases. A coordinate system sets a correspondence

Vector and tensor fields. A vector-valued function on a domain (surface, curve)

v = vlei=Vjei, with vl = gtkvk, Vj = gjkvk. (3.1)

dx* dx'k ri da? dxk d

t = tij e^e, = tkj e*e, = <', e^e1 = tkt ekel .

Metric tensor. The quantities

ds2 = dr ■ dr = <fcj dx*dxk.

tl)=9lktkv tf' = ftt^, ty=sV*H.

an index is raised or lowered as if it is the only one, cf. Formulae 3.1.

a t = a(i y ejej) = {at'^e^j = (af ^e3 = ( c r f ^ e , - = (crfy)eV

q = q!leiel, (f.\ = Qfi-

Covariant differentiation. The partial derivatives of a vector field v with respect

e' = gtkek, d = gjkek

u • v = u'vi = UiV1, v' = e' • v, Vi = e{- v .

@ 3.7 Cylindrical coordinates x1 = r, x2 = ip, x3 = z (see Figure 3.1) are bound

0 3.9 A tensor of second rank p has the following components in a cylindrical

© 3.10 Spherical coordinates x1 = r, x2 = 0, x 3 = A (see Figure 3.2) are bound

x'1 = r sin # cos A, x' =rsin0sinA, x' ==7-cos0.

© 3.11 A vector field is given in a Cartesian coordinate system x":

x'le\ + x'2e'2 + x'3e'3

x = vV2 + a2 cos>p, y = rsmtp (r > 0).

x = Vr2 + a2 sin 6 cos ip, y = Vr2 + a2 sin 6 simp, z = r cos 6.

© 3.14 Express in terms of the basis vectors e* or e' of a curvilinear coordinate

a smooth curve L given in the parametric representation r = f(s) = a(s)ex + b(s)ey

0 3.17 Components of a vector (having identical dimensions in a Cartesian co­

Tensor transformation rule.

© 3.22 Find the general form of a second-rank tensor t if its component ti 2 is

© 3.25 Prove the following equality for the components of a tensor Q

0 3.26 Consider the components of tensors B = Bijkie'eieke' and e = e^e'e^

&iaeu = 5' J k 'e*, = B ^ , e t ' = Biiklekl. .

0 3.28 Consider the numbers J\ = trt, J2 = tyiy, J3 = Ujtjktki determined by

0 3.29 For a second-rank symmetric tensor t, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors

in terms of the mixed components of tensor t in an arbitrary coordinate system.

Levi-Civita tensor. Calculations in curvilinear coordinate

0 3.32 a) Formulate the properties of contravariant components of Levi-Civita

0 3.43 Find the covariant derivatives of components a) of the metric tensor, b)

0 3.49 The vector field curl v calculated by the formula

0 3.17 Components of a vector (having identical dimensions in a Cartesian co

xi = fi - a()6£$ , x2 = & + «()£ 16 , x3 = £3

0 4.34 The covariant components of a velocity field in a spatial cylindrical coor

F ' " ( ^ . ..bfr^ 7 * ■"",... ,fc tl . . . ^ „ T1 -"') = 6 \ , . . . 6 ^ 7 * ' - * -