ELECTRIC CURRENT, RESISTANCE, AND CIRCUITS

17
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
1. SOLVE We shall establish the proportionality between resistance and temperature (at temperatures around 20°C)
through a chain of proportionality. The resistance R is proportional to the probability of a collision Pc . The
probability of an electron colliding with an ion is proportional to the cross-sectional area of the ions A. The
effective cross-sectional area of the ions is proportional to the radius squared A ∝ R 2 . The energy of the oscillator
is proportional to the temperature as well as the square of the amplitude of the oscillator T ∝ R 2 . This chain of
proportionality is encapsulated as

R ∝ Pc ∝ A ∝ R 2 ∝ T

This yields

R∝T
REFLECT This proportionality is approximate. At lower temperatures, the electrons will scatter off impurities
which will reduce the temperature dependence in the classical limit. More exotic effects can occur at low
temperatures such as super-conductivity where the resistance goes to zero at a non zero temperature. Resistance is
complicated, and generally things that are called “resistors” are designed to fit within the simple models presented
in the text.
2. SOLVE Current is the amount of charge cutting a plane per unit time. If you imagine a block of charge-carrying
particles moving through a conductor with a certain velocity vdrift , the amount of charge that will pass through a
plane perpendicular to the direction of current in an amount of time Δt will be Δx ⋅ A ⋅ ne (where n is the number
density of charge carriers, e is the charge on each carrier, and the value ΔxA is the volume of charge that passes.
We note that Δx = vdrift so the current per unit time will be (as shown in Equation 17.2)
Δt

I = neAvdrift .
Solving for the drift velocity

I
vdrift = ,
neA
we establish the proportionality between the electron drift speed and I /A.
REFLECT These types of calculations where a relationship between one measurable quantity (e.g., current) and a
combination of others (e.g., area, charge carrier density, etc.) is a necessary skill that can be guided by unit
analysis. If you go into any technical career, you will do more of these calculations in your life than you can
imagine right now.
3. SOLVE In the classical limit, the model of resistance involves electron bouncing off of the ions of the metal. As
the temperature increases, the cross-section of the ions increases (see conceptual question 1) which produces a

17.1
17.2 Chapter 17

noticeable (though small) increase in the resistivity ρ for normal metals. However, in equation 17.4 we notice that
the resistance of a material depends upon the shape:

L
R=ρ .
A
If we assume that increase in temperature causes the material to swell uniformly, then the value of LA decreases as
the temperature increases. That is, the material elongates, which would tend to cause an increase in resistance, but
the cross-sectional area grows fractionally more (by a factor of two since A ∝ l 2 ), producing a net decrease in the
resistance. If you absorbed this effect into an effective ρeff , an increase in temperature would produce a decrease
in ρeff . However, as noted above, in normal metals, ρ increases with temperature. Because of this inconsistency
we must conclude that the thermal expansion of the material is not the dominant physics of the phenomena and
therefore not an important factor at the level of this text.
REFLECT While thermal expansion may become more important as the required precision of a particular model
increases, in the case of empirical studies of known geometries, any effects of thermal expansion will be folded
into empirically determined values of the temperature coefficient of resistance. The important point here is that
there is something other than thermal expansion at work in the temperature dependence of resistors. It is
experimentally established that normal metal’s resistivities increase with increasing temperatures.
4. SOLVE The power provided to a element in a circuit is VI where V is the voltage across the element and I is
the current running through it. If two bulbs are operated at the same voltage and one has a larger power drain, the
one with the larger power drain must necessarily have the larger current. The bulb with the larger current must
have a smaller resistance since at fixed voltage, current is inversely proportional to resistance. Therefore, the
60 W bulb has a higher resistance.
REFLECT One could also use argument by extremes. If there was an infinite resistance “bulb,” what would the
power output be? Look at an outlet on the wall, if there is nothing plugged into it, it is effectively hooked up to an
infinite resistance bulb. Fortunately, there is zero power draw from such a bulb. In contrast, consider taking a very
low resistance “bulb” (e.g., a paper clip), and shorting out the two slots of the outlet (DO NOT DO THIS... IT IS
UNREASONABLY DANGEROUS). You will experience a large amount of energy in a short amount of time,
which is high-power output for low resistance.
5. SOLVE Both P = I 2 R and P = V 2 /R can be true if, and only if, V = IR. Observe,

V 2 /R = ( IR )2 /R = I 2 R 2 /R = I 2 R
The relationship V = IR is a trivial rearrangement of Equation 17.3 (the definition of resistance).
REFLECT Having different expressions for the same thing is very useful in practice. Suppose you had an easy
way to determine voltage but current was more difficult to measure. It is also true that P = IV . These three forms
of the same relationship are very useful to remember (or at least be able to derive quickly).
6. SOLVE The units of ohms Ω derive from the definition of resistance:

R = V /I .
energy
The units of volts are [V ] = = J /C. Recall the units of energy
charge

kg ⋅ m 2
[ J ] = N ⋅ m=
s2
. Therefore, the fundamental units of volts are:

kg ⋅ m 2
[V ] =
C ⋅ s2
charge C
The units of current are [ I ] = = .
time s
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.3

Combining in terms of fundamental units:

kg ⋅ m 2 s kg ⋅ m 2
[ R] = ⋅ = 2
C ⋅ s2 C C ⋅s
REFLECT We always want to be able to check our units. To do this we must be able to convert all the
combination units we derive in this chapter, and in the future, into the standard language of the fundamental units
(length, mass, time, and charge). This one is hard to remember, so write it down somewhere that is close at hand.
7. SOLVE Any element in series with another has the same current traveling through it. The three bulbs in series
each have the same current, therefore they must each share an equal fraction of the total voltage drop across the
battery. Specifically, each bulb has a voltage drop of Vi = V / 3 across it. Consequently, each bulb in series has the
same brightness.
Since the voltage across each of the bulbs in series is less than the voltage across the reference battery, the
reference bulb is brighter.
REFLECT Adding resistors in series reduces the current being drawn through the branch and therefore diminishes
the voltage across each element in the branch.
8. SOLVE We assume that the battery is ideal (has no internal resistance). If bulbs are connected in parallel they
each have the same voltage as the battery. Therefore, each of the three bulbs has the same brightness as the
reference bulb.
REFLECT If each of the identical bulbs has the same voltage, they must each have the same current. So each of
the three bulbs has the same current as the reference bulb. This current must flow through the battery. Therefore,
the current being drawn from the battery in the case of three parallel bulbs is three times the current drawn from
the battery with the reference bulb. In non-ideal batteries, more current produces a decrease of the voltage across
the battery. Therefore, in the non-ideal battery case, the parallel bulbs would be dimmer than the reference bulb.
9. SOLVE Since B2 and B3 are in parallel they have the equal voltages and thus equal currents through the identical
bulbs. Therefore, B2 and B3 are equally bright.
The current through B1 must then split into two equal parts; the current through B2 and the current through B3 .
Since B1 has twice the current as both B2 and B3 , B1 is brighter than both B2 and B3 .
The current through B2 implies that there is a voltage drop across the bulb. Therefore, the voltage drop across B1
must be less than the voltage across the battery. As a consequence, B1 is dimmer than the reference bulb Br .
In order of decreasing brightness, the bulbs rank as follows:

Br > B1 > B2 = B3 .
Removing B1 : If B1 is removed, the voltage across both B2 and B3 are equal to the voltage of the battery,
producing two bulbs with the same brightness as the reference bulb.
Removing B2: If only B2 is removed, the voltage of the battery is split equally between B1 and B3 . The
brightness of each bulb will then be equal and less than the reference bulb.
Removing B2 increases the total resistance of the bulb network. This reduces the current through B1 relative to
the circuit with B2 included, therefore diminishing the brightness of B1 after removal of B2 .
REFLECT One of the interesting lessons we learn from these bulb networks is that changes in one part of the
network can potentially change everything in the network. As you solve problems in this chapter, keep this lesson
in mind. Networks are ubiquitous in nature and technology, resistor networks are a relatively straightforward way
to start to get your mind around the challenges that networks present.
charge
10. SOLVE The units of current are [ I ] = = C /s. The units of resistance reduce to fundamental SI units of
time
kg ⋅ m2
[ R] = . Therefore, the units of I 2 R are
C2 ⋅ s

C 2 kg ⋅ m 2 kg ⋅ m 2 1
[ I 2 R] = ⋅ 2 = = J/s = W
s2 C ⋅s s2 s
17.4 Chapter 17

REFLECT Units should always be kept in your calculations. If units are not consistent with expected results you
can be sure you did something wrong. In electrical problems, the units are not as obvious as they were in earlier
chapters. As was mentioned in the reflection of CQ 6, it is helpful to be able to reduce electrical units to
fundamental SI units. This problem serves as an example of the utility of this skill.
11. SOLVE Power can be written in a number of equivalent forms. For the purposes of this problem, the form P = IV
is most useful.
As the filament is warmed, the resistance increases. As the resistance increases, the current decreases. Therefore,
when the bulb is first turned on, the current is at its maximum value. Since the voltage is fixed throughout the
warming of the filament, the power is proportional to the current. Therefore, the power consumed by the lightbulb
is greater immediately after the bulb is turned on than it is when the bulb is warmed up
REFLECT This current surge helps to explain why bulbs generally “blow” when first turned on. As filaments age,
they evaporate but they do not evaporate homogeneously. Inhomogeneities in the evaporation produce thin parts of
the filament. The thin parts have higher resistance and can heat up past the boiling point of the filament when the
current surges. The melted section allows the filament to break.
12. SOLVE For a fixed required load, the power provided is given as P = IV . If the voltage is increased, the current
is reduced for a fixed power. The resistive losses in the transmission lines are Pl = I 2 R. By reducing the current,
you reduce the resistive losses. Specifically, if the voltage is doubled, the current is halved. If the current is halved,
the resistive losses are decreased by a factor of 1/ 4.
REFLECT High-voltage power lines are generally very dangerous. This is why the outlets in our homes are at a
still potentially dangerous yet relatively safe voltage. Solving the problem of resistive losses and in-home safety is
done by transmitting power using high-voltage over long distances and stepping down the voltages as they
approach home users with step-down transformers.
13. SOLVE If the ends of the two wires are held at that same potential difference, it is true that the current through the
larger diameter wire will be greater than that through the smaller diameter wire. However, simply looking at the
current is not sufficient to answer this question. The power density generated in each wire will be the same since
you may view the fat wire as many skinny wires put together. The difference between the two is dissipation of heat
into the environment. A single skinny wire has only energy being radiated outward. Two skinny wires in a close
embrace radiate outward individually just as the single skinny wire, however, there is also energy being absorbed
by one due to the other (this is why if you are in life-threatening cold with another person, you should remove your
clothes and cuddle up if you want to stay warmer). Bundled wires will therefore heat up more than if you moved
the individual wires farther apart. We conclude that the larger diameter wire is more likely to melt.
REFLECT This may seem counterintuitive to anyone who has been curious enough to look at a fuse (common
fuses consist of a thin filament encased in glass housing). When the current reaches a certain maximum value, the
filament melts (breaks the circuit). Fuses, however, differ from the goal in this problem because they are designed
to limit current. The power density for a larger diameter wire for fixed current is lower than that for a smaller
diameter wire.
14. SOLVE Doubling the length of a heating wire in your toaster will double the resistance since R ∝ L. Doubling
the resistance in a circuit under fixed voltage results in halving of the current. Since the heating power P = VI ,
halving the current halves the heating power provided by the source voltage.
REFLECT In order to make the heating element maintain the same temperature while also doubling the length,
the voltage would have to be doubled. Increasing the length of the heating wire yields a wire that is less hot.
15. SOLVE It is safe for a bird to sit on a power line because the single power line sits at one electrical potential (only
differences in potential are dangerous). You could sit on the same line next to the bird because you would also be
at the same potential as the wire and the bird. If you and the bird are on different power lines or you try to be on
different power lines you will introduce a path for the current to attempt to equalize the two potentials, and this is
generally bad for living tissue.
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.5

REFLECT It is safe for you and/or the bird to sit on the same wire for the same reason that it is safe to be on the
roof of a 200-story building, as long as you don’t get too close to the edge. Neglecting things like oxygen
concentration, altitude does not kill you. Changes in altitudes can produce energetic circumstances detrimental to
life and limb.
16. SOLVE The potential difference between two ends of a superconducting material is zero. The relationship
I = V /R is consistent with superconducting materials because both resistance and potential difference are
approaching zero. Both V and R can approach zero while maintaining a constant ratio.
REFLECT All physical models are approximations. In reality, “zero resistance” can only mean a resistance below
some threshold measurable value. It is important not to confuse a relationship that is consistent with observations
with absolute “truth.”
17. SOLVE Electrical outlets in your home are connected in parallel. We know this because when we turn on one set
of lights, it does not permanently diminish the voltage of other lights in the house.
REFLECT This is partly why fuses, or in modern houses, circuit breakers are current limiting from the source of
the voltage coming into your house. As you add more elements in parallel you reduce the effective resistance of
that circuit and therefore the current (increasing the rate of increase of your energy bill).
18. SOLVE A superconducting wire would make a very poor lightbulb filament. Lightbulb filaments work because
they are marginally inefficient conductors of electricity. Electrons scatter off ions, causing them to jiggle and the
material to heat up, producing radiation. In superconductors, the electrons form a coherent state that can eliminate
energy transfer from the electrons to the lattice of the material.
REFLECT Insulators would also make bad filaments because they do not allow enough current. Filaments must
meet a number of criteria in the space between superconductor and insulator: High melting points, resistivities that
permit geometries that are economical to manufacture, etc.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE PROBLEMS

19. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The resistance of a wire is given by R = ρ LA . We are given the length of the wire, L, and
the diameter D. The area in terms of the diameter is A = πD 2 / 4. From Table 17.2 we obtain the resistivity for
copper ρCu = 1.69 × 10 −8 Ω ⋅ m.
Units of diameter are given in mm. We need to convert to SI units to ensure unit consistency. mm = 10 −3 m
SOLVE The resistance is:

100 m
R = 1.69 ×10-8 Ω ⋅ m = 0.54 Ω
π
4
⋅ (2 ×10-3 m)2

Choice (b)
REFLECT In the circuit diagrams we draw on paper, it is assumed that the wires connecting circuit elements have
zero resistance. Unless the wires are actually superconducting, every section of a network has some resistance
associated with it. This problem is useful because it gives us an idea how much resistance this is for a typical wire.
Depending upon the precision required in a particular circuit, this resistance may be negligible.
20. ORGANIZE AND PLAN From CQ 2, we find the drift velocity is

I
vdrift = ,
neA
where n is the charge carrier density, e = 1.60 × 10 −19 C is the charge on the electron, and A = πD 2 / 4 is the cross-
sectional area of the wire.
Given Values:
From Table 17.1 nCu = 8.47 × 1028 m −3 . The charge on the electron is e = 1.60 × 10 −19 C. The diameter of the wire
0.75 × 10 −3 m. The current is I = 1.2 A
Calculated Preliminary Values:
The cross-sectional area is A = π(0.75 × 10 −3 m)2 / 4 = 4.42 × 10 −7 m 2 .
17.6 Chapter 17

SOLVE Subbing in values yields:

1.2C/s
vdrift = = 2.0 × 10 −4 m/s = 0.2 mm/s
8.47 × 10 m ⋅ 1.60 × 10 −19 C ⋅ 4.42 × 10 −7 m 2
28 −3

Choice (a)
REFLECT The drift velocity is remarkably small, given the relatively high velocity of any particular electron.
21. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The relationship between current, voltage, and resistance is R = V /I . Given the values of
V and I , determining the required resistance is a straightforward matter.
SOLVE The resistance is R = 1.51×.105 −V3 A = 1000 Ω = 1 kΩ
Choice (c)
REFLECT The trap in this problem is the mindless application of the equation without remembering that units are
important. The V/mA = kΩ
22. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Including the internal resistance r into the consideration of the circuit with load RL is as
simple as adding two resistors in series (r and RL ) connected to an ideal battery with the rated, zero current
voltage of the battery Vo . The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance remains the same; however, the
equivalent resistance of the now idealized circuit yields:

Req = r + RL = Vo /I

Solving for the internal resistance yields:

Vo
r= − RL
I
SOLVE Plugging in values:

18.1V
r= − 25.4 Ω = 1.3 Ω
0.678A
Choice (c)
REFLECT If you were to take a voltage measurement of the battery while it was hooked up to the load, it would
read Vo − Vr = Vo − Ir = 17.2 V. If the specifications of the load require a precise voltage range, the internal
resistance of the battery must be considered. In most applications, batteries are listed with certain max current
specification to ensure a given range of actual output voltage from the battery.
23. ORGANIZE AND PLAN This problem is similar in setup to the previous problem except, in this case, we are given
the internal resistance, current drawn from battery, and the zero current voltage of the battery and asked to find the
load resistance.
As before, the relationship between voltage, current and resistance remains the same; however, the equivalent
resistance of the now idealized circuit yields:

Req = r + RL = Vo /I

(Again, the real battery is replaced by an ideal battery with voltage Vo and a resistance r in series with the
load RL .)
Solving for RL resistance yields:

Vo
RL = −r
I
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.7

SOLVE Plugging in values:

1.51V
r= − 1.25 Ω = 10.8 Omega
0.125A

24. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The equivalent resistance of two resistors in parallel is:

R1R2
Req =
R1 + R2

where R1 and R2 are the resistances of the individual resistors.

SOLVE Plugging in values for the resistances:

120 kΩ ⋅ 140 kΩ 16800 kΩ2

Req = = = 65 kΩ
120 kΩ + 140 kΩ 260 kΩ
Choice (d)
REFLECT One thing that may seem a little counterintuitive that adding a resistor to the circuit could reduce the
resistance, but this is indeed what happens whenever you give another path to the current.
25. ORGANIZE AND PLAN If there are two resistors ( R1 and R2 ) in parallel, as part of the definition of what it means
to be parallel we know they have the same potential. If they are constrained to have the same potential, they do not,
in general, have the same current. We see this is the following argument. If V1 = V2 = V , then I1 = V /R1 and
I 2 = V /R2 . Unless R1 = R2 we conclude, I1 ≠ I 2 .
Possessing the same voltage V , and potentially different currents ( I1 and I 2 ), the power dissipated by the
respective resistors will be different if the resistors are not identical. The power dissipated by each resistor is
P1 = VI1 and P2 = VI 2 . Since I1 and I 2 are generally different, P1 and P2 are generally different.
SOLVE
Choice (c)
REFLECT If there are multiple resistors in a branch that is in parallel with another branch with multiple resistors,
the above answer would be choice (d). Choices a and b are possible if the resistors are identical, but they are not
necessarily true.
26. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Before we find the current drawn into the branch (which, in this case, is the current drawn
from the battery), we need to find the equivalent resistance of the network. Resistors in series add, so the
equivalent resistance of this circuit is Req = R1 + R2 . With the equivalent resistance in hand, the current is obtained
simply from Ohm’s law:

I = V /Req

Preliminary calculation:

Req = 320 Ω + 530 Ω = 850 Ω

SOLVE Plugging in numbers:

12 V
I= = 1.4 × 10 −2 A = 14 mA
850 Ω
Choice (a)
REFLECT Adding more and more resistors in series increases the resistance, while adding more and more in
parallel reduces the resistance. The current drawn from the battery is determined by what is going on in the whole
circuit. As far as the battery is concerned, there is no difference between a load of a single 850 Ω resistor and a
320 Ω placed in series with a 530 Ω resistor.
27. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Adding a resistor in series will increase the effective resistance, so any series connection
will not produce a lessor effective resistance (this fact renders choice (a) unsuitable).
17.8 Chapter 17

We should also note that if there are two resistors in parallel, the effective resistance is less than both of the
individual resistances. Consequently, choice b is unsuitable because the effective resistance of a 40 Ω resistor in
parallel with a 200 Ω will be less than 40 Ω.
If a resistor was large compared to the 240 Ω resistor, the effective resistance would be less than but close
to 240 Ω . If the second resistor was infinite, the effective resistance would be exactly 240 Ω. If the second
resistor was the same as the first, the effective resistance would be half of the resistance of each.
We will then speculate, based on the above reasoning, that choice d is the correct choice. We will calculate it
exactly just to make sure.
Two resistors in parallel posses an equivalent resistance as follows:

R1R2
Req =
R1 + R2

Solving for the situation when Req is known and R2 is unknown:

Req R1
R2 =
R1 − Req

SOLVE Plugging in values of Req and R1 yields:

200 Ω ⋅ 240 Ω 48, 000 Ω2

R2 = = = 1200 Ω
40 Ω 40 Ω
Choice (d)
REFLECT The equivalent resistance that would be realized in choice c is roughly 155 Ω. This is not surprising,
given that we know that the equivalent resistance will be halved if the two resistors are equal.
28. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The power delivered by the battery is P = VI . The voltage is given. The current is
obtained by determining the equivalent resistance. Since the two resistors are in series, the equivalent resistance is
just the sum of the resistances:

Req = R1 + R2

Then, applying Ohms law we have: I = V . Plugging back into the expression for the power drawn from
R1 + R2
battery:

V2
P=
R1 + R2

SOLVE Plugging in values:

81.0 V2
P= = 0.24 W
100 Ω + 240 Ω

Choice (a)
REFLECT The mechanical energy equivalent of 1 watt is approximately the power required to move a kilogram
10 cm vertically upward in 1 second in the Earth’s gravitational field near the surface of the Earth.
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.9

29. ORGANIZE AND PLAN In an RC-circuit the time constant τ = RC.

SOLVE Plugging in values:

τ = 350 × 103 Ω ⋅ 200 × 10 −6 F = 70 s

Choice (b)
REFLECT The units of Ω ⋅ F in SI units has to end up as seconds. From CQ 6 we recall the SI units of ohms:

kg ⋅ m 2
[ Ω] = .
q2 ⋅ s
The SI unit of farads are derived from C = Q/V :

q ⋅ s2
[F] =
kg ⋅ m 2
Combining RC yields:

kg ⋅ m 2 q2 ⋅ s 2
[ RC ] = ⋅ =s
q2 ⋅ s kg ⋅ m 2

30. ORGANIZE AND PLAN As in Problem 29, we know the time constant is τ = RC. In this case we know the time
constant, we know the capacitance and we are asked to find the required resistance. Solving for the unknown
quantity:

τ
R=
C
SOLVE The required resistance is

1 × 10 −3 s
R= = 4 × 106 Ω = 4 MΩ
250 × 10 −12 F
REFLECT In order to get a relatively small time constant (i.e., achieve a quick discharge of the discharge), you
can have a small capacitance, a small resistance, or a combination of both. In this case the resistance turns out to be
in mega ohms, which is consistent with the pico farad capacitance.
31. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The charge on a capacitor as a function of time is given in Equation 17.17:

q(t ) = qo e− t /RC
We are looking for the time at which q(t ′) = 0.001 ⋅ qo . Plugging into the equation

0.001 ⋅ qo = qo e− t ′/RC

Solving for t ′ :

t′ = − RC ⋅ ln(0.001)
SOLVE Plugging in values:

t ′ = −1500 Ω ⋅ 60 × 10 −6 F ⋅ ln(0.001) = 0.62 s

Choice (a)
REFLECT To reduce the charge to 0.1% of the original charge, it takes only 6.9 time constants. This underscores
the fact that time constant sets the timescale for discharge of an RC circuit.
17.10 Chapter 17

PROBLEMS

32. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The relationship for the current in terms of the drift velocity is given in Equation 17.2:

I = neAν drift

We are given the diameter and a drift speed, we know the charge of an electron, but we must look up the charge
carrier number density n for copper (from Table 17.1).
Preliminary calculations and value collection:
The cross sectional area is

2
⎛D⎞
A = πr 2 = π⎜ ⎟ = π ⋅ (0.25 × 10 −3 m)2 = 1.96 × 10 −7 m 2
⎝2⎠
The charge carrier number density for Copper at T = 27D C is

n = 8.47 × 10 28 m −3
The charge on the electron is e = 1.60 × 10 −19 C
SOLVE Plugging in values to determine the current with given drift velocity:

I = (8.47 × 1028 m −3 ) ⋅ (1.60 × 10 −19 C) ⋅ (1.96 × 10 −7 m 2 ) ⋅ (1 m/s) = 2.66 kA

REFLECT A kilo-amp is a large amount of current relative to the everyday scales we are used to. For example,
home circuit breakers rarely allow more than 100A current through a circuit that may include many devices, and it
only takes tenths of amps to produce life-threatening consequences in the body. However, in high-voltage
applications kA are not uncommon.
33. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The relationship for the current in terms of the drift velocity is given in Equation 17.2:

I = neAν drift
In this case, we are given the material, the current, and the diameter of the wire. We are asked to find ν drift .
Solving for ν drift in the expression yields:

I
ν drift =
neA
Preliminary calculations and value collection:
The cross sectional area is

2
⎛D⎞
A = πr 2 = π ⎜ ⎟ = π ⋅ (1.25 × 10 −5 m)2 = 1.56 × 10 −10 m 2
⎝2⎠
The charge carrier number density for Tin at T = 27D C is

n = 1.48 × 1029 m −3
The charge on the electron is e = 1.60 × 10 −19 C
SOLVE The drift velocity is:

0.15 × 10 −3 C/s
ν drift = = 4.1 × 10 −5 m/s
(1.48 × 1029 m −3 ) ⋅ (1.60 × 10 −19 C) ⋅ (1.56 × 10 −10 m 2 )
REFLECT Compared to the speed of individual electrons within the conductor, this is very slow (roughly 3.5
meters per day). Of course, the drift speed does not determine how quickly a signal gets transmitted through the
wire, for example, the signal that the switch was turned on. This occurs much faster... at the speed of light.
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.11

34. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We shall assume that the wire is at room temperature for the current regime we are going
to use for this wire.
The resistance of typical cylindrical resistor of length L and cross-sectional area A is:

L
R=ρ
A
Solving for A :

L
A=ρ
R
The cross-sectional area is related to the diameter of the wire simply as A = π D4 , by which we obtain:
2

4ρL
D=
πR
We are given the resistance per unit length r = 0.010 Ω/m = R/L so the final form of the diameter in terms of
given values is:

4ρ
D=
πr
Tabulated values:
The resistivity of copper is 1.69 × 10 −8 Ωm.
SOLVE The diameter of copper wire required for specified resistance per unit length is:

4 ⋅ 1.69 × 10 −8 Ωm
D= = 1.5 × 10 −3 m = 1.5 mm
π ⋅ 0.010 Ω/m
REFLECT The required diameter corresponds to about a 15-gauge wire (a standard size you could buy at a DIY
electronics store). This calculation would not apply if the currents used for this wire were sufficient to heat the wire
significantly. When you decide which wire to use for a particular application, you want a wire that does not heat up
over the current range allowed for the application (for a number of reasons, including ease in mathematical
characterization of the application).
35. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Again we assume that the wire is at room temperature for the operating parameters of the
wire.
The resistance of typical cylindrical resistor of length L and cross-sectional area A is:

L
R=ρ
A
We are given the material, the length, and the diameter. The form we shall use for the final calculation is:

4L
R =ρ
πD 2
Tabulated values:
The resistivity of aluminum is 2.75 × 10 −8 Ωm.
17.12 Chapter 17

SOLVE The resistance of the specified wire is:

4 ⋅ 0.25 m
R = 2.75 × 10 −8 Ωm ⋅ = 8.8 × 10 −5 Ω
π ⋅ (0.01 m)2

REFLECT You could not measure this small of a resistance with the digital multimeters in your lab; therefore, for
almost all applications, this would be considered a negligible resistance. It is a relatively large diameter wire (near
the size of your pinky finger), so do not expect to find this type of wire outside large-scale industrial applications.
36. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The resistance of a wire is proportional to the resistivity of the material in the wire, so a
fractional increase in the resistance is equivalent to the fractional increase in the resistivity. The resistivity of a
material as a function of temperature is approximated by the following expression:

ρ = ρo [1 + α(T − To )]

Where α is a material specific value and ρo is the resistivity measured at temperature To .

Manipulating the above equation yields:

ρ − ρo
= α(T − To )
ρo
ρ−ρo
We note that ρo
is the fractional change of the resistivity (which is a given quantity in this problem). If we let
this fractional change be called fρ and solve for the requested temperature we find: T = To + fρ /α.
The temperature coefficient for platinum is obtained from Table 17.2:

α = 3.9 × 10 −3D C −1

SOLVE Part (a):

The temperature required for a 1% fractional increase ( fρ = 0.01) from To = 20D C is:

0.01
T = 20D C + = 22.6D C
3.9 × 10 −3D C −1

Part (b):
The temperature required for a 10% fractional increase ( fρ = 0.1) from To = 20D C is:

0.1
T = 20D C + = 45.6D C
3.9 × 10 −3D C −1

REFLECT This problem leads directly to an interesting application. If you can measure resistance, you can
determine temperature. If you can measure resistance to 0.1% accuracy, you could use this bit of metal to obtain
temperature measurements to about 1% accuracy, around T = 20D C.
37. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Current is charge flow per unit time. If we are given the amount of charge transferred and
the time over which the transfer took place, determining the average current over this time is achieved simply by
dividing the charge by the time.

Q
I=
Δt
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.13

SOLVE Plugging in given values:

350C
I= = 7.8 × 103 A
45 × 10 −3 s
REFLECT We encountered kilo-amps in Problem 32. This problem helps to set a visceral understanding of what a
kilo-amp looks like.
38. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The current of an electron beam is I . Current is defined as the amount of charge passing
through a plane perpendicular to the direction in which the current is measured. To find the number of electrons
that make up this current, we simply need the charge per electron. If we divide the current by the charge per
electron, we have units of electrons per second.
The charge per electron is e = 1.6 × 10 −19 C.
SOLVE The number of electrons passing per second is:

1 × 10 −3 A
= 6.3 × 1015 electron/sec
1.6 × 10 −19 C/electron

REFLECT This is a very large number of electrons when compared to everyday numbers. So whenever there is
even a moderately small current, there is a very high flow of electrons. When you are going to bed at night, close
your eyes and try to make the small drift velocity, the large number of electrons involved, and the speed of light
transmission of signals all try to make sense at the same time.
39. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Again we assume that the wire is at room temperature for the operating parameters of the
wire.
The resistance of typical cylindrical resistor of length L and cross-sectional area A is:

L
R=ρ
A
We are given the material, the length, and the diameter. The form we shall use for the final calculation is:

4L
R =ρ
πD 2
Tabulated values:
The resistivity of silver is 1.59 × 10 −8 Ωm.
SOLVE Part (a): The resistance of the wire with diameter D = 5.0 × 10 −5 m is:

4 ⋅ 1.0 m
R = 1.59 × 10 −8 Ωm ⋅ = 8.1 Ω
π ⋅ (5.0 × 10 −5 m)2
Part (b): The resistance of the wire with diameter D = 5.0 × 10 −4 m is:

4 ⋅ 1.0 m
R = 1.59 × 10 −8 Ωm ⋅ = 0.081 Ω
π ⋅ (5.0 × 10 −4 m)2
Part (a): The resistance of the wire with diameter D = 5 × 10 −3 m is:

4 ⋅ 1.0 m
R = 1.59 × 10 −8 Ωm ⋅ = 0.0008 Ω
π ⋅ (5 × 10 −3 m)2
REFLECT We see here a direct illustration of how resistance is inversely proportional to the square of the
diameter. For a very thin wire, the resistance is significant. This is important to understand when using thin wires
to construct coils (thin wires allow you to make many loops in a small container). For standard 24-gauge wire
(D = 0.5 mm) the resistance is hundredths of an ohm per meter which, when used in small electronics, can largely
17.14 Chapter 17

be neglected. For a fairly large wire (5 mm), the resistance is negligible for relatively small lengths of wire (it
would require about 1.25 km of wire to produce 1 Ω resistance).
40. ORGANIZE AND PLAN One percent of the load resistance of 150 Ω is r = 1.5 Ω. We need to find the total length
of copper wire with diameter D = 0.51 × 10 −3 m that will have a resistance of r. Solving Equation 17.4 for L and
replacing the area with πD 2 / 2 we obtain:

r πD 2
L=
4ρ
This will give us the maximum length. Shorter wires will result in smaller resistances.
SOLVE Plugging in values:

1.5 Ω ⋅ π ⋅ (0.51 × 10 −3 m)2

Lmax = = 18 m
4 ⋅ (1.69 × 10 −8 Ωm)
REFLECT 24-gauge wire is used in small-scale applications (electronics, etc.), so the length of a wire inside the
electronics is negligible (unless it is used for inductor coils, which consist of tight winding of cable, effectively
cramming more length of cable in smaller space).
41. ORGANIZE AND PLAN From Problem 36 we recall the relationship.
Manipulating the above equation yields:

ρ − ρo
= α(T − To )
ρo

The fractional change in the resistivity is shown on the left side of the equation and is equal to the fractional
change in the resistance (since the resistance is proportional to the resistivity).
If we find the fractional change of the resistivity we can use the given resistance Ro at To = 20D C to find the
required sensitivity in resistance measurement

ρ − ρo
ΔR = Ro = αΔTRo
ρo

SOLVE Plugging in values for platinum:

ΔR = (3.9 × 10 −3 D C −1 ) ⋅ (0.1D C) ⋅ (58.5 Ω) = 0.023 Ω

REFLECT This is a small change in resistance but is well within the range of measurable (though not with your
standard lab volt meters). One way to measure small changes in resistance is the Wheatstone bridge. This circuit
bridge is usually built into the device.
42. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We recall from Problem 36 that the fractional change in the resistivity is:

ρ − ρo
= α(T − To )
ρo

We are given the current at room temperature To and the current at another temperature T . The current is related
to the resistance by the relationship R = V /I . Noting the equivalence between the fractional change in resistance
and the fractional change in resistivity yields:

R1 − Ro ρ1 − ρo
V
− V 1
− 1
I o − I1
= = = =
I1 Io I1 Io

Ro ρo V
Io
1
Io
I1
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.15

Combining the above relationships:

I o − I1
α(T − To ) =
I1

Solving for T :

I o − I1
T = To +
α I1

SOLVE The temperature after the nichrome heats up is:

2.75A − 2.46 A
T = 20D C + = 308D C
(4.1 × 10 −4 DC −1 ) 2.46 A

REFLECT This temperature corresponds to roughly 570D F. This a reasonable temperature for a toaster wire.
43. ORGANIZE AND PLAN If two wires have the same mass and they are made of the same material, they must have
the same volume. The total volume of a cylinder is V = LA, where L is the length and A is the cross-sectional
area of the wire. The resistance of a cylindrical wire is:

L
R=ρ
A

In terms of the volume and length only, the resistance is:

L2
R=ρ
V

In words, in the case of fixed volume, the resistance is proportional to the square of the length.
SOLVE If wire A is twice as long as wire B the resistance of wire A is 4 times as large as the resistance of wire B:

RA
=4
RB

REFLECT Doubling the length increases the resistance by a factor of 2, but because the volume is also fixed,
doubling the length decreases the cross-sectional area by a factor of 1/2. These two effects conspire to give a total
factor of 4 increase when the wire is stretched out.
44. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Inside the copper wire the electric field has a constant value E . The potential difference in
the direction of a constant electric field is V = Ed. Solving for E yields:

E = V /d
G G
The electric field is defined by how it can produce a force on a charged particle as follows: F = qE. From
Newton’s second law the net force on an object is equal to the mass times the acceleration which yields the
acceleration in the direction of the field:

qE
a=
m

In terms of the given values of d and V .

qV
a=
md
17.16 Chapter 17

With a given constant accleration, the kinematic equation for position in terms of velocity and acceleration is:

v2
x=
2a
SOLVE Part (a):
The electric field is

1.50 V
E= = 0.60 V/m = 0.60 N/C = 0.60 kg ⋅ m/Cs2
2.50 m

Part (b):
The acceleration of an electron in the field is

(1.6 × 10 −19 C) ⋅ (1.50 kg ⋅ m 2 /(Cs2 ))

a= = 1.1 × 1011 m/s2
(9.1 × 10 −31 kg) ⋅ (2.50 m)

Part (c):
The distance of travel before the electron reaches typical drift speed of vdrift = 1 × 10 −3 m/s :

(1 × 10 −3 m/s)2
x= = 4.5 × 10 −18 m
2 ⋅ (1.1 × 1011 m/s2 )

REFLECT Since the distance it takes to accelerate to the drift velocity is a much shorter distance than the
separation between atoms in the metal, the actual velocity of the individual electrons is much larger than the drift
velocity. With this problem we establish that the electrons must participate in interactions that reduce the velocity
in the direction of the electric field.
45. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The current flowing in the circuit is I = V /R.
We observe that the total charge is current times the time. We are given the total charge Q, we derived the current
I , and we obtain the time as follows:

t = Q/I = QV /R

Since power is energy per unit time, the energy is power times the time. We derived the time above, and the power
provided by the battery is P = VI , yielding the energy provided during the time it took to transmit Q amount of
charge is:

E = P ⋅ t = V ⋅ I ⋅ t = VQ

SOLVE Part (a): The time it takes to move 1.0 C is

1500 Ω ⋅ 1.0 C
t= = 125 s
12.0 V

Part (b): The energy provided by the battery over 125 s is

E = 12.0 V ⋅ 1.0 C = 12 J

REFLECT This amount of energy is equivalent to the amount of energy required to raise a liter of water 1.22
meters near the surface of the Earth.
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.17

46. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The circuit effectively consists of the ideal voltage source in the battery Vo = 12.0 V, the
internal resistance of the battery r, and the load R = 50.0 Ω. The equivalent resistance in series with the ideal
battery is Req = r + R.
We are given the current drawn from the battery I . From Ohm’s law we note:

I ⋅ Req = Vo

Solving for r yields:

r = Vo /I − R
The potential difference measured across the actual battery is Va = Vo − Ir.
SOLVE Part (a): The batteries internal resistance is

r = 12.0 V/ 0.230 A − 50.0 Ω = 2.17 Ω

Part (b): The potential difference across the battery’s terminals is

Va = 12.0 V − 0.230 A ⋅ 2.17 Ω = 11.5 V

REFLECT Actual batteries have a terminal voltage that depends on the current being produced by the battery. If a
certain voltage is required from a battery, there is a maximum current that can be provided to keep the actual
voltage within required parameters.
47. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The actual voltage in terms of the zero current voltage of the battery Vo , the current I ,
and the internal resistance of the battery r yields:

Ir = Vo − Va

The current is also related to the ideal voltage and the equivalent resistance of the circuit:

Vo
I=
R+r

Combining the two equations to obtain r :

r Vo
= Vo − Va
R+r

Solving for r we find:

Vo − Va
r= R
Va

SOLVE The internal resistance is

18.0 V − 17.4 V
r= 130 Ω = 4.48 Ω
17.4 V

REFLECT We can check the answer by calculating the current given the effective resistance of 134.48 Ω and
finding the voltage across the derived internal resistance. The current is 0.1338 A. The voltage across the internal
resistance is 0.6 Ω. The checked result is consistant with given numbers.
17.18 Chapter 17

ORGANIZE AND PLAN The current being provided by the battery is I = R +o r where Vo is the zero current voltage
V
48.
of the battery, R is the load resistance, and r is the internal resistance of the battery. Since all elements are in
series, the current through each element is the same.
The actual potential difference across the battery is Va = Vo − Ir.
SOLVE Part (a): The current through the lightbulb is

1.51 V
I= = 0.153 A
8.55 Ω + 1.35 Ω

Part (b): The potential difference across the battery terminals under load:

Va = 1.51 V − (0.153 A) ⋅ (1.35 Ω) = 1.30 V

REFLECT The voltage across the battery is the same as the voltage across the load. We can check the answer by
using the voltage across the bulb and the resistance of the bulb to find the current through the bulb
( 1.30 V/8.55 Ω = 0.153 A). The checked answer is equal to the derived current.
49. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Current has the units of charge per unit time [ I ] = Qt . The units of current times time are
obtained simply [ I ] ⋅ [ t ] = Qt ⋅ t = Q. The standard SI units of current, charge, and time are amps, coulombs, and
seconds, respectively. The fundamental units of Amps are Coulombs per second.
Unit conversions are always achieved by successive multiplication by one (which does not change the actual value
of the quantity). We shall convert milliamp-hours to C in this manner.
Once the conversion between mA-h and C is obtained, we have another form of the number 1. We can use this to
convert the rating of the battery to coulombs.
The total energy provided by the battery derived in Problem 45 is E = VQ.
SOLVE Part (a):

3600 s 1A C/ s
1 mA ⋅ h = 1 mA ⋅ h ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 3.6 C
1 h 1000 mA A

Part (b): The amount of charge that can be supplied by a 1400 mA − h battery is

1400 mA h ⋅ 3.6C/ mA h = 5040 C

Part (c): The total energy per charge will be

E = 1.2 V ⋅ 5040 C = 6050 J

REFLECT This seems like a large amount of energy (roughly the energy it would take to lift a liter of water
600 m above the surface of the Earth). However, a popular phone uses 4–6 W of power under normal usage and
can provide around 2–3 hours of talk time. We conclude that kilojoules are required to provide us with our beloved
cell phones.
50. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The amount of energy (or work) required to “charge” the battery is the same amount of
energy that can be taken by the battery in powering a load. As we discovered in Problem 45, the energy used by a
battery to move Q units of charge is E = VQ. Consequently, the amount of energy required to charge a battery is
the voltage of the battery times the charge.
To find the average power ( P ) required to provide a certain amount of energy E in a time t , we recall that
E = Pt, equivalently, P = E /t. The time is given in units of hours, so if we want the answer in SI units (which we
do), we will need to convert hours to SI units of seconds.
SOLVE Part (a): The work required to charge the battery is

E = 3.2 × 105 C ⋅ 9 V = 29 × 105 J

 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.19

Part (b): The power required to charge the battery in 2.5 h = 9000 s is

29 × 10 5 J
P= = 3.2 × 10 2 W
9000 s

REFLECT This is a reasonable power requirement for a household circuit to handle.

We should discuss the language used to energize a battery. It is commonly said that we “charge” a battery.
While it does take the movement of charge to energize a battery, there is no more charge on a dead battery than a
brand-new one. Batteries in any state have zero net charge in the sense that they have the same numbers of protons
as they do electrons. When you “charge” a battery you move charge from the cathode to the anode but you do not
remove charge from the battery (this would take a lot more energy to do and would get increasingly difficult to
do).
51. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The current produced by the battery in terms of the load R and the internal resistance r is

emf
I=
r+R
If we are given two loads ( R1 and R2 ) with resulting currents ( I1 and I 2 ) we can identify the unknown emf and
internal resistance as follows.
Let

emf
I1 =
r + R1

and

emf
I2 =
r + R2

Combining these equations yields

I1 ⋅ (r + R1 ) = I 2 ⋅ (r + R2 )

Solving for r :

I 2 R2 − I1R1
r=
I1 − I 2

Once we have the internal resistance, we can use the current from any known load and identify the emf as follows:

emf = I1 ⋅ (r + R1 )

SOLVE Plugging in values: The internal resistance is

22.2 mA ⋅ 160 Ω − 15.5 mA ⋅ 230 Ω

r= = 1.94 Ω
15.5 mA − 22.2 mA

The emf of the source is

emf = 15.5 × 10 −3 mA ⋅ (1.94 Ω + 230 Ω) = 3.6 V

REFLECT The importance of the internal resistance is always dependant upon the magnitude of the load
resistance. For load resistances near the internal resistance, a unacceptably large fraction of the voltage drops
across the internal resistance, and therefore the terminal voltage across the battery is significantly diminished. For
this problem, only around 1% of the zero current voltage drops across the internal resistance; in other words, the
load “sees” a source with a voltage very close to what is specified by the printed battery voltage.
17.20 Chapter 17

52. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Resistors in series add, so the equivalent resistance of the series circuit is Req = R1 + R2 .
The current in this circuit is I = V /Req .
SOLVE Part (a): The equivalent resistance is Req = 34 Ω + 45 Ω = 78 Ω
Part (b): The current in this combination when hooked across an ideal battery with voltage V = 7.5 V is

7.5V
I= = 0.096 A
78 Ω
REFLECT A straightforward application of series resistors.
R1 ⋅R2
53. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Resistors in parallel produce the equivalent resistance Req = .
R1 + R2
The total current supplied by the battery is I = V /Req .
The current through resistor Ri is I i = Vi /Ri
SOLVE Part (a): The equivalent resistance is

250 Ω ⋅ 370 Ω
Req = = 150 Ω
250 Ω + 370 Ω
Part (b): The current supplied by the battery is I = 150
12 V
Ω
= 0.08 A
The current supplied to the 250 Ω resistor is I1 = 12 V
250 Ω
= 0.048 A
The current supplied to the 370 Ω resistor is I1 = 12 V
370 Ω
= 0.032 A
REFLECT The sum of the currents through each resistor in the parallel configuration should be the total current
supplied by the battery (as is the case here). We should also always check to make sure the equivalent resistance of
a parallel configuration is less than the smallest branch resistance composing the configuration. In this case the
smallest branch resistance is 250 Ω.
54. ORGANIZE AND PLAN With three identical resistors (each with resistance R ) there is only one resistance
possible using only one resistor. There are two resistances possible with two resistors: one for the series
configuration and one for the parallel configuration. If all three are used, three possible equivalent resistances exist:
one for the three resistors in series, one for the three resistances in parallel, and one for two resistors in parallel in
series with one (as shown in Figure P17.58).
In total, there are six possible unique resistances with three identical resistors at your disposal. The values of the
equivalent resistances are listed in order discussed above:

R R 3R
Req = ( R, 2 R, , 3 R, , )
2 3 2
SOLVE With R = 100 Ω the possible resistances are:

Req = (100 Ω, 200 Ω, 50 Ω, 300 Ω, 33 Ω,150 Ω)

REFLECT What is interesting to note here may seem counterintuitive and must therefore be internalized:
Including more resistors into a circuit may either increase the total load or decrease it.
55. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The equivalent resistance of multiple resistors in series is simply the sum of all the
resistances in series.

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4

(Let R1 = 12 Ω, R2 = 15 Ω, R3 = 20 Ω and R4 = 35 Ω)
Since the resistors are in series (and there is no depletion or build-up of charge at any point in the series
configuration), they all have the same current traveling through them. This current is the current supplied by the
battery, which is

I = V /Req
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.21

The potential across each individual resistor is simply the current through the resistor times the resistance.

Ri
Vi = IRi = V
Req

SOLVE Part (a): The equivalent resistance is Req = 12 Ω + 15 Ω + 20 Ω + 35 Ω = 82 Ω.

Part (b): Given a source voltage of 6.0 V the potential drop across each resistor is:

12 Ω
V1 = 6.0 V = 0.88 V
82 Ω

15 Ω
V2 = 6.0 V = 1. 1 V
82 Ω

20 Ω
V3 = 6.0 V = 1.46 V
82 Ω

35 Ω
V4 = 6.0 V = 2.56 V
82 Ω
The sum of the voltages is:

0.88 V + 1.1 V + 1.46 V + 2.56 V = 6.0 V

REFLECT Adding the voltages to check for consistency with Kirchhoff’s loop rule is a universally applicable
method for making sure you haven’t made any disastrous errors in your calculation. We note that in series
configuration, larger resistances have larger potential drops across them.
56. ORGANIZE AND PLAN If we take the four resistors in the previous problem and align them in parallel, the
equivalent resistance is

−1
⎛ 1 1 1 1 ⎞
Req = ⎜⎜ + + + ⎟⎟
⎝ R1 R2 R3 R4 ⎠
(Again, let R1 = 12 Ω, R2 = 15 Ω, R3 = 20 Ω and R4 = 35 Ω.)
As in Problem 55, the current being drawn from the battery is I = V /Req .
Since the resistors are in parallel, the voltage across each is the voltage across the battery. Consequently, the
current through resistor Ri is I i = V /Ri .
SOLVE Part (a): The equivalent resistance is

−1
⎛ 1 1 1 1 ⎞
Req = ⎜ + + + ⎟ = 4.38 Ω
⎝ 12 Ω 15 Ω 20 Ω 35 Ω ⎠

The total current supplied by the battery is I b = 6 V/ 4.38 Ω = 1.37 A

Part (b): Given a source voltage of 6.0 V, the current through each resistor is:

I1 = 6.0 V/12 Ω = 0.5 A

I 2 = 6.0 V/15 Ω = 0.4 A

I 3 = 6.0 V/ 20 Ω = 0.3 A

I 4 = 6.0 V/ 35 Ω = 0.17 A
17.22 Chapter 17

The sum of the currents through each resistor is

0.5 A + 0.4 A + 0.4 A + 0.17 A = 1.37 A = I b

REFLECT Adding the currents at a junction to make sure what goes in is the same as what comes out (i.e.,
Kirchhoff’s junction rule) is another universally applicable method for checking your work.
57. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We have a box of equivalent resistances, and we need to have various resistances in our
circuit. In general, if our resistors have a resistance Ro and we require a resistance R1, we can think of this as
adding blocks of various sizes. If the fundamental blocks are small, we can make any size block we want. Take a
dollar amount, for example: $3.27. If you have 327 pennies, you have $3.27. Adding in resistor circuits is
achieved by putting resistors in series. We are done if we only need to have equivalent resistances that have values
of NRo , like 1Ro , 2 Ro , etc., but life is really boring that way. What if we need a resistance of 1.5 Ro ?
We have seen in this chapter a way to get smaller equivalent resistances by combining more resistors in a circuit if
we do it in just the right way. Adding resistors in parallel reduces the equivalent resistance. Suppose we have 2
resistors in parallel (which we shall name 2 p Ro ). The equivalent resistance of the 2 p Ro configuration is
2p
Req = Ro / 2. In general, the equivalent resistance of the Np Ro configuration is Np Req = Ro /N . We now have all the
tools we need to make any resistance by simply adding the parallel configurations as a unit in series
with each other.
There is a brute force way to achieve any unit value of resistance, which is equivalent to carrying around only
pennies to pay for things. Suppose you only have 10 Ω resistors. You can make a 1 Ω resistor by combining 10
resistors in parallel (since 10 p Req = Ro /10 = 1 Ω ). So if you want to make a 11 Ω resistor, you add 11 of your 1 Ω
resistors in series (which are each 10 parallel 10 Ω resistors). This would take 110 10 Ω resistors to make your
desired resistor. It works, but it’s not very efficient.
Instead of “adding pennies,” you would be smarter. You would add one of your 10 Ω resistors in series with one
of your 1 Ω clusters. We will write this as

10 p
Req + 1 p Req

More efficiently, you would notice that you don’t only have “pennies” and “dollars,” you have larger
denominations. We could make a 5 Ω resistor by combining two 10 Ω resistors in parallel so 2 p Req = Ro / 2 = 5 Ω.
We could do this forever, but for this problem we will just make one more denomination, 5 p Req = Ro / 5 = 2 Ω. So
we have ones, twos, fives, and tens. You can make any integer number by adding these numbers together.
SOLVE
Part (a): A 2 Ω resistor is achieved with the 2 p Req configuration.
Part (b): A 35 Ω = 10 Ω + 10 Ω + 10 Ω + 5 Ω resistor is achieved with the following configuration:

1p
Req + 1 p Req + 1 p Req + 2 p Req

Part (c): A 7 Ω = 5 Ω + 2 Ω resistor is achieved with the following configuration:

2p
Req + 5 p Req

Part (d): A 19 Ω = 10 Ω + 5 Ω + 2 Ω + 2 Ω resistor is achieved with the following configuration:

1p
Req + 2 p Req + 5 p Req + 5 p Req

REFLECT Just like with making change for money, there are a number of ways to achieve any desired resistance.
The most desired solution, however, is the one that uses the least number of resistors.
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.23

58. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The circuit in Figure P17.58 shows a battery with voltage Vo connected to the following
load: a resistor R1 in series with the parallel combination of resistors R2 and R3 .
To find the current in each resistor, we shall first find the current I1 being produced by the battery. This current
will be the same as the current flowing through resistor R1, since all the current flowing through the battery flows
through R1. Obtaining the equivalent resistance of the entire circuit R123 will yield I1 = Vo /R123 .
The value of R123 = R1 + R23 or

R2 ⋅ R3
R123 = R1 +
R2 + R3

To find the current through the other resistors in parallel with each other, we will first find the potential drop across
them V23 . The current through R2 will be I 2 = V23 /R2 and the current through R3 will be I 3 = V23 /R2 .
The value of V23 is obtained by considering the voltage gain by the battery minus the potential drop across R1 :

V23 = Vo − I1R1

Preliminary calculations:
The equivalent resistance is:

250 Ω ⋅ 1000 Ω
R123 = 150 Ω + = 350 Ω
250 Ω + 1000 Ω
The current provided by the battery is:

9. 0 V
I1 = Vo /R123 = = 0.026 A
350 Ω

The voltage drop across the parallel resistors is:

V23 = Vo − I1R1 = 9.0 V − 0.026 A ⋅ 150 Ω = 5.14 V

SOLVE Resistor one has the same current flowing through it as the battery:

I1 = 0.26 A

I 2 = 5.14 V/ 250 Ω = 0.021

I 3 = 5.14 V/1000 Ω = 0.0051 A

REFLECT We check our answers by using Kirchhoff’s junction rule I1 = I 2 + I 3 . Indeed, the currents obtained are
consistent with the junction rule.
59. ORGANIZE AND PLAN If all resistors in the diagram are identical (each with resistance R) the equivalent
resistance is R123 = 32R .
The equivalent resistance is related to the voltage of the battery and the current by

R123 = V /I

Combining the above relationships yields:

R = 2V / 3I

SOLVE The value of each resistance is

2 ⋅ 12 V
R= = 40 Ω
3 ⋅ 0.200 A
17.24 Chapter 17

REFLECT We can check to make sure this answer is consistent by finding the current, given the resistance and
voltage. The equivalent resistance of the circuit is 60 Ω. 12 V/ 60 Ω = 200 mA! Rejoice.
60. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The expression relating the current, voltage, and equivalent resistance for Problem 58 is

R123 = Vo /I1

The equivalent resistance for this network in terms of the resistances is

R2 ⋅ R3
R123 = R1 +
R2 + R3

This produces the following equation:

R2 ⋅ R3
R1 + = Vo /I1
R2 + R3

Solving for R3 :

− R1R2
R2 Vo

R3 = I

R2 + R1 − Io
V

SOLVE Plugging in values for the expression for R3 :

− 200 Ω ⋅ 300 Ω
300 Ω⋅10.0 V
R3 = 0.025 A
= 600 Ω
300 Ω + 200 Ω − 010.025
.0 V
A

REFLECT We can check this result by plugging back in to produce given values. The equivalent resistance is
400 Ω, yielding a current of 0.25 A (the value we were given in the problem).
61. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The equivalent resistance if all resistors are equal is R123 = 32R . The emf of the battery is
related to the current and the equivalent resistance as follows: V = IReq ; in terms of the value of an individual
resistor:

3R
V =I
2
SOLVE The emf required to supply 1.0 mA of current is

3 ⋅ 50000 Ω
V = (0.001 A) ⋅ = 75 V
2

REFLECT As before we use the derived result to obtain given results as a check for errors. The equivalent
resistance is 75 k Ω. The current provided by a 75 V battery is 75 V/ 75 kΩ = 1 mA (check).
62. ORGANIZE AND PLAN If we know the voltage across a resistor ( R1 ), we know the current since I = V1/R1. The
current through the 1.5 MΩ resistor is the same as the current through the 2.5 M Ω resistor, since they are in
series.
With the current in hand, we can calculate the voltage of the battery:

V1 Req
Vo = IReq =
R1

where Req = 1.5 MΩ + 2.5 MΩ = 4 MΩ

 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.25

SOLVE Part (a): The emf of the battery is

6 V ⋅ 4 MΩ
Vo = = 16 V
1.5 MΩ
Part (b): The current in the circuit is

I = 6 V/1.5 MΩ = 0.004 A

REFLECT The voltage across the second resistor should be 10 V. Using the derived result, the voltage across the
2.5 MV resistor is V2 = 2.5 MV ⋅ 4 mA = 10 V. Self-consistency checks should always be performed when
possible; sometimes it’s all you have to check your answer. In real life, the solution is never in the back of the
book.
63. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Resistors in parallel share a common voltage, so if we find the voltage across one, we have
the voltage across each of them (which is the same as the battery voltage in this simple circuit). The voltage across
a resistor is V = IR. We are given the current and the resistance of the 20 kΩ resistor. Finding the voltage is a
one-step calculation.
Once we have the voltage across each resister, the current is just I i = V /Ri .
SOLVE Part (a): The battery voltage is

V = (0.125 × 10 −3 A) ⋅ (20 × 103 Ω) = 2.5 V

Part (b): The current in the 30 × 103 Ω resistor is

2. 5 V
I2 = = 0.0833 mA
30 × 103 Ω

The current in the 75 × 103 Ω resistor is

2.5 V
I2 = = 0.0333 mA
75 × 103 Ω
REFLECT We can use the junction rule to test the consistency of our results. The equivalent resistance of the
circuit is 10.3 kΩ, which leads to a total current being provided by the battery of 0.242 mA. The sum of the
currents through each branch in the parallel configuration should be equal to the total current. Checking...

0.125 mA + 0.0833 mA + 0.0333 mA = 0.242 mA

Good!
64. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The battery emf Vo is sum of the voltages across the four resistors in the series
configuration. Since the resistors are identical and they are in series (i.e., have the same current going through
them), the sum of the voltages is just four times the voltage measured across one of the four resistors:

Vo = 4V1
The resistance is simply determined if you know the voltage across the resistor and the current through the resistor
R = V1/I .
SOLVE The value of each resistor is R = 2.2 V/ 0.26 A = 8.46 Ω.
The battery emf is Vo = 4 ⋅ 2.2 V = 8.8 V.
REFLECT Circuit problems are simple in principle as long as you are principled enough to remember and trust
the principles. Kirchhoff’s laws are easy, but you must not confuse simplicity with lack of importance. Only when
you learn how principles constrain the set of possible solutions, will the solutions flow from your pencil.
17.26 Chapter 17

65. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The power provided by a battery is P = VI . The current that will flow through this circuit
is I = V /R, yielding a power in terms of V and R:

V2
P=
R

Power is the rate of energy flow. To determine the amount of energy that is supplied by the battery over an amount
of time t , we simply multiply the power by the time:

tV 2
E = P⋅t =
R

SOLVE The energy supplied by the battery in 60 s:

60 s ⋅ (24.0 V)2
E= = 230 J
150 Ω

REFLECT Don’t forget to put everything in terms of SI units!

66. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The power used by a load is P = V2
R
. Solving for R we find:

V2
R=
P

(120 V)2
SOLVE The resistance of the lit bulb is R = = 144 Ω.
100 W
REFLECT Compare this value to the resistance of an unlit bulb (you will find a significant difference). Note that
the units of volts are equivalent to Ω A and watts are equivalent to Ω A 2 .
67. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The power used by a load is P = I 2 R. If we have a known resistor with a max power
rating, we can determine the max current as follows:

Pmax
I max =
R
SOLVE Max current for a 280 Ω resistor with 0.5 W power rating is

0. 5 W
I max = = 0.042 A
280 Ω

REFLECT If it cannot dissipate this energy, then the energy builds up inside the resistor. That means that the
resistor will get hot, break down, and fail.
68. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The power used by a load is P = V2
R
. For known power and resistance we can find the
voltage:

V = P⋅R
With the voltage and the resistance, the current is simply I = V /R.
SOLVE Part (a): The battery voltage is V = 100 W ⋅ 20 Ω = 44.7 V.
Part (b): The resistor current is I = 44.7 V/ 20 Ω = 2.24 A.
REFLECT We can check by applying alternate (yet equivalent) expression for power dissipated by resistor:
P = I 2 R = (2.24 A)2 20 Ω = 100 W. Good.
69. ORGANIZE AND PLAN With power and voltage known, the current is I = P /V .
The energy consumed is the power times the time. We shall use the units of kW–hr (because this is what the
electric company uses): E = P ⋅ t
The total monthly cost of blow-drying your hair is obtained by
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.27

Cost/month = kW − hr/day ⋅ day/month ⋅ cost/kW − hr

SOLVE Part (a): Current in the hair dryer is I = 1750 W/120 V = 14.6 A
Part (b): The energy consumed in 61 hr is E = 1.75 kW ⋅ 61 hr = 0.292 kW − hr
Part (c): Total monthly cost of drying your hair each day:

0.292 kW hr/day ⋅ (30 day/1 month) ⋅ (15 ¢/kW hr)=131 ¢/month

REFLECT This is roughly 1% of a typical electric bill. Is it worth $1.30 to you? There are more significant ways
to save energy than cutting out your morning blow-drying ritual (if you have one). Though, every little bit helps.
70. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The resistance of a wire at room temperature is Ro = ρo 4L
πD2
.
The power dissipation is Po = V 2 /Ro .
If the wire is immersed in liquid nitrogen the resistivity of the material will diminish approximately according to

ρ = ρo (1 + α(T − To ))

This will produce a resistance of R = Ro (1 + α(T − To )) and a power of

Po
P=
1 + α(T − To )

Preliminary calculations:
For copper the temperature coefficient is α = 3.9 × 10 −3D C −1
For a temperature change from room temperature 293 K to 77 K the change in temperature is 216D C (since the
Celsius degree unit change is the same as the Kelvin degree unit change). So, for this temperature change

1 + α(T − To ) = 0.16

SOLVE At Room Temp:

Part (a): The resistance of the copper wire is

4 ⋅ 15 m
Ro = 1.69 × 10 −8 Ωm ⋅ = 32 Ω
π(1.0 × 10 −4 m)2

Part (b): The power dissipation when held at a potential difference of 12 V at the ends:

Po = (12 V)2 / 32 Ω = 4.5 W

At liquid nitrogen temperatures:

Part (a): The resistance of the cold copper wire is

R = 32 Ω ⋅ 0.16 = 5.2 Ω
Part (b): The power dissipation when held at a potential difference of 12 V at the ends:

4.5 W
P= = 28 W
0.16

REFLECT As expected, the lower temperature decreases the resistance (less thermal agitation of the atoms in the
conducting materials effectively decreases the size of the atoms, giving the conduction more room to roam). What
is perhaps counterintuitive is that the power goes up. From the basic relations we see that this is due to the fact that
the voltage was fixed, which produced an increase in current due to decreased resistance.
71. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The current drawn through a branch containing a 120 V, 200 W floodlight is
17.28 Chapter 17

I o = P /V = 200 W/120 V

Adding more floodlights in parallel just adds I o for each light.

The number of lights that can be supported on one circuit with an I max is

N = I max /I o

SOLVE The 20 A circuit breaker can support

120 V
20 A = 12
200 W

REFLECT This is cutting it a little close; we know that the current drawn through the bulb is more when it is
turned on than after it heats up, so you might be tempted to only wire 11 on this circuit. However, circuitry can be
included to slowly ramp up the current so the cold lamps do not trip the breaker. This may be one of the reasons
the lights in gyms typically take a while to “warm-up.”
72. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Given the power and the voltage the current is I = P /V .
With the current in hand and the voltage, we use Ohm’s law to find the resistance of the filament: R = V /I .
If the lit filament has resistance R at hot temperature T we find the cool resistance Ro from the relationship:

R = Ro (1 + α(T − To ))

Solving for Ro yields:

R
Ro =
(1 + α(T − To ))

Preliminary considerations:
Room temperature in Kelvin is 293. The value of ΔT = T − To where T = 1850 K is ΔT = 1557D C since a change
in 1 degree C is equal to a change of 1 K.
The temperature coefficient for tungsten is α = 3.9 × 10 −3D C −1
SOLVE Part (a): The filament current is I = 100 W = 0.833 A
120 V
Part (b): The filament’s resistance when lit is R = 120 V/ 0.833 A = 144 Ω
Part (c): The room temperature resistance of the filament is

144 Ω
Ro = = 20 Ω
(1 + (3.9 × 10 −3D C −1 ) ⋅ (1557D C))
REFLECT Recalling the previous problem, let us see what the current would be when the cold bulb was just
turned on. The initial surge would be 6 A. This is an important consideration in applications where multiple lights
are turned on simultaneously and circuit breakers are involved.
73. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given the current and voltage of a space heater. The rate at which it supplies
energy to the environment is P = VI .
The amount of heat energy Q required to increase the temperature by an amount of ΔT is

Q = mcΔT

where m is the mass of the material (in this case the air in the room) and c is the specific heat capacity. The mass
density of air at sea level is roughly ρa = 1.2 kg/m 3 so the mass of the air in the room is Vol ⋅ ρa where Vol is the
volume of the room.
In 1 min the amount of energy pumped into the room by the heater is E = P ⋅ 60 s. If all that energy is heat energy
the change in temperature will be
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.29

P ⋅ 60
ΔT =
m⋅c
Preliminary calculations
The mass of air in the room is

m = Vol ⋅ ρa = 3.0 m ⋅ 3.0 m ⋅ 2.5 m ⋅ 1.2 kg/m 3 = 27 kg

SOLVE Part (a): The rate of heat supply is P = 120 V ⋅ 7.25 A = 870 W
Part (b): The change in temperature in 1 min is

870 W ⋅ 60 s
ΔT = = 1.9 K
27 kg ⋅ 1000 J/(kg ⋅ K)

REFLECT This rate of temperature increase roughly 2 K/min would mean that it would take about 10 minutes to
heat a room from freezing to a comfortable temperature around 20D C. There are a large number of assumptions in
this calculation. Most importantly, depending on the quality of your accommodations, is the flow of heat out of the
room. Heat flowing out of the room would obviously decrease the temperature increase per minute.
74. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The time constant of an RC circuit is τ = RC. If we require a specific time constant for a
known resistor, we can solve for the required capacitor as follows, C = τ/R
SOLVE The required capacitor is

25 × 10 −3 s
C= = 55.6 × 10 −9 F = 55.6 nF
450 × 103 Ω

REFLECT A simple exercise using the RC time constant. The unit of 1 Farad is a very large amount of
capacitance. Nano-Farads are not uncommon.
75. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The charge on a charging (as opposed to discharging) capacitor as a function of time is
given as

q(t ) = qmax (1 − e− t /RC )

To answer this question we need to determine the maximum charge on the capacitor. After a long time the current
in the circuit will be negligible (resulting in zero voltage across the resistor), and the voltage across the capacitor
will approach the voltage of the battery. Consequently,

qmax = C ⋅ Vbat = (300 × 10 −9 F) ⋅ (6.0 V) = 1.8 × 10 −6 C

To get an idea of what to expect from this problem, the time constant for charging is

τ = RC = (175 × 106 Ω) ⋅ (300 × 10 −12 F) = 0.0525 s = 52.5 ms

So, roughly, for times much less than τ = 50 ms, we expect very little charge to have accumulated on the
capacitor. For integer multiples of τ we expect significant fractions of the maximum charge to exist on the
capacitor.
SOLVE Part (a): The charge on the capacitor at time t = 1.0 ms:

q(t ) = (1.8 × 10 −6 C ) ⋅ (1 − e−1.0 ms/ 52.5 ms ) = 0.034 × 10 −6 C

17.30 Chapter 17

Part (b): The charge on the capacitor at time t = 10.0 ms:

q(t ) = (1.8 × 10 −6 C ) ⋅ (1 − e−10.0 ms/ 52.5 ms ) = 0.31 × 10 −6 C

Part (c): The charge on the capacitor at time t = 100.0 ms:

q(t ) = (1.8 × 10 −6 C ) ⋅ (1 − e−100 ms/ 52.5 ms ) = 1.5 × 10 −6 C

REFLECT As expected, for times that are a fraction of the RC time constant the charge is a small fraction of the
maximum charge. At around 2 time constants, the charge has reached about 83% of the maximum charge. Of
course, 52 ms does not seem like a lot of time on human timescales, but it is the timescale of this circuit. One
second for this circuit is about 20 time constants... an effective eternity for this circuit.
76. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The charge on a charging capacitor as a function of time is

q(t ) = qmax (1 − e− t /RC )

The charge is 99% of max at time t ′. This yields the expression q(t ′) = 0.99 ⋅ qmax = qmax (1 − e − t ′/τ ).
Solving for t ′ :

t ′ = −τ ln 0.01
SOLVE The number of time constants it takes to reach 99% is − ln 0.01 = 4.6.
REFLECT This underscores the effectiveness of the idea of the time constant. After 4 time constants everything
has settled down and is static again in a DC circuit.
77. ORGANIZE AND PLAN As in the previous problem, the charge on a charging capacitor as a function of time is

q(t ) = qmax (1 − e− t /RC )

The charge is 50% of max at time t ′. This yields the expression

qmax
q(t ′) = = qmax (1 − e − t ′/τ )
2
Solving for t ′ :

t ′ = −τ ln1/ 2 = τ ln 2
Q2
The energy stored in a capacitor is E = 2C
. The energy as a function of time is

E (t ) = Emax (1 − e − t /RC )2

The energy is half the max stored energy when

1
= (1 − e − tE / 2 /RC )2
2
Solving for t E / 2 :

t E / 2 = −τ ln(1 − 1/ 2 )
SOLVE Part (a): The number of time constants it takes to charge to half of maximum is

ln 2 = 0.69 time constants.

 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.31

Part (b): The number of time constants it takes to reach half the maximum stored energy is

− ln(1 − 1/ 2 ) = 1.22 time constants.

REFLECT Because of the dependence of the energy on the square of the charge, it takes longer to reach the half
stored energy point than it does to reach the half-charge point. Still, most of the action occurs on the broad scale set
by the time constant. In other words, if the time constant is milliseconds, the time scale of both charge and energy
is milliseconds. This applies to both charging and discharging of a capacitor.
78. ORGANIZE AND PLAN As in Problem 75, the charge on a charging capacitor as a function of time is given as

q(t ) = qmax (1 − e− t /RC )

After a long time the current in the circuit will be negligible (resulting in zero voltage across the resistor), and the
voltage across the capacitor will approach the voltage of the battery. Consequently,

qmax = C ⋅ Vbat

The charge is 90% of max at time t ′. This yields the expression q(t ′) = 0.90 ⋅ qmax = qmax (1 − e− t ′/τ )
Solving for t ′ :

t ′ = −τ ln(0.1) = − RC ln(0.1)

SOLVE Part (a): The maximum charge on the capacitor is

qmax = (25 × 10 −9 F) ⋅ (24.0 V) = 600 × 10 −9 C

Part (b): The time it takes to reach 90% of the maximum charge is

t ′ = −(1.45 × 106 Ω) ⋅ (25 × 10 −9 F) ⋅ ln(0.1) = 0.083 s

REFLECT It takes approximately 2.3 time constants to reach 90% of the maximum charge. This result is
consistent with previous problems in this section.
79. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The charge on a charging capacitor as a function of time is given as

q(t ) = qmax (1 − e− t /RC )

The maximum charge on the capacitor is

qmax = C ⋅ Vbat

The voltage across the capacitor as a function of time is VC (t ) = q(t )/C. Kirchhoff’s loop law reminds us that the
voltage across the resistor is constrained to be VR = Vbat − VC . This is true at all times. If we know the voltage
across the resistor and the resistance we know the current:

Vbat − VC (t )
I (t ) = VR (t )/R =
R

SOLVE Part (a): At t = 3.0 s the charge on the capacitor is:

q(3 s) = (550 × 10 −6 F) ⋅ (12 V) ⋅ (1 − e−3 s/(550×10−6 F ⋅12×103 Ω ) )

= (550 × 10 −6 F) ⋅ (12 V) ⋅ (0.365)

q(3 s) = 0.0024 C
17.32 Chapter 17

The voltage across the capacitor at t = 3 s is VC = q(3 s)/ (550 × 10 −6 F) = 4.38 V.

Part (b): The current in the resistor at t = 3 s is

12 V − 4.38 V
I (t ) = = 0.00063 A = 0.63 mA
12 × 103 Ω
REFLECT At t = 0 the current in the circuit is at its maximum value of

I m = 12 V/12 kΩ = 1 mA.

As the time increases, the current eventually goes to zero. A current of 0.66 mA is reasonable considering 3 s is
about 1/2 of a time constant.
80. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The equation for the charge as a function of time of a discharging capacitor is

q(t ) = qo e− t /τ

If we know the capacitance, the initial charge, and the charge at time t = 2.0 s, we can find the time constant.
Solving for τ we find:

−t
τ=
ln(q(t )/qo )

SOLVE The time constant is

−2.0 s
τ= = 7.0 s
ln(0.21 mC/ 0.28 mC)

REFLECT We find that at 2 s, the charge has decreased by only 25%. This is consistent with the fact that 2 s is
about 30% of the time constant.
81. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The charge on a charging capacitor as a function of time is given as

q(t ) = qmax (1 − e− t /RC )

The maximum charge on the capacitor is

qmax = C ⋅ Vbat = 210 × 10 −6 F ⋅ 2.4 × 103 V = 0.50 C

The time constant τ = RC = (210 × 10 −6 F) ⋅ (31 × 103 Ω) = 6.5 s.

The fraction of the total charge at a time t ′ is simply (1 − e − t /RC ).
SOLVE Part (a): The charge after 20 s is q(20 s) = 0.50 C(1 − e−20 s/6.5 s ) = 0.48 C.
Part (b): The fraction of the total charge is (1 − e −20 s/6.5 s ) = 0.95 or 95%
Part (c): Another 20 seconds would be a total of 8 time constants from zero charge. This is effectively an infinite
time for this circuit. Therefore, the remaining 5% will be placed on the capacitor. This amounts to 0.02 C
additional charge.
REFLECT One use of capacitors is that they can push a lot of current in a short amount of time (high current in
batteries causes a large voltage drop across the internal resistance). For this defibrillator, 20 s is all you have to
wait before discharges... CLEAR!
82. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The line carries 250 A and has a resistance of 0.76 Ω. The power lost in transmission of
the current is P = I 2 R. To find the total energy lost over the course of a year we simply multiply the power by the
time. We must be careful to use the proper units. Since we will ultimately be using kWh, we will find the number
of hours in a year.
Total energy used per year is E = P ⋅ t = I 2 R ⋅ 24 hr/day ⋅ 365 day/yr.
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.33

If the cost of energy is 11 ¢/kWh then the total cost per year is the energy units per year times the cost per energy
unit.
SOLVE Part (a): The total energy used per year is

E = P ⋅ t = (250 A)2 ⋅ (0.76 Ω) ⋅ 24 hr/day ⋅ 365 day/yr = 4.16 × 105 kWh

Part (b): The cost of this energy is

11 ¢/kWh ⋅ 4.16 × 105 kWh/yr = 4.6 × 106 ¢/yr

or $46,000 per year.
REFLECT The cost of cooling and of the materials, however, is prohibitive (this is why we are not surrounded by
superconductors). The search is constantly on for materials that are superconducting at higher temperatures.
A significant fraction of theoretical physicists are chasing this issue as you read this.
83. ORGANIZE AND PLAN If the resistor and capacitor are connected in parallel across the power supply they will
share the same voltage at all times. Assuming the internal resistance to the power supply is negligible and the
charge on the capacitor is zero before it is hooked up to the supply, the voltage across them both is the power
supply voltage the instant they are hooked up. Consequently, both the charge on the capacitor and the current
through the resistor will be independent of time.
The charge on the capacitor is Q = CV and the current through the resistor is I = V /R.
SOLVE Part (a and b): The charge on the capacitor at 1 s and 10 s is

Q = (4.4 × 10 −3 F) ⋅ (15 V) = 0.066 C

The current through the resistor at 1 s and 10 s is I = 15 V/ (2.5 kΩ) = 6 mA.

REFLECT The network is as crucial, if not more so, than the value of the elements in the circuit. In this network
there is an instantaneous current in the capacitor branch, followed by nothing because the capacitor is fully
charged. This was a “trick” question but, you have probably noticed, many question in life are trick questions... get
used to them!
84. ORGANIZE AND PLAN If we combine two 100 Ω, 1/2 W resistors in series, they become a 200 Ω resistor with
the capability to dissipate 1 W of power. If we take two similar branches each with a resistance of 200 Ω, and
each with the capability of dissipating 1 W of power, and place them in a parallel configuration, the resulting
resistance will be 100 Ω and the power rating of the circuit will be 4 x W2 = 2 W.
SOLVE See figure below for circuit diagram.

100 V 100 V

100 V 100 V

REFLECT Each resistor in this circuit would have half the current than would a single 100 Ω resistor. Since
power is proportional to the current squared, the power dissipated by each would decrease by a factor of 1/4. So if
each was operating at capacity (i.e., each at 1/2 W) then the circuit would be dissipating 2 W of energy.
85. ORGANIZE AND PLAN There are four different possible network topologies possible with three resistors. All
parallel, all series, two in parallel in series with the third and two in series in parallel with the third (see figure
below). For the all parallel and all series one there is only one possible resistance. Since one of the given
resistances is larger than the target resistance, the series configuration is not possible. Since one of the given
resistances is smaller than the target resistance, the parallel configuration is not possible.
17.34 Chapter 17

1 2

3 4

Four possible topologies for 3-resistor network

One can calculate the equivalent resistance of all possible resistor locations on each of the two remaining
topologies (there are 6, 3 per each).
The first topology that we will address is two parallel resistors in series with the third (denoted ( Ri & R j ) + Rk ).
There are three ways to do this.

( R1 & R2 ) + R3

( R2 & R3 ) + R1

( R3 & R1 ) + R2
We will let R1 = 1.50 kΩ, R2 = 3.30 kΩ, and R3 = 4.70 kΩ
The equivalent resistances of these configurations are:

R1 ⋅ R2
( R1 & R2 ) + R3 → + R3 = 5.72 kΩ
R1 + R2

R2 ⋅ R3
( R2 & R3 ) + R1 → + R1 = 3.44 kΩ
R2 + R3

R3 ⋅ R1
( R3 & R1 ) + R2 → + R2 = 4.44 kΩ
R3 + R1

The second topology that we will address is two resistors in series, in parallel with the third (denoted
Ri & ( R j + Rk )). There are three ways to do this.

R1 & ( R2 + R3 )

R2 & ( R3 + R1 )

R3 & ( R1 + R2 )
We will let R1 = 1.50 kΩ, R2 = 3.30 kΩ, and R3 = 4.70 kΩ
The equivalent resistances of these configurations are:

R1 ⋅ ( R2 + R3 )
R1 & ( R2 + R3 ) → = 1.26 kΩ
R1 + ( R2 + R3 )

R2 ⋅ ( R3 + R1 )
R2 & ( R3 + R1 ) → = 2.15 kΩ
R2 + ( R3 + R1 )

R3 ⋅ ( R1 + R2 )
R3 & ( R1 + R2 ) → = 2.37 kΩ
R3 + ( R1 + R2 )
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.35

SOLVE We can place two parallel resistors 3.30 kΩ and 4.70 kΩ in series with the 1.50 kΩ resistor to make a
3.44 Ω resistor.
REFLECT We have shown all the possible outcomes for illustration. We could have stopped on our second try
(and would have if we were students solving this problem).
86. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We require a battery with voltage V to provide Q amount of charge, but we are reading
specifications in the amount of energy our battery can provide. The energy is provided by pushing a charge Q
over a potential difference V . If we are given a total energy that can be provided, we can determine whether or not
this will correspond to the required amount of charge by comparing the required energy to push an amount of
charge over a potential difference E = QV . If the amount of energy that can be provided by the battery is greater
than QV we should purchase the battery.
Preliminary considerations:
The units of AV are equal to W.
SOLVE The amount of energy required in our application is

(5.0 A ⋅ h) ⋅ (6 V) = 30 W ⋅ h

but the rated battery can provide 50 W ⋅ h.

Consequently, we should feel confident in purchasing the battery.
REFLECT The skills required to answer this question are similar to the skills required for dimensional analysis.
These skills will probably be the most useful technical skills you will carry into your future.
87. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The relationship between the load ( R ), the internal resistance ( r ), the battery voltage
(V ), and the current ( I ) is

I ⋅ (R + r) = V

We are given I1 = 26 mA and R1 = 50 Ω which obeys the relationship

I1 ⋅ ( R1 + r ) = V

and I 2 = 43 mA and R2 = 22 Ω which obeys

I 2 ⋅ ( R2 + r ) = V

Since the battery voltages are the same in each case, we can equate the two left-hand sides of the equations:

I1 ⋅ ( R1 + r ) = I 2 ⋅ ( R2 + r )

Solving for r yields:

I1R1 − I 2 R2
r=
I 2 − I1

With r in hand we obtain the battery voltage I1 ⋅ ( R1 + r ) = V

SOLVE The internal resistance is

26 mA ⋅ 50 Ω − 43 mA ⋅ 22 Ω
r= = 21 Ω
43 mA − 26 mA

The battery voltage is

V = 26 mA ⋅ (50 Ω + 21 Ω) = 1.85 V
17.36 Chapter 17

REFLECT We can check this answer by plugging the internal resistance into the circuit with the smaller resistor

V = 43 mA ⋅ (22 Ω + 21 Ω) = 1.85 V

The answer is consistent with all parts of our problem. It does, however, seem like this is a rather large internal
resistance compared to the loads we were hooking it up to. Clearly, this battery was meant to power loads with a
larger resistance relative to the internal resistance.
88. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The charge on a charging capacitor as a function of time is given as

q(t ) = qmax (1 − e− t /RC )

The quantity (1 − e − t /RC ) is the fraction of full charge as a function of time. If we require a fraction x at a specified
time t ′, we derive the needed value of RC from the following equations

x = (1 − e− t /RC )

Solving for RC yields:

−t ′
RC =
ln(1 − x )
If we are given the capacitance C then

−t ′
R=
C ln(1 − x )
SOLVE The required resistance to bring 20 μ F capacitor from 0 to 45% of full charge in 140 ms is

−0.140 s
R= = 11.7 kΩ
(20 × 10 F) ⋅ ln(1 − 0.45)
−6

REFLECT The time constant in this circuit is 0.234 ms, so it makes sense that if we only waited a fraction of the
time constant we don’t even get up to half of the total charge.
2
89. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The energy stored in a capacitor is E = Q2C so the energy as a function of time for the
q2
discharging capacitor is E (t ) = 2Co (e− t /RC )2 = Eoe −2 t /RC .
The energy after time t ′ is E ′. If we solve the discharge equation for the capacitance we have

−2 t ′
C=
R ln( E ′/Eo )

SOLVE The capacitance is

−2 ⋅ (8.6 × 10 −3 s)
C= = 1.88 × 10 −6 F
10 × 103 Ω ⋅ ln(2.0 J/ 5.0 J)
REFLECT We end up with a reasonable value for the capacitance... and are happy.
90. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The potential across the channel is 80 mV, and the current (obtained from the example) is
I = 1.8 pA. The resistance is obtained from Ohm’s law R = V /I .
The resistance in terms of the resistivity is

4L
R =ρ
πD 2
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.37

Solving for ρ

RπD 2
ρ=
4L
The power dissipated while the ions are flowing is P = VI .
SOLVE Part (a): The resistance of the ion channel is

R = (80 × 10 −3 V)/ (1.8 × 10 −12 A) = 4.4 × 1010 Ω

Part (b): The resistivity is

4.4 × 1010 Ω ⋅ π ⋅ (0.35 × 10 −9 m)2

ρ= = 12 Ω ⋅ m
4 ⋅ (0.35 × 10 −9 m)
Part (c): The power dissipated while the ions are flowing is

P = 80 × 10 −3 V ⋅ 1.8 × 10 −12 A = 0.14 pW

REFLECT The charge flow through an ion channel requires energy. Broadly, this energy is either harvested from
a charge gradient or it is actively generated (or pumped) within the ion channel itself, which requires the use of
little molecular energy storage units (e.g., ATP). What is interesting here is that regardless of the mechanism, the
ideas of basic passive circuit elements can be applied. The question is: How does this help you understand the
mechanics of the cell? In many cases, the perspective of a physicist at first results in more precise questions that
can be addressed by experimentalists. For example, if the ion channel is active, how many molecules of ATP per
second are required to produce the power output of the channel? This question can produce simple calculations that
can be tested.
91. ORGANIZE AND PLAN At the beginning of the charging cycle of an RC circuit when the capacitor is uncharged,
the current is a maximum and is determined solely by the resistance in the circuit. If a maximum current is
specified (probably to avoid overheating the source battery), the resistance required to constrain this current can be
determined by considering the battery voltage in series with the resistor alone.

Rmin = V /I max

With this resistance the time constant associated with charging the capacitor is τ = RminC. Charging effectively
occurs in 5τ.
SOLVE Part (a): The minimum resistance to keep current from exceeding 25 mA is

Rmin = 170 V/ (25 × 10 −3 A) = 6.8 kΩ

The time it takes to charge the capacitor (and wait for flash) is

5τ = 5 ⋅ 6.8 × 103 Ω ⋅ 240 × 10 −6 F = 8.16 s

REFLECT This wait time seems about right (if you think about how long you have to wait between flashes). This
is one of the uses of capacitors. Batteries cannot generate the high currents in short bursts required for flash bulbs,
so the energy is stored over time in the “bank” of the capacitor then flooded out when needed.
92. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Using the symbolic representation from Problem 85 we represent the resistor network
shown in Figure GP17.92 as follows:

R1 + ( R2 + R3 ) & R4
where R1 = 16 Ω, R2 = 10 Ω, R3 = 30 Ω and R4 = 60 Ω.
17.38 Chapter 17

The equivalent resistance of this network is:

( R2 + R3 ) ⋅ R4
Req = R1 +
( R2 + R3 ) + R4

The current through R1 is the same as the current from the battery: I1 = V /Req . This yields the voltage drop across
R1 : V1 = I1R1.
The voltage drop across the parallel configuration is:

V23 = Vo − I1R1

Consequently the current through both R2 and R3 is

Vo − I1R1
I 2 = I 3 = V23 /R23 =
R2 + R3

while the current through R4 is

I 4 = V23 /R4

SOLVE Part (a): The equivalent resistance of the circuit is

(10 Ω + 30 Ω) ⋅ 60 Ω 40 Ω ⋅ 60 Ω
Req = 16 Ω + = 16 Ω + = 40 Ω
(10 Ω + 30 Ω) + 60 Ω 40 Ω + 60 Ω

Part (b): The voltage drop and current associated with R1

16 Ω
V1 = VR1/Req = 10 V =4V I1 = 4 V/16 Ω = 0.25A
40 Ω

The voltage drop and current associated with R2

10 V − 4 V
I2 = = 0.15 A V2 = 0.15 A ⋅ 10 Ω = 1.5 V
40 Ω

The voltage drop and current associated with R3

I 3 = I 2 = 0.15 A V2 = 0.15 A ⋅ 30 Ω = 4.5 V

The voltage drop and current associated with R4

10 V − 4 V
I4 = = 0.1 A V2 = 0.1 A ⋅ 60 Ω = 6.0 V
60 Ω

REFLECT We can use both the Kirchhoff’s loop rule and junction rule to check the answers. The current through
the battery should equal the sum of the currents in the two branches of the parallel circuit. 0.1 A + 1.5 A = 2.5 A.
The sum of the voltage drops around any loop should be zero:

V − V1 − V2 − V3 = 10 V − 4 V − 1.5 V − 4.5 V = 0

Since the results are consistent with the loop and junction rule we have some confidence in our answer.
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.39

93. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The circuit shown in Figure GP17.93 consists of 3 parallel resistors in series with 1
resistor. The equivalent resistance is

R2 R3 R4
Req = R1 +
R2 R3 + R2 R4 + R3 R4

The current through R1 is the same as the current through the battery I1 = V /Req and the voltage is V1 = V
R1
Req
.
The voltage across each of the 3 parallel resistors is equal to

V2 = V3 = V4 = V − V1

V − V1
The current through a resistor in the parallel cluster is equal to I i = Ri
.
The power dissipated by the resistor network is P = VI = V 2 /Req .
SOLVE Part (a): The equivalent resistance is:

10 Ω ⋅ 30 Ω ⋅ 50 Ω
Req = 12 Ω + = 18.5 Ω
10 Ω ⋅ 30 Ω + 10 Ω ⋅ 50 Ω + 30 Ω ⋅ 50 Ω

Part (b): The current through each resistor is

48 V
I1 = = 2.6 A
18.5 Ω

48 V − 31.1 V
I2 = = 1.68 A
10 Ω
48 V − 31.1 V
I3 = = 0.56 A
30 Ω

48 V − 31.1 V
I2 = = 0.34 A
50 Ω
Part (c): The power dissipated by the resistor network is

(48 V)2
P= = 125 W
18.5 Ω

REFLECT Again, we use the Kirchhoff’s junction rule to check the current values.

I1 = I 2 + I 3 + I 4 = 1.68 A + 0.56 A + 0.34 A = 2.6 A

Success!
94. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The circuit shown in Figure GP17.94 consists of 2 parallel resistors in series with 1
resistor. The equivalent resistance is

R2 ⋅ R3
Req = R1 +
R2 + R3

where R1 = 30 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω and R3 = 60 Ω.
The current through R1 is the same as the current through the battery I1 = V /Req and the voltage is V1 = V
R1
Req
.
The voltage across each of the parallel resistors is equal to

V2 = V3 = V − V1

V − V1
The current through a resistor in the parallel cluster is equal to I i = Ri
.
17.40 Chapter 17

The power dissipated by the resistor network is P = VI = V 2 /Req .

SOLVE Part (a): The equivalent resistance is:

20 Ω ⋅ 60 Ω
Req = 30 Ω + = 45 Ω
20 Ω + 60 Ω

Part (b): The current through each resistor is

9. 0 V
I1 = = 0.2 A
45 Ω
9 V−6 V
I2 = = 0.15 A
20 Ω

9 V−6 V
I3 = = 0.05 A
60 Ω
Part (c): The power dissipated by the resistor network is

(9 V)2
P= = 1.8 W
45 Ω

REFLECT Again, we use the Kirchhoff’s junction rule to check the current values.

I1 = I 2 + I 3 = 0.15 A + 0.05 A = 0.2 A

Success!
95. ORGANIZE AND PLAN If there are N identical resistors R placed in series the equivalent resistance is
Req = N ⋅ R. We are given the equivalent resistance and the resistance of each electrocyte (resistor). The number
required to achieve the resistance is N = Req /R.
We know the potential difference applied V and the power that can be produced ( P ). The current required to do
this is I = P /V .
SOLVE Part (a): The number of electrocytes is

600 V
N= = 4800
125 × 10 −3 V

Part (b): The current required to produce 600 W of power is

I = 600 W/ 600 V = 1 A

REFLECT This is quite a large amount of current for prey to take without being stunned. A fine example of
electricity putting food on the table.
96. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given a capacitor being charged by a battery with voltage V through a known
resistor R = 4.7 kΩ. From the graph we can determine the value of the battery voltage. As time increases, the
voltage across the capacitor approaches that of the battery. So the asymptotic value of the voltage across the
capacitor is equal to the voltage across the battery. The asymptotic value is obtained from the graph shown below.
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Circuits 17.41
10 Vmax = 9V
9

Potential difference (V)

8
7
6
5
4
t1/2 = tln2 = 1 s
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (ms)

The capacitance is obtained by extracting the time constant τ = RC. Since the time it takes to reach half maximum
charge is t1/ 2 = RC ln 2 (this is the same as the time it takes to reach half maximum voltage since q ∝ V ). The time
to half voltage is t1/ 2 = 1 s which yields a value of C = R1ln/ 22 .
t

Over the time of the graph, the energy stored on the capacitor is the max energy stored in the capacitor

1
Emax = CVmax
2
2

The amount of charge that was deposited on the capacitor is the same as the amount of charge that flowed through
the resistor. Consequently, the energy dissipated by the resistor during this process is the same as the energy would
be dissipated if the capacitor was discharged through the resistor. This amount of energy is the same as the energy
stored on the fully charged capacitor.
SOLVE Part (a): The maximum voltage on the capacitor is read off the graph Vmax = 9 V.
Part (b): The capacitance is

1s
C= = 0.31 mF
4.7 kΩ ⋅ ln 2
Part (c): The total energy dissipated by the resistor is

1
Emax = 0.31 × 10 −3 F ⋅ (9 V)2 = 0.012 J
2
REFLECT The energy expended by the battery to charge the resistor is twice the energy stored on the capacitor.
The energy dissipated by the resistor is lost to heat; the energy used to charge the capacitor can be recovered.