9 Organizing the Body

of the Speech
Organization Is Important

Main Points

Supporting Materials

Connectives

T
hink about shopping in a store such as IKEA, Target, or Best Buy. Many
of the items for sale are organizers—drawer organizers, desk organiz-
ers, closet organizers, kitchen organizers, bathroom organizers, office
organizers, audio and video organizers. There is even a nationwide retail
chain—The Container Store—devoted entirely to keeping things organized.
Why all this quest for organization? Obviously, when the objects you pos-
sess are well organized, they serve you better. Organization allows you to see
what you have and to put your hands immediately on the garment, the tool,
the piece of paper, the video you want without a frenzied search.
Much the same is true of your speeches. If they are well organized, they
will serve you better. Organization allows you—and your listeners—to see what
ideas you have and to put mental “hands” on the most important ones.

Organization Is Important
In a classic study, a college professor took a well-organized speech and scrambled it
by randomly changing the order of its sentences. He then had a speaker deliver the
original version to one group of listeners and the scrambled version to another
group. After the speeches, he gave a test to see how well each group understood what
they had heard. Not surprisingly, the group that heard the original, unscrambled
speech scored much higher than the other group.1
A few years later, two professors repeated the same experiment at another
school. But instead of testing how well the listeners comprehended each speech, they
tested to see what effects the speeches had on the listeners’ attitudes toward the

154
 speakers. They found that people who heard the well-organized speech believed the
speaker to be much more competent and trustworthy than did those who heard the
scrambled speech.2
These are just two of many studies that show the importance of organization in
effective speechmaking.3 Listeners demand coherence. Unlike readers, they cannot
flip back to a previous page if they have trouble grasping a speaker’s ideas. In this
respect a speech is much like a movie. Just as a director must be sure viewers can
follow the plot of a film from beginning to end, so must a speaker be sure listeners
can follow the progression of ideas in a speech from beginning to end. This requires
strategic organization that speeches be organized strategically. They should be put together in particular
Putting a speech together in ways to achieve particular results with particular audiences.
a particular way to achieve a Speech organization is important for other reasons as well. As we saw in
particular result with a ­Chapter 1, it is closely connected to critical thinking. When you work to organize
particular audience. your speeches, you gain practice in the general skill of establishing clear relation-
ships among your ideas. This skill will serve you well throughout your college days
and in almost any career you may choose. In addition, using a clear, specific method
of speech organization can boost your confidence as a speaker and improve your
ability to deliver a message fluently.
The first step in developing a strong sense of speech organization is to gain com-
mand of the three basic parts of a speech—introduction, body, and conclusion—and
the strategic role of each. In this chapter we deal with the body of the speech. The
next chapter will take up the introduction and the conclusion.
There are good reasons for talking first about the body of the speech. The body
is the longest and most important part. Also, you will usually prepare the body first.
It is easier to create an effective introduction after you know exactly what you will
say in the body.
The process of organizing the body of a speech begins when you determine the
main points.

Main Points
The main points are the central features of your speech. You should select them
main points carefully, phrase them precisely, and arrange them strategically. Here are the main
The major points developed points of a student speech about the uses of hypnosis:
in the body of a speech.
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about some of the major uses of
hypnosis.
Central Idea: Three major uses of hypnosis today are to control pain in surgery,
to help people stop smoking, and to help students improve their
academic performance.
Main Points: I. Hypnosis is used in surgery as an adjunct to chemical
anesthesia.
II. Hypnosis is used to help people stop smoking.
III. Hypnosis is used to help students improve their academic
performance.

156 CHAPTER 9 Organizing the Body of the Speech

These three main points form the skeleton of the body of the speech. If there are three
major uses of hypnosis, then logically there can be three main points in the speech.
How do you choose your main points? Sometimes they will be evident from your
specific purpose statement. Suppose your specific purpose is, “To inform my audi-
ence about the history, technology, and potential of quantum computers.” Obviously,
your speech will have three main points. The first will deal with the history of quan-
tum computers, the second with the technology behind quantum computers, and the
third with the uses of quantum computers. Written in outline form, they might be:

Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the history, technology, and poten-
tial of quantum computers.
Central Idea: Once just a theory, quantum computers are developing quickly
and have revolutionary potential.
Main Points: I. Quantum computers have long been in the imagination of
scientists.
II. Q uantum computers are today a rapidly developing
technology.
III. Quantum computers have the potential to revolutionize the
field of computing.

Even if your main points are not stated expressly in your specific purpose, they
may be easy to project from it. Let’s say your specific purpose is “To inform my audi-
ence of the basic steps in making stained-glass windows.” You know each of your
main points will correspond to a step in the window-making process. They might
look like this in outline form:

Specific Purpose: To inform my audience of the basic steps in making stained-glass
windows.
Central Idea: There are four steps in making stained-glass windows.
Main Points: I. The first step is designing the window.
II. The second step is cutting the glass to fit the design.
III. The third step is painting the glass.
IV. The fourth step is assembling the window.

You will not always settle on your main points so easily. Often they will emerge
as you research the speech and evaluate your findings. Suppose your specific pur-
pose is “To persuade my audience that our city should not build a new convention
center.” You know that each main point in the speech will present a reason why a
new convention center should not be built. But you aren’t sure how many main
points there will be or what they will be. As you research and study the topic, you
decide there are two reasons to support your view. Each of these reasons will become
a main point in your speech. Written in outline form, they might be:

Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that our city should not build a new
convention center.
 Central Idea:  ur city should not build a new convention center because it will
O
cost too much and because online meeting technology makes it
unnecessary.
Main Points: I. Our city should not build a new convention center because it
will cost too much.
II. Our city should not build a new convention center because
online meeting technology makes it unnecessary.

NUMBER OF MAIN POINTS

You will not have time in your classroom speeches to develop more than four or five
main points, and most speeches will contain only two or three. Regardless of how
long a speech might run, if you have too many main points, the audience will have
trouble sorting them out.
If, when you list your main points, you find that you have too many, you may be
able to condense them into categories. Here is a set of main points for a speech
about yoga:
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the practice of yoga.
Central Idea: Yoga is an ancient practice that involves the whole body.
Main Points: I. Yoga breathing starts with deep inhalation.
II. Yoga breathing requires slow exhalation.
III. Yoga breathing includes prolonged pauses.
IV. Yoga breathing provides many benefits.
V. Yoga postures involve all parts of the body.
VI. Yoga postures increase flexibility.
VII. Yoga postures strengthen muscle tone.
VIII. Yoga postures demand precise movements.
You have eight main points—which is too many. But if you look at the list, you
View an excerpt from “Yoga: Uniting see that the eight points fall into two broad categories: yoga breathing and yoga
Mind, Body, and Spirit” in the online postures. You might, therefore, restate your main points this way:
Media Library for this chapter I. One part of practicing yoga involves proper breathing.
(Video 9.1).
II. Another part of yoga involves body postures.

STRATEGIC ORDER OF MAIN POINTS

Once you establish your main points, you need to decide the order in which you will
present them. The most effective order depends on three things—your topic, your
purpose, and your audience. Chapters 15 and 16 will cover special aspects of orga-
nizing informative speeches and persuasive speeches. Here we look briefly at the five
basic patterns of organization used most often by public speakers.

Chronological Order
Speeches arranged chronologically follow a time pattern. They may narrate a series
of events in the sequence in which they happened. For example:
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the rise of eSports.
Central Idea: eSports has grown to become a worldwide billion-dollar industry.
158 CHAPTER 9 Organizing the Body of the Speech
 Clear organization is vital to
effective public speaking. As in
this address by NATO Secretary
General Jens Stoltenberg,
listeners must be able to follow
the progression of ideas in a
speech from beginning to end.
Kenzo Tribouillard/AFP/Getty Images

Main Points: I. eSports began in the 1980s as friendly competitions among

friends.
II. eSports became a global phenomenon during the 1990s.
III. eSports flourished through official tournaments in the
2000s.
IV.  eSports today draw more viewers than many traditional
sports leagues.
Chronological order is also used in speeches explaining a process or demonstrat- chronological order
ing how to do something. For example: A method of speech
organization in which the main
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience of the steps in laser-assisted corrective eye points follow a time pattern.
surgery.
Central Idea: There are three main steps in laser-assisted corrective eye surgery.
Main Points: I. First, a thin layer is sliced off the surface of the eye to expose
the cornea.
II. Second, an ultraviolet laser is used to reshape the cornea.
III. Third, the thin layer sliced off at the beginning of the surgery
is reaffixed to the eye.
As this outline shows, chronological order is especially useful for informative speeches.

Spatial Order
Speeches arranged in spatial order follow a directional pattern. That is, the main spatial order
points proceed from top to bottom, left to right, front to back, inside to outside, east A method of speech organization
to west, or some other route. For example: in which the main points follow a
directional pattern.
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the structure of a hurricane.
Central Idea: A hurricane is made up of three parts going from inside to outside.
 Main Points: I. At the center of a hurricane is the calm, cloud-free eye.
II. Surrounding the eye is the eyewall, a dense ring of clouds
that produces the most intense wind and rainfall.
III. Rotating around the eyewall are large bands of clouds and
precipitation called spiral rain bands.

View an excerpt from “The Wrath of Or:

Hurricanes” in the online Media
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the three major regions in Italy.
Library for this chapter (Video 9.2).
Central Idea: Northern, central, and southern Italy have their own identities
and attractions.
Main Points: I. Northern Italy is home to Venice and its world-famous canals.
II. Central Italy is home to Rome and its historical treasures.
III. Southern Italy is home to Sicily and its culinary traditions.
Spatial order, like chronological order, is used most often in informative speeches.

Causal Order
causal order Speeches arranged in causal order organize main points so as to show a cause-effect
A method of speech relationship. When you put your speech in causal order, you have two main points—
organization in which the main one dealing with the causes of an event, the other dealing with its effects. Depending
points show a cause-effect on your topic, you can devote your first main point to the causes and the second to
relationship. the effects, or you can deal first with the effects and then with the causes.
Suppose your specific purpose is “To persuade my audience that a growing
shortage of nurses is a serious problem across the United States.” Then you would
begin with the causes of the shortage and work toward its effects:

Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that a growing shortage of nurses is a

serious problem across the United States.
Central Idea: The growing shortage of trained nurses is a problem for health
care nationwide.
Main Points: I. The United States faces a growing shortage of trained nurses
in all parts of the country.
II. If this shortage continues, it will strain the entire health care
system.
When the effects you are discussing have already occurred, you may want to
reverse the order and talk first about the effects and then about their causes—as in
this speech about the Ancient Pueblo peoples that lived in what is now the
­southwestern United States:

Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about possible causes for the collapse of
the Ancient Pueblo civilization.
Central Idea: The causes for the collapse of the Ancient Pueblo civilization
have not yet been fully explained.
Main Points: I. Ancient Pueblo civilization flourished for over a thousand
years until 1200 a.d., when it mysteriously began to
disintegrate.
160 CHAPTER 9 Organizing the Body of the Speech
 The main points of a speech
should be organized to
communicate the speaker’s
message. Chronological order
would work well for a speech on
the history of the Chateau de
Chenonceau.
Proslgn/Shutterstock

II. Scholars have advanced three major explanations for the

causes of this disintegration.
Because of its versatility, causal order can be used for both persuasive speeches
and informative speeches.

Problem-Solution Order
Speeches arranged in problem-solution order are divided into two main parts. The problem-solution order
first shows the existence and seriousness of a problem. The second pre­sents a work- A method of organizing
able solution to the problem. For example: persuasive speeches in which
the first main point deals with
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that action is needed to combat the the existence of a problem and
abuses of puppy mills. the second main point presents
Central Idea: Puppy mills are a serious problem that can be solved by a combi- a solution to the problem.
nation of legislation and individual initiative.
Main Points: I. Puppy mills are a serious problem across the United States.
II. Solving the problem requires legislation and individual
initiative. View an excerpt from “The Horrors
Or: of Puppy Mills” in the online Media
Library for this chapter (Video 9.3).
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that the electoral college should be
abolished.
Central Idea: Because the electoral college does not give equal weight to the
vote of each citizen, it should be replaced with direct popular
election of the president.
Main Points: I. The electoral college is a serious problem in the U.S. political
system because it does not give equal weight to each citizen’s
vote in electing the president.
 II. The problem can be solved by abolishing the electoral college
and electing the president by popular vote.

As these examples indicate, problem-solution order is most appropriate for persua-

sive speeches.

Topical Order
topical order Topical order results when you divide the speech topic into subtopics, each of which
A method of speech becomes a main point in the speech.
organization in which the main Let’s say your topic is Josephine Baker, an African-American entertainer and
points divide the topic into social activist in the middle of the 20th century. You could organize your speech
logical and consistent chronologically—by discussing Baker’s exploits during each decade of her career. On
subtopics. the other hand, you could arrange the speech topically—by dividing Baker’s accom-
plishments into categories. Then your central idea and main points might be:

Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the achievements of Josephine

Baker.
Central Idea: Josephine Baker was a multitalented figure in the fight for racial
justice.
Main Points: I. As an entertainer, Baker captivated audiences in Europe and
America.
II. As a spy, Baker gathered information on Nazi activities in
France during World War II.
III. As a civil rights activist, Baker worked for racial equality on
a variety of fronts.

Notice how the main points subdivide the speech topic logically and consis-
tently. Each main point isolates one aspect of Baker’s achievements. But suppose
your main points look like this:

I. As an entertainer, Baker captivated audiences in Europe and America.

II. As a spy, Baker gathered information on Nazi activities in France during World
War II.
III. During the 1950s, Baker expanded her activities and the scope of her
influence.

This would not be a good topical order because main point III is inconsistent with
the rest of the main points. It deals with a time period in Baker’s life, whereas main
points I and II deal with fields of achievement.
The Josephine Baker example refers to an informative speech. But topical order
also works for persuasive speeches. Usually the topical subdivisions are the reasons
why a speaker believes in a certain point of view. Here, for example, are the main
points for a speech on why the United States should continue its program of space
exploration:

Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that the United States should continue
its program of space exploration.

162 CHAPTER 9 Organizing the Body of the Speech

Using public speaking
in your CAREER
You are the purchasing manager for a large will present your findings and recommendations to the
jewelry manufacturer. The company’s pres- company’s senior executives, but you’re not sure how
ident sent you abroad to find new suppli- best to organize your speech.
ers of base metals, including brass, Your major choices are chronological order,
copper, nickel, and aluminum. You were problem-solution order, and topical order. What might
asked to evaluate each supplier based be the main points of your speech with
on the quality, availability, and cost of its each of these methods of organization?
products. Explain which method you think would
You have just returned from a 12-day be most ­effective for your presentation.
trip to suppliers in Cambodia, China, South
Korea, and the United Arab Emirates. You Andresr/Getty Images

Central Idea: The United States should continue its program of space explora-
tion because it produces scientific knowledge, generates techno-
logical breakthroughs, and opens access to natural resources.
Main Points: I. The space program produces scientific knowledge about the
nature of the solar system.
II. The space program generates technological breakthroughs
that benefit many aspects of human life.
III. The space program opens access to natural resources that
are in short supply on Earth.

Because it is applicable to almost any subject and to any kind of speech, topical
order is used more often than any other method of speech organization.

TIPS FOR PREPARING MAIN POINTS

Keep Main Points Separate
Each main point in a speech should be clearly independent of the others. Compare
these two sets of main points for a speech about the process of producing a Broad-
way play:

Ineffective More Effective

I. The first step is choosing the play. I. The first step is choosing the play.
II. The second step is selecting the cast. II. The second step is selecting the cast.
III. The third step is conducting III. The third step is conducting the
rehearsals and then performing rehearsals.
the play. IV. The fourth step is performing the
play.

The problem with the left-hand list is that point III contains two main points. It
should be divided, as shown in the right-hand list.
 Try to Use the Same Pattern of Wording for Main Points
Consider the following main points for an informative speech about the benefits of
karate:

Ineffective More Effective

I. Karate gives you better mental I. Karate improves your mental
discipline. discipline.
II. You will become physically stronger II. Karate increases your physical
through karate. strength.
III. Taking karate lessons will teach you III. Karate teaches you self-defense.
self-defense.

The set of main points on the right follows a consistent pattern of wording throughout.
Therefore, it is easier to understand and easier to remember than the set on the left.
You will find that it is not always possible to use this kind of parallel wording.
Some speeches just don’t lend themselves to such a tidy arrangement. But try to keep
the wording parallel when you can; it’s a good way to make your main points stand
out from the details surrounding them.

Balance the Amount of Time Devoted to Main Points

Because your main points are so important, you want to be sure they all receive
enough emphasis to be clear and convincing. This means allowing sufficient time to
develop each main point. Suppose you discover that the proportion of time devoted
to your main points is something like this:
I. 85 percent
II. 10 percent
III. 5 percent
A breakdown of this sort indicates one of two things. Either points II and III aren’t
really main points and you have only one main point, or points II and III haven’t
been given the attention they need. If the latter, you should revise the body of the
speech to bring the main points into better balance.
This is not to say that all main points must receive exactly equal emphasis, but
only that they should be roughly balanced. For example, either of the following
would be fine:
I. 30 percent I. 20 percent
II. 40 percent II. 30 percent
III. 30 percent III. 50 percent
The amount of time spent on each main point depends on the amount and complex-
ity of supporting materials for each point.

Supporting Materials
By themselves, main points are only assertions. As we saw in Chapter 8, listeners
need supporting materials to accept what a speaker says. The following outline
demonstrates how supporting materials can be integrated into the body of a speech.
164 CHAPTER 9 Organizing the Body of the Speech
In Chapter 11, we’ll look at requirements for a complete speech outline. For now,
concentrate on how the supporting materials relate to the main points.

I. Hypnosis is used in surgery as an adjunct to chemical anesthesia.

A. Hypnosis reduces both the physical and psychological aspects of pain.
1. Hypnosis can double a person’s pain threshold.
2. It also reduces the fear that intensifies physical pain.
B. Hypnosis is most useful in cases when the patient is known to have supporting materials
problems with general anesthesia. The materials used to support a
1. Quotation from Dr. Harold Wain of the Mayo Clinic. speaker’s ideas. The three
2. Story of Linda Kuay. major kinds of supporting
3. Statistics from Psychology Today. materials are examples,
statistics, and testimony.
II. Hypnosis is used to help people stop smoking.
A. Many therapists utilize hypnosis to help people break their addiction to
cigarettes.
1. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services considers hypnosis
a safe and effective means of stopping smoking.
2. Success rates are as high as 70 percent.
a. Story of Alex Hamilton.
b. Quotation from New York psychiatrist Dr. Herbert Spiegel.
B. Hypnosis does not work for all smokers.
1. A person must want to stop smoking for hypnosis to work.
2. A person must also be responsive to hypnotic suggestion.

III. Hypnosis is used to help students improve their academic performance.

A. Hypnosis enables people to use their minds more effectively.
1. The conscious mind utilizes about 10 percent of a person’s mental
ability.
2. Hypnosis allows people to tap more of their mental power.
B. Studies show that hypnosis can help people overcome many obstacles to
academic success.
1. It improves ability to concentrate.
2. It increases reading speed.
3. It reduces test anxiety.
In Chapter 8, we discussed the major kinds of supporting materials and how to
use them. Here, we need stress only the importance of organizing your ­supporting
materials so they are directly relevant to the main points they are supposed to sup-
port. Misplaced supporting materials are confusing. Here’s an example:

I. There are several reasons why people immigrate to the United States.
A. Over the years, millions of people have immigrated to the United States.
B. Many people immigrate in search of economic opportunity.
C. Others immigrate to attain political freedom.
D. Still others immigrate to escape religious persecution.

The main point deals with the reasons immigrants come to the United States, as do
supporting points B, C, and D. Supporting point A (“Over the years, millions of
people have immigrated to the United States”) does not. It is out of place and should
not be included with this main point.
 If you find such a situation in your own speeches, try to reorganize your support-
ing points under appropriate main points, like this:
I. Over the years, millions of people have immigrated to the United States.
A. Since the Civil War, 75 million people have immigrated to the United States.
B. Today there are 45 million Americans who were born in other countries.
II. There are several reasons why people immigrate to the United States.
A. Many people immigrate in search of economic opportunity.
B. Others immigrate to attain political freedom.
C. Still others immigrate to escape religious persecution.
Now you have two supporting points to back up your “millions of people” point and
three supporting points to back up your “reasons” point.
Once you have organized your main points and supporting points, you must give
attention to the third element in the body of a speech—connectives.

Connectives
Sierra Winston was speaking to her class about police-community relations. She had
rehearsed the speech several times, had a well-defined central idea, three sharp main
points, and strong evidence to support her position. But when Sierra delivered the

checklist
Main Points

YES NO

1. Does the body of my speech contain two to five main points?

2. Are my main points organized according to one of the following methods of
organization?
Chronological order
Spatial order
Causal order
Topical order
Problem-solution order
3. Are my main points clearly separate from one another?
4. As much as possible, have I used the same pattern of wording for all my main
points?
5. Have I roughly balanced the amount of time devoted to each main point?
6. Is each main point backed up with strong, credible supporting materials?
7. Do I use connectives to make sure my audience knows when I am moving from
one main point to another?

166 CHAPTER 9 Organizing the Body of the Speech

speech, she said “All right” every time she moved from one thought to the next. After
a while, her classmates started counting. By the end of the speech, most were too
busy waiting for the next “All right” to pay attention to Sierra’s message. Afterward,
Sierra said, “I never even thought about saying ‘All right.’ I guess it just popped out
when I didn’t know what else to say.”
We all have stock phrases that we use to fill the space between thoughts. In
casual conversation they are seldom troublesome. But in speechmaking they distract
listeners by calling attention to themselves.
What Sierra’s speech lacked were strong connectives—words or phrases that join connective
one thought to another and indicate the relationship between them. Without connec- A word or phrase that connects
tives, a speech is disjointed and uncoordinated—much as a person would be without the ideas of a speech and
ligaments and tendons to join the bones and hold the organs in place. Four types of indicates the relationships
speech connectives are transitions, internal previews, internal summaries, and among them.
signposts.

TRANSITIONS
Transitions are words or phrases that indicate when a speaker has just completed transition
one thought and is moving on to another. Technically, transitions state both the idea A word or phrase that indicates
the speaker is leaving and the idea she or he is coming up to. In the following exam- when a speaker has finished
ples, the transitional phrases are underlined: one thought and is moving on
to another.
 ow that we have a clear understanding of the problem, let me share
N
the solution with you.
I have spoken so far of César Chávez the community organizer, but it
was his work as a labor leader that truly etched his name into American
history.
 eeping these points in mind about sign language, let’s return to the
K
sentence I started with and see if we can learn the signs for “You are my
friend.”

Notice how these phrases remind the listener of the thought just completed, and
reveal the thought about to be developed.

INTERNAL PREVIEWS
Internal previews let the audience know what the speaker will take up next, but they internal preview
are more detailed than transitions. In effect, an internal preview works just like the A statement in the body of the
preview statement in a speech introduction, except that it comes in the body of the speech that lets the audience
speech—usually as the speaker is starting to discuss a main point. For example: know what the speaker is
going to discuss next.
In discussing how Asian Americans have been stereotyped in the mass
media, we’ll look first at the origins of the problem and second at its con-
tinuing impact today.

After hearing this, the audience knows exactly what to listen for as the speaker
develops the “problem” main point.
Internal previews are often combined with transitions. For example:

[Transition]: Now that we have seen how serious the problem of faulty
credit reports is, let’s look at some solutions. [Internal Preview]: I will focus
 on three ­solutions—instituting tighter government regulation of credit
bureaus, holding credit bureaus financially responsible for their errors, and
giving individuals easier access to their credit reports.

You will seldom need an internal preview for each main point in your speech,
but be sure to use one whenever you think it will help listeners keep track of your
ideas.

INTERNAL SUMMARIES
internal summary Internal summaries are the reverse of internal previews. Rather than letting listeners
A statement in the body of the know what is coming up next, internal summaries remind listeners of what they have
speech that summarizes the just heard. Such summaries are often used when a speaker finishes a complicated or
speaker’s preceding point(s). particularly important main point or set of main points. For example:

In short, palm reading is an ancient art. Developed in China more than

5,000 years ago, it was practiced in classical Greece and Rome, flourished
during the Middle Ages, survived the Industrial Revolution, and remains
popular today in many parts of the world.

Internal summaries are an excellent way to clarify and reinforce ideas. By com-
bining them with transitions, you can also lead your audience smoothly into your
next main point:

[Internal Summary]: Let’s pause for a moment to summarize what we

have found so far. First, we have seen that keeping killer whales in captiv-
ity stunts their mental and physical development. Second, we have seen
that keeping killer whales in captivity endangers other animals and human
trainers. [Transition]: We are now in position to see what can be done to
keep killer whales out of captivity.

SIGNPOSTS
Signposts are very brief statements that indicate exactly where you are in the speech.
signpost Frequently they are just numbers. Here is how one student used simple numerical
A very brief statement that signposts to help her audience keep track of the major causes for the continuing
indicates where a speaker is in problem of famine in Africa:
the speech or that focuses
attention on key ideas. The first cause of this problem is inefficient agricultural production.
The second cause is recurrent drought in the affected countries.
 he final cause is mismanagement of available food resources by local
T
­leaders.

Another way to accomplish the same thing is to introduce your main points with
a question, as did one student in her speech on deteriorating public-school buildings
in the United States. Her first main point showed that school buildings are crum-
bling in an alarming number of communities across the country. She introduced it
this way:
So how serious is the problem of decaying school buildings? Is it
­happening in just a few isolated districts, or is it widespread?

168 CHAPTER 9 Organizing the Body of the Speech

 Experienced speakers include
transitions and other connectives
to help listeners keep track of
their ideas. Here Alex Padilla
speaks at a press conference on
land and river conservation in
California.
Carolyn Cole/Los Angeles Times/
Getty Images

Her second main point dealt with ways to reinvest in public-school infrastruc-
ture. She introduced it by saying:

So how can we solve this problem? Is there a way to save our schools
while remaining financially responsible?

Questions are particularly effective as signposts because they invite subliminal

answers that get the audience more involved with the speech.
Besides using signposts to indicate where you are in the speech, you can use
them to focus attention on key ideas. You can do this with a simple phrase, as in the
following example:

The most important thing to remember about abstract art is that it is

always based on forms in the natural world.

The underlined words alert the audience to the fact that an especially significant
point is coming up. So do phrases such as these:

Be sure to keep this in mind . . .

This is crucial to understanding the rest of the speech . . .
Above all, you need to know . . .

Depending on the needs of your speech, you may want to use two, three, or even
all four kinds of connectives in combination. You needn’t worry too much about
what they are called—whether this one is a signpost and that a transition. The impor­
tant thing is to be aware of their functions. Properly applied, connectives can make
your speeches more unified and coherent.
 Summary
Clear organization is vital to speechmaking. Listeners demand coherence. They get only
one chance to grasp a speaker’s ideas, and they have little patience for speakers who
ramble aimlessly from one idea to another. A well-organized speech will enhance your
credibility and make it easier for the audience to understand your message.
The process of planning the body of a speech begins when you determine the main
points. You should choose them carefully, phrase them precisely, and organize them stra-
tegically. Because listeners cannot keep track of a multitude of main points, most speeches
should contain no more than two to five. Each should focus on a single idea, should be
worded clearly, and should receive enough emphasis to be clear and convincing.
You can organize main points in various ways, depending on your topic, purpose,
and audience. Chronological order follows a time pattern, whereas spatial order follows
a directional pattern. In causal order, main points are organized according to their
cause-effect relationship. Topical order results when you divide your main topic into
subtopics. Problem-solution order breaks the body of the speech into two main parts—
the first showing a problem, the second giving a solution.
Supporting materials are the backup ideas for your main points. When organizing
supporting materials, make sure they are directly relevant to the main points they are
supposed to support.
Connectives help tie a speech together. They are words or phrases that join one
thought to another and indicate the relationship between them. The four major types of
speech connectives are transitions, internal previews, internal summaries, and sign-
posts. Using them effectively will make your speeches more unified and coherent.

Key Terms
strategic organization (156) supporting materials (165)
main points (156) connective (167)
chronological order (159) transition (167)
spatial order (159) internal preview (167)
causal order (160) internal summary (168)
problem-solution order (161) signpost (168)
topical order (162)

Review Questions
After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions:

1. Why is it important that speeches be organized clearly and coherently?

2. How many main points will your speeches usually contain? Why is it important to
limit the number of main points in your speeches?
3. What are the five basic patterns of organizing main points in a speech? Which are
appropriate for informative speeches? Which is most appropriate for persuasive
speeches? Which is used most often?
4. What are three tips for preparing your main points?
170 CHAPTER 9 Organizing the Body of the Speech
 5. What is the most important thing to remember when organizing supporting
materials in the body of your speech?
6. What are the four kinds of speech connectives? What role does each play in a speech?

Exercises for Critical Thinking

1. What organizational method (or methods) might you use to arrange main points
for speeches with the following specific purpose statements?
To inform my audience about the geographical regions of Argentina.
To persuade my audience that the state legislature should enact tougher laws to
curb the problem of predatory lending to college students.
To inform my audience about the causes and effects of Lyme disease.
To inform my audience about the major kinds of symbols used in Native
American art.
2. Turn to the outline of main points and supporting materials for the speech about
hypnosis on page 165. Create appropriate transitions, internal previews, internal
summaries, and signposts for the speech.
3. Identify the organizational method used in each of the following sets of main points.

I. Mardi Gras parades are lavish events that take place over the course of several
weeks.
II. Mardi Gras costumes include disguises, medallions, and the colors purple,
green, and gold.
III. Mardi Gras food features Cajun and Creole dishes common to southern
Louisiana.

I. In ancient Rome, the Colosseum hosted gladiatorial games and other kinds of
popular entertainment.
II. In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was occupied by religious groups and used
as a cemetery.
III. In modern times, the Colosseum has been restored and turned into a ­tourist
attraction.

I. Human trafficking is a widespread national problem.

II. The problem can be solved by a combination of national and international action.

End Notes
1
Ernest C. Thompson, “An Experimental Investigation of the Relative Effectiveness of Organizational
Structure in Oral Communication,” Southern Speech Journal, 26 (1960), pp. 59–69.
2
Harry Sharp Jr. and Thomas McClung, “Effects of Organization on the Speaker’s Ethos,” Speech
Monographs, 33 (1966), pp. 182–183.
3
See, for example, B. Scott Titsworth and Joseph P. Mazer, “Clarity in Teaching and Learning:
Conundrums, Consequences, and Opportunities,” in Deanna L. Fassett and John T. Warren
(eds.), Sage Handbook of Communication and Instruction (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010),
pp. 241–261; Amber L. Finn and Paul Schrodt, “Students’ Perceived Understanding Mediates the
Effects of Teacher Clarity and Nonverbal Immediacy on Learner Environment,” Communication
Education, 61 (2012), pp. 111–130.