Republic of the Philippines

WESTERN PHILIPPINES UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering and Technology
Aborlan, Palawan

LECTURE MANUAL

IN

CE 107

PRINCIPLES OF Reinforced/PRESTRESS
concrete

LEO SACET GABO, C.E., MENG

Associate Professor III
Author

CHAPTER I

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 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

1.1 Introduction

Before developing the basic equations for reinforced concrete under

stress, it is perhaps appropriate to recapitulate here the physical
characteristics of concrete which influence its behavior under load.
The water-cement ratio has a considerable effect on the strength of
concrete, and on the amount of shrinkage. The elastic modulus elasticity
varies according to the concrete strength; and changes with time due to
creep, depending on the intensity of applied stress. The amount of creep
depends also on the age of concrete when it is first stressed.
Practical calculations of achieving designs make bold and
simplifying assumptions which leads to results that experience shown are
safe. This does not mean that such calculations give accurate information
as to the actual stresses at any point within the material.
The assumptions are that at any cross-section, plain section remains
plane, and all tensile stresses are taken by the reinforcement, except in
the case of diagonal tensions arising from shear stresses. Calculations
are made either on the more usual Elastic Theory, assuming that stress
is proportional to strain, and that the elastic modulus of concrete is
effectively constant. Alternatively, calculations may be made on a Load-
Factor basis which recognizes that as failure is approached the
compressive stresses adjust themselves to provide compressive
resistance.

1.12 Structures for which the used of Reinforced and Prestress

Concrete is Applicable

Reinforced Concrete can be used for all standard buildings both

single storey and multi-storey and for containment and retaining
structures and bridges. Some of the common building structures are as
follows:

1. The single-storey portal supported on isolated footings;

2. The medium-rise framed structure which may be braced by shear
walls or unbraced. The building may be supported on isolated
footings, strip foundations or a raft;
3. The tall multi-storey frame and core structure where the core and
rigid frames together resist wind loads. The building is usually
supported on a raft which in turn may bear directly on the ground or
be carried on piles or caissons. These buildings usually include a
basement.

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 The complete structural frame of a building structure can be
broken down into the following elements:

Beams – horizontal members carrying lateral loads supported by

columns.

Slabs – horizontal plate elements carrying lateral loads supported by

beams.
Columns – vertical members carrying primarily axial load but generally
subjected to axial load and moment that rests in footings.
Walls – vertical plate elements resisting vertical, lateral or in-plane
loads. It is a structure held by beams and columns.
Bases and foundations pads or strips – supported directly on the
ground that spread the loads from columns or walls so that they
can be supported by the ground without excessive settlement.
Alternatively, the bases may be supported on piles.

Prestress Concrete is applicable for used in long span structures of

buildings and bridges to add tension stresses by means of tendon rods. It
is not used in one storey building where loadings are minimal, most
found in medium rise structure to tall buildings. It is commonly found in:

1. Long and wide structural walls.

2. Long, wide and thick two-way slab.
3. Special moment frames.
4. Long loaded beams.
5. Wall piers.

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 Figure 1.0: Reinforced Concrete Structural Frame of Building
Structure

1.2 Concrete

Concrete – is a stone like materials or conglomerate artificial stone

obtained by permitting carefully proportion mixture of cement, water,
sand and gravel or any other inert materials. In this stage, cement and
water interact chemically to bind aggregates particle to form a solid
mass.

Concrete workability is the relative ease with which a fresh mix can
be handled, placed, compacted, and finished without segregation or
separation of the individual ingredients. Good workability is required to
produce concrete that is both economical and high in quality. Fresh
concrete has good workability if it can be formed, compacted, and
finished to its final shape and texture with minimal effort and without
segregation of the ingredients. Concrete with poor workability does not
flow smoothly into forms or properly envelop reinforcing steel and
embedded items, and it is difficult to compact and finish. Depending on
the application, though, a mix that has good workability for one type or
size of element may be too stiff or harsh for another, so the term is
relative. Each mix must be suitable for its intended use, achieving a
balance among required fluidity, strength, and economy. Workability is

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related to the consistency and cohesiveness of the mix and is affected by
cement content, aggregates, water content, and admixtures.

Fresh Concrete – refers to the wet mix of ingredients before they begin
to cure.
Green Concrete – refer to the concrete material that begins to set but
is not fully cured.
Hardened Concrete – refer to the concrete after it has fully cured.

Fresh concrete must be workable, and hardened concrete must be

strong and durable. The quality of the ingredients, the proportions in
which they are mixed, and the way the concrete is handled, placed, and
cured affect these properties.

Fully cured, hardened concrete must be strong enough to withstand

the structural and service loads which will be applied to it and must be
durable enough to withstand the environmental exposure for which it is
intended. When concrete is made with high-quality materials and is
properly proportioned, mixed, handled, placed, and finished, it is one of
the strongest and most durable of building materials. When we refer to
concrete strength, we are generally talking about compressive strength
which is measured in Mega Pascal (MPa) equivalent to Newton per
square millimeter (N/mm2). Concrete is strong in compression but
relatively weak in tension and bending.

Types of Concrete

1.) Plain Concrete – are concrete in which the stresses are almost
entirely compressive and without adding reinforcement, such as
dams, piers or certain types of footing.

2.) Reinforced Concrete – concrete in which reinforcement, other

than that provided for shrinkage and changes of temperature, is
embedded in such a manner that the two materials act together in
resisting forces.

3.) Precast Concrete – maybe plain or reinforce concrete element

fabricated elsewhere than its final position in the element.

4.) Rubble Concrete – is a concrete where large durable and hard

stones are added to mixture for the purpose of economy. Mixtures
consist of 70% concrete and 30% boulders or stones.

5.) Riprap – is another type of concrete formation where large hard and
durable stones are laid and concrete mixtures serves as plate and

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 paste. It is composed of 30% concrete and 70% boulders or stones.
Sometimes it is considered as Masonry works.

Kinds of reinforced Concrete

a.)Pre-stressed Concrete – a reinforced concrete in which internal

stresses have been introduce to reduce potential tensile stresses in
concrete resulting from loads.
Prestressed concrete is high-strength concrete with high tensile
steel wires embedded and tensioned, prior to the application of
external loads. By this, the concrete can be pre-compressed to such a
degree that, after the structure is loaded, there is practically no
resultant tension developed in the beam.
Prestressed concrete finds application in situations where long
spans are encountered (as in bridges), or where cracks (even hairline)
in concrete are not permitted (as in pressure vessels, pipes and water
tanks), or where fatigue loading is encountered (as in rail track
sleepers).

b.) Post-Tensioned Concrete – a reinforced concrete where

tendons are added and are tensioned after concrete hardens, (this
process is called “Post-tensioning”). Usually used long span beams.

c.)Fiber-Reinforced Concrete and Ferrocement – a thin reinforced

concrete where steel or glass fibers are incorporated in concrete at
the time of mixing. The thin sections are formed by embedding
multiple layers of steel wire mesh in cement mortar. Although
ferrocement has gained popularity only in recent years, it represents
one of the earliest applications of reinforced concrete.

1.21 Water

Water used for mixing concrete should be drinkable. Any water that is
drinkable is generally free of harmful impurities. In urban areas where
municipal water supplies are available, contaminated water is usually
not a problem. The same is true in most
rural areas where well water is usually tested by local health officials to
assure that it is fit for human consumption. In general, if water is
reasonably clear and does not have a foul odor, or a brackish or salty
taste, it is acceptable for mixing concrete. It should be clean and free
from injurious amount of oil, acid, alkali, organic matter or other
deleterious substance. Salt water and sea water should be avoided. It
should be equal to 15% that of cement, by weight, or 4 to 6 gallons
every 1 bag of 40 kg cement.

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 Water for Curing
The water in a concrete mix takes one of the following three forms,
as a consequence of hydration:

1. Combined water — which is chemically combined with the products

of hydration; it is non-evaporable.

2. Gel water — which is held physically or adsorbed on the surface

area of the ‘cement gel’ (solid hydrates located in tiny, impermeable
‘gel pores’).

3. Capillary water — which partially occupies the ‘capillary pores’ that

constitute the space in the cement paste remaining after accounting
for the volumes of cement gel and un-hydrated cement; this water is
easily evaporated. If the hardened cement paste is only partly
hydrated (as is usually the case, soon after casting), the capillary
pores tend to become interconnected; this results in low strength,
increased permeability and increased vulnerability of the concrete to
chemical attack.

All these problems can be overcome, to a large extent, if the degree

of hydration is sufficiently high for the capillary pore system to become
‘segmented’ through partial blocking by the newly developed cement
gel.

Curing – is the name given to procedures that are employed for actively
promoting the hydration of cement in a suitable environment during the
early stages of hardening of concrete. It is “the process of preventing
the loss of moisture from the concrete while maintaining a satisfactory
temperature regime”. Curing is essential for producing ‘good’ concrete
that has the desired strength, impermeability and durability, and is of
particular importance in situations where the water-cement ratio is low,
or the cement has a high rate of strength development or if the
pozzolanic content is high. Moist curing aims to keep the concrete as
nearly saturated as possible at normal

1.22 Cement

Cement – is made by mixing and burning or clinking to incipient fusion

of two materials, one composes principally of lime and the other being a
clayey argillaceous material containing silica, alumina and iron. After
burning, the clinker is finely pulverized.

Cement is not the same thing as concrete. Many people mistakenly

refer to “cement” sidewalks or “cement” driveways and the like, but

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cement is only one of the ingredients in concrete. It is also an ingredient
in masonry mortar, stucco, and other materials.

■ Cement water ----- cement paste

■ Cement water sand----- cement mortar
■ Cement water sand lime----- masonry mortar
■ Cement water sand coarse aggregate----- concrete

Cement is a powdery substance which reacts with water to form a

cement paste, which is the actual cementing or binding medium in
concrete. The cement paste must completely coat each aggregate
particle, and as it cures in a process called hydration, the concrete
hardens into a strong, stone like mass.

Types of Cement

1.) Portland Cement – first patented in England in 1824. It is

finely powdered, grayish material which consists of calcium and
aluminum silicates. Concrete made this kind generally need 2 weeks
to reach sufficient strength so that forms for beams and slabs can be
removed and reasonable loads can be applied. It reaches their
designed strength after 28 days and continues to gain strength
thereafter at decreasing rate.

2.) High-Early-Strength Cement – have the same basic

composition as Portland cement, but aluminum silicates is more
higher and are carefully blended and more finely grind both before
and after clinkering. It needs 3 to 7 days to reach after 20 days.

3,) Pozzolan Cement – also with the same basic composition as

Portland cement, but lesser aluminum silicates and it is ground a little
course. It needs 20 days to reach sufficient strength and 35 days for
the designed strength.

There are many natural and manufactured cements, some of which

date back to Roman builders of the first centuries A.D. Since its
development in England in the early 1800s, though, Portland cement has
become the most widely used cement in the world. Portland cement got
its name because the cured concrete it produced was the same color as a
gray stone quarried in nearby Portland, England.

There are five types of Portland cement, each with different

characteristics.

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 ■ Type I is a general-purpose cement and is by far the most commonly
used, especially in residential work. Type I Portland cement is suitable
whenever the special characteristics of other types are not required.

■ Type II cement has moderate resistance to sulfates, which are found in

some soil and groundwater, and generates less heat during hydration
than Type I. This reduced curing temperature can be particularly
helpful in large structures such as piers and heavy retaining walls,
especially when the concrete is placed in warm weather.

■ Type III is a “high early strength” cement. High early strength does not
mean higher strength—only that strength develops at a faster rate.
This can be an advantage during winter construction because it
reduces the time during which fresh concrete must be protected from
the cold. Early strength gain can also permit removal of forms and
shoring more quickly.

■ Type IV cement produces less heat during hydration than Type I or

Type II and is used only in massive civil engineering structures such as
dams, large highway pilings, or heavy bridge abutments. Its strength
development and curing rates, though, are much slower than Type I.

■ Type V cement is used in concrete exposed to soil or groundwater that

has high sulfate concentrations. This type of cement is usually
available only in areas where it is likely to be needed.

1.23 Aggregates

Aggregates – occupies about 70% to 75% of the volume of hardened

mass, and remainder 25% to 30% consist of hardened cement paste. It
should have good strength, durable and weather resistance and the
surface should be free from impurities such as loam, silt and organic
matter which may weaken the bond of cement paste.

Aggregates should be chemically inert, clean, hard and durable.

Organic impurities can affect the hydration of cement and the bond
between the cement and the aggregate. Some aggregates containing
silica may react with alkali in the cement causing the concrete to
disintegrate. This is the alkali-silica reaction. The presence of chlorides
in aggregates, e.g. salt in marine sands, will cause corrosion of the steel
reinforcement. Excessive amounts of sulphate will also cause concrete to
disintegrate.
The aggregates most commonly used in concrete are sand, gravel,
crushed stone, crushed slag, and pumice. Cement and water are mixed
with aggregates to produce concrete. Concrete contains both fine and
coarse aggregates.

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Classification of Aggregates

1.) Fine Aggregates or sand – are materials use for concreting

that will passed through a No. 4 sieve or about 6mm in size.

2.) Coarse Aggregates or Gravel – materials use for concreting

which is coarser than sand. The maximum size is governed by
requirements that it shall easily fit into the forms and between the
reinforcing bars.

Classifications of Concrete Weight Based on Aggregates

1.) Stone concrete – concrete with natural stone aggregates are

assumed to have a unit weight of 2,320 kg/m3.

2.) Concrete lightweight – a concrete containing lightweight

aggregate and an equivalent density, as determine by ASTM C567,
between 1,440 and 1,840 kg/m3.

Examples of lightweight aggregates:

1. Purnice or cinders – suitable for insulating concrete.

2. Process aggregates – are used for structural lightweight
concrete. This consists of shale’s, clays, slates and slags.

Note:
a. Unit weights of concrete use for insulation is 800 kg/m3
b. Unit weight of aggregate for structural lightweight concrete is
1920 kg/m3

3.) Heavyweight concrete – is frequently required for shielding

against gamma and x – radiation in nuclear – reactors and similar
installation, for protective structures, and as counterweight of lift
bridges. These consist of heavy iron ores or barite (barium sulfate),
rock crushed to suitable sizes, fine steel of scrap, punching of shots
are also used. Unit weight is 3,200 kg/m3.

Aggregate Properties and Tests

A number of tests have been described to assess the quality of the
aggregate, in terms of the following physical and mechanical properties:

• particle size, shape and surface texture: ‘size’ and ‘shape’ influence
strength; ‘shape’ and ‘texture’ influence bond (between the aggregate
and the cement paste) — for instance, it is found that angular and
somewhat porous aggregates are conducive to good bond.

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 • geological classification: based on the mineral type of the parent
rock.
• specific gravity and bulk density: of aggregate particle and
aggregate whole respectively.
• moisture content, water absorption and bulking of sand : the
moisture present in aggregate or the moisture that may be absorbed by
the aggregate, as the case may be, must be accounted for in the water
content of the concrete mix; moreover, the presence of water films in
between sand particles results in an increase in volume (bulking of
sand) that must be accounted for in case volume batching is employed
in mix preparation.
• strength: resistance to compression, measured in terms of the
aggregate crushing value.
• toughness: resistance to impact, measured in terms of the aggregate
impact value
• hardness: resistance to wear, measured in terms of the aggregate
abrasion value
• soundness: which indicates whether or not the aggregate undergoes
appreciable volume changes due to alternate thermal changes, wetting
and drying, freezing and thawing.
• deleterious constituents: such as iron pyrites, coal, mica, clay, silt,
salt and organic impurities, which can adversely affect the hydration of
cement, the bond with cement paste, the strength and the durability of
hardened concrete.

1.24 Proportioning, Mixing of Aggregates, Cement and Water

This topic is the study of low cost of concrete, the ratio of sand,
gravel, cement and water. As specified in previous understanding, in a
certain mixture of concrete water is present, to compensate the strength.
A mixture uses 4.0 to 4.5 gallons of water for a class AA concrete, then
add 1 gallon for every class of proportioned.

Table 1.0 – Proportioning of Cement – aggregates ratio:

Number of
Cu.m of Cu.m of
Class Proportion Cement
Sand Gravel
(bags)
AA 1:2:3 9 0.42 0.84
A 1:2:4 7.5 0.44 0.86
B 1:2.5:5 6 0.46 0.88
C 1:3:6 5 0.48 0.90

1.25 Admixtures

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 Admixtures are substances other than cement, water, or aggregates
which are added to concrete mixes for the purpose of altering properties
of the fresh or hardened concrete. Admixtures are not generally required
to produce high-quality, low-cost concrete, but they may sometimes be
necessary or desirable to alter specific properties of the concrete for
specific conditions or circumstances. They must be carefully controlled,
however, to avoid adversely affecting the concrete, so it is best to use
admixtures only in concrete supplied by an experienced and reputable
ready-mix producer. Accurate job-site mixing can be difficult to achieve,
and the ready-mix producer has the advantage of batching and mixing in
a controlled environment with precisely calibrated equipment.

The admixtures most commonly used in construction are:

a.) Chemical admixtures

b.) Air-entraining agents
c.) Coloring pigments.

The three most commonly used chemical admixtures are:

1.) Set accelerators, speed up the setting time and early strength
development of concrete. This can be helpful in winter weather to
reduce the length of time required for curing and protection and to
compensate for the effects of low temperatures on strength
development. Setting time can be reduced by one-third to one-half.
Calcium chloride is the most widely used chemical accelerator, but it
has a corrosive effect on embedded steel reinforcement and should
never be used in concentrations exceeding 2% of the weight of the
cement. Other chemicals such as calcium nitrite and calcium formate
have a less corrosive effect but are not as widely available. The so
called “antifreeze compounds” for concrete are actually set
accelerators. Antifreeze mixtures manufactured for the automotive
industry will severely damage concrete and should never be used.

2.) Set retarders, slow down the hydration process so that the concrete
stays plastic and workable for a longer time after mixing. This can be
helpful in hot weather where high temperatures tend to speed up the
normal setting time, and for complicated pours where placement takes
a little longer than usual.

3.) Water reducers lower the amount of mixing water required without
decreasing workability. This can be helpful when the available
materials simply will not produce concrete of adequate workability
and consistency without exceeding recommended water-cement

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 ratios. In practice, water-reducing admixtures are typically used only
on commercial projects because they require the testing of trial
batches of concrete to determine their effect on other properties

Air-Entraining Agents:

Both natural and chemical admixtures can be used to improve

workability. Lean or harsh concrete mixes can be improved by the
addition of finely ground material such as fly ash or natural or
manufactured pozzolans. Some set-retarding or water reducing
admixtures also improve workability, but they are not used primarily for
this purpose. Air-entraining agents improve workability and are
particularly effective in lean mixes and in mixes containing poorly graded
or sharp, angular aggregate. Air entrainment reduces segregation, slows
the rate of bleeding, and shortens finishing time. Either a separate air-
entraining agent or an air-entrained cement may be used, but total air
content is generally recommended not to exceed 4 to 7% of the total
concrete volume. Better control of air content is achieved using a
separate air-entraining admixture batched at a ready-mix plant. For job-
site mixing, air-entrained cements are easier to use but require
mechanical rather than hand mixing.

Coloring Pigments:
One of the ways to introduce color to concrete is the addition of
natural or synthetic mineral coloring pigments to the mix. The pigments
must be insoluble in water, free from soluble salts and acids, colorfast in
sunlight, chemically stable in the alkaline cement paste, and have no
adverse effect on the setting time, strength
development, or durability of the concrete. Synthetic oxide pigments are
stronger than natural oxide pigments so less is required, but the cost is
higher. Many manufacturers package their pigments in amounts
appropriate to color one cubic meter of concrete containing six bags of
cement. Both liquid and powder pigments are available. Using white
Portland cement instead of grey produces cleaner, brighter, more vivid
colors.

1.30 Characteristics of Concrete in Simple Compression and the

Typical Stress-Strain

Trial Bath and Slum Test

Trial Bath Method – method of proportioning (mixing) of cement and

aggregates with water which is done as slump test for a mixture suitable
in a certain area.

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Slump Test – is a test which is done before the construction in a certain
area, to see if a source of aggregates near the propose construction site
is suitable for concrete used.

Procedure in Slump Test:

a) Place a concrete in a metal holds form 0.30 m high with a diameter
of 0.15 m, a cylindrical form, at least three each desired mixture/s.
b) The sample concrete cylinders are then tested by placing it in a
compressive strength machine, after 28 days of curing to determine
its designed strength.
c) If the result of the tests is equal or greater in strength than its
design capacity, then it is safe to have concrete of the same quality
that should be used in the structure as stipulated in test.

Grade of Concrete

This is measured by standard tests on concrete cube (or cylinder)

specimens. Many of the other important properties of concrete can be
inferred from the compressive strength, using correlations that have
been experimentally established. The quality or grade of concrete is
designated in terms of a number, which denotes its characteristic
compressive strength (of 150 mm cubes at 28-days), expressed in MPa
(or, equivalently, N/mm2). The number is usually preceded by the letter
‘M’, which refers to ‘mix’. Thus, for example, M20 grade concrete
denotes a concrete whose mix is so designed as to generate a
characteristic strength of 20 MPa. The selection of the minimum grade of
concrete is dictated by considerations of durability, and is related to the
kind of environment that the structure is exposed to. The minimum grade
of concrete in reinforced concrete work has been upgraded from M15 to
M20. However, this is applicable only under ‘mild’ exposure conditions.
An exposure condition is considered 'mild' when the concrete surface is
protected against weather or aggressive conditions and is not situated in
a coastal area. Under more adverse environmental exposure‡ conditions,
higher grades of concrete are called for. For ‘moderate’, ‘severe’, ‘very
severe’ and ‘extreme’ exposure conditions,
the minimum grades prescribed are M25, M30, M35 and M40
respectively, for reinforced concrete work., It should be noted that the
higher grades specified here are dictated, not by the need for higher
compressive strength, but by the need for improved durability. The need
is for ‘high performance’ concrete, and it is only incidental that this high
performance (obtained, for example, by reducing the water-cement ratio
and adding mineral admixtures such as silica fume) is correlated with
high strength. In practice, although M20 is the minimum grade specified
for reinforced concrete, it is prudent to adopt a higher grade. However,
there are specific applications that may call for the grade of concrete to
be decided on the basis of considerations of strength, rather than

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durability. For example, the use of high strength is desirable in the
columns of very tall buildings, in order to reduce their cross-sectional
dimensions; this is desirable even under ‘mild’ environmental exposure.

Characteristic Strength Concrete

The material strength is subjected to considerable variability. Cube

specimens that are taken from the same mix give different values of
compressive strength in laboratory tests. This may be attributed largely
to the non-homogeneous nature of concrete. The variability in the
strength evidently depends on the degree of quality control. Statistically,
it is measured in terms of either the ‘standard deviation’ (σ) or the
coefficient of variation (cov), which is the ratio of the standard deviation
to the mean strength (fcm). Experimental studies have revealed that the
probability distribution of concrete strength (for a given mix, as
determined by compression tests on a large number of specimens) is
approximately ‘normal’. The coefficient of variation is generally in the
range of 0.01 to 0.02; it is expected to reduce with increasing grade of
concrete, in view of the need for increased quality control. In view of the
significant variability in the compressive strength, it is necessary to
ensure that the designer has a reasonable assurance of a certain
minimum strength of concrete.

Cylinder strength (f’c) – the measurement of concrete strength

resulted from test which acts as the main property specified for design
purposes. It is also the continuous control to ensure the strength of the
concrete. It is also the considered grade of concrete with M20, which is
f’c = 20 MPa and greater.

Compressive Unit stress of concrete; fc = 0.45 f’c = It is considered

as the mean strength as results of slump tests of several cylinders.

Unit Weight of Concrete = 2,400 kg/m3

Stress-Strain Curves

Typical stress-strain curves of concrete (of various grades), obtained

from standard uniaxial compression tests, are shown in Fig. 1.10. The
curves are somewhat linear in the very initial phase of loading; the non-
linearity begins to gain significance when the stress level exceeds about
one-third to one-half of the
maximum. The maximum stress is reached at a strain approximately
equal to 0.002; beyond this point, an increase in strain is accompanied by
a decrease in stress. For the usual range of concrete strengths, the strain
at failure is in the range of 0.003 to 0.005. The higher the concrete
grade, the steeper is the initial portion of the stress-strain curve, the

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sharper the peak of the curve, and the less the failure strain. For low
strength concrete, the curve has a relatively flat top, and a high failure
strain. When the stress level reaches 70–90 percent of the maximum,
internal cracks are initiated in the mortar throughout the concrete mass,
roughly parallel to the direction of the applied loading. The concrete
tends to expand laterally, and longitudinal cracks become visible when
the lateral strain exceeds the limiting tensile strain of concrete (0.0001—
0.0003). The cracks generally occur at the aggregate-mortar interface.

Performance of structure under load depends to a large degree on the

stress-strain relationship of the material. Since concrete is used mostly
in compression, its compressive stress-strain curve is of primary
interests. Such curve is obtained by appropriate strain measurements in
cylinder tests. Concrete of lower strength are less brittle but greater in
fracture or cracks.

Figure 1.10: Typical Stress-strain Curve of Concrete in

Compression

The descending branch of the stress-strain curve can be fully traced

only if the strain-controlled application of the load is properly achieved.
For this, the testing

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 machine must be sufficiently rigid‡ (i.e., it must have a very high value of
load per unit deformation); otherwise, the concrete is likely to fail
abruptly (sometimes, explosively) almost immediately after the maximum
stress is reached. The fall in
stress with increasing strain is a phenomenon which is not clearly
understood; it is associated with extensive micro-cracking in the mortar,
and is sometimes called softening of concrete.

1.40 Mechanical Properties of Concrete

The desired properties of concrete are:

1.) Compressive Strength

2.) Tensile Strength
3.) Flexural Strength
4.) Modulus Elasticity
5.) Creep
6.) Shrinkage

Compressive Strength

Among the properties that can be easily tested, and is perhaps the
most valuable (from the viewpoint of structural design) is the
compressive strength. Universal Testing Machine is the most common
equipment used to test for compressive and flexural strength.
Compression is the main property of plain concrete. And plain concrete
is mostly used for construction of piers, pavements and roads. Could only
be used to high rise structures with the additional of reinforcing steel.

The 28-day compressive strength of concrete can be estimated from

the 7-day strength formula:
S28 = S7 + 2.5√ S ₇ ; Answer in MPa
S 7 = cylinder test (compressive strength) result
on the 7th day of curing.

Tensile Strength

The tensile strength of concrete is about a tenth of the compressive

strength. It is determined by loading a concrete cylinder across a
diameter as shown in Fig. 1.20. From figure, this shows that tension pulls
away that cause elongation of the concrete particles. For the concrete to
resists tensile stresses, reinforcement is added.

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 Figure 1.20: Composition of Cylinder Test for Tensile
Strength

Figure 1.30: Illustration (Comparison) of the Properties of

Concrete

Concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak in tension and

bending. It takes a great deal of force to crush concrete, but very little
force to pull it apart or cause bending cracks (Figure 1-30). Compressive
strength is determined primarily by the amount of cement used but is
also affected by the ratio of water to cement, as well as proper mixing,
placing, and curing. Tensile strength usually ranges from 7 or 8% of
compressive strength in high-strength mixes to 11 or 12% in low-
strength mixes. Both tensile strength and flexural bending strength can
be increased by adding steel or fiber reinforcement.

Flexural Strength

The stresses that resist in a structure after load is added. This

occurs specially to beams and slabs.

LSG 18
Modulus of Elasticity (EC) – unlike steel and other materials concrete
has no definite modulus of elasticity. Its value is dependent on the
characteristics of cement and aggregates used, age of concrete and
strength.

The Young’s modulus of elasticity is a constant, defined as the ratio,

within the linear elastic range, of axial stress to axial strain, under
uniaxial loading. In the case of concrete under uniaxial compression, it
has some validity in the very initial portion of the stress-strain curve,
which is practically linear, that is, when the loading is of low intensity,
and of very short duration. If the loading is sustained for a relatively long
duration, inelastic creep effects come into play, even at relatively low
stress levels.

The initial tangent modulus [Fig 1.40] is therefore, sometimes

considered to be a measure of the dynamic modulus of elasticity of
concrete. It finds application in some cases of cyclic loading (wind- or
earthquake-induced), where long-term effects are negligible. However,
even in such cases, the non-elastic behavior of concrete manifests,
particularly if high intensity cyclic loads are involved; in such cases, a
pronounced hysteresis effect is observed, with each cycle of loading
producing incremental permanent deformation. In the usual problems of
structural analysis, based on linear static analysis, it is the static
modulus of elasticity that needs to be considered. It may be noted that
when the loads on a structure (such as dead loads) are of long duration,
the long-term effects of creep reduce the effective modulus of elasticity
significantly. Although it is difficult to separate the long-term strains
induced by creep (and shrinkage) from the short-term ‘elastic’ strains,
this is usually done at a conceptual level, for convenience.

Accordingly, while estimating the deflection of a reinforced concrete

beam, the total deflection is assumed to be a sum of an ‘instantaneous’
elastic deflection (caused by the loads) and the ‘long-term’ deflections
induced by creep and shrinkage. The short-term static modulus of
elasticity (Ec) is used in computing the ‘instantaneous’ elastic deflection.

LSG 19
 Figure 1.40: Various Description of Modulus Elasticity of
Concrete
IT = Initial tangent ; T = Tangent ; S = Secant

Various descriptions of Concrete Modulus, Ec, are possible,

such as:
1.) Initial tangent modulus
2.) Tangent modulus (at a specified stress level)
3.) Secant modulus (at a specified stress level)

Among these, the secant modulus at a stress of about one-third

the cube strength of concrete is generally found acceptable in
representing an average value of Ec under service load conditions
(static loading).

According to NSCP (National Structural Code of the Philippines), 2015

Volume 1, Section 419.2.2.1.a modulus elasticity of concrete for values of
Wc (Weight of Concrete) between 1,440 to 2,560 kg/m3 may be taken as;
Ec=Wc 0.043 √ f c (in MPa.)
1.5 '

Where:
Ec = Modulus elasticity of concrete in MPa
Wc = the unit weight of concrete in kg/m3
f’c = the 28-day compressive strength of concrete in MPa

For Normal weights concrete: Ec=4700 √ f ' c (in MPa)

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Creep

Creep in concrete is the gradual increase in strain with time in a

member subjected to prolonged stress. The creep strain is much larger
than the elastic strain on loading. If the specimen is unloaded there is an
immediate elastic recovery and a slower recovery in the strain due to
creep. Both amounts of recovery are much less than the original strains
under load. The main factors affecting creep strain are the concrete mix
and strength, the type of aggregate, curing, ambient relative humidity
and the magnitude and duration of sustained loading.

The creep strain εcc is calculated from the creep coefficient φ by

the equation:
Stress
Є= xφ
Eₜ

where Et is the modulus of elasticity of the concrete at the age of

loading. The creep coefficient φ depends on the effective section
thickness, the age of loading and the relative ambient humidity. The
creep coefficient is used in deflection calculations.

Shrinkage

Concrete shrinks in the hardened state due to loss of moisture by

evaporation; the consequent reduction in volume is termed drying
shrinkage (often, simply shrinkage). Like creep, shrinkage introduces
time-dependent strains in concrete.

Shrinkage and creep are not independent phenomena. However, for

convenience, it is normal practice to treat their effects as separate,
independent and additive. All the factors related to constituent material
properties, composition of mix, curing and environmental conditions,
member size and age that affect creep also affect shrinkage. However,
unlike creep, shrinkage strains are independent of the stress conditions
in the concrete. Also, shrinkage is reversible to a great extent, i.e.,
alternating dry and wet conditions will cause alternating volume changes
in concrete.

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 Figure 1.50: Typical Variation of Shrinkage with
Time

When shrinkage is restrained, as it often is in concrete structures,

tensile stresses develop, and, if excessive, may lead to cracking.
Similarly, a differential shrinkage, due to a moisture or thermal gradient,
or due to a differential restraint to shrinkage (caused, for example, by
unsymmetrically placed reinforcement in a beam) will result in internal
stresses, curvature and deflections. Shrinkage, like creep, also leads to a
loss of prestress in prestressed concrete structures. Since the primary
cause of shrinkage is moisture loss from the cement paste phase of the
concrete, it can be minimized by keeping the unit water content in the
mix as low as possible and the total aggregate content as high as
possible.

Excessive shrinkage can cause concrete to crack. The cracks allow

moisture to penetrate, and a vicious cycle of deterioration may begin.
Shrinkage cracking can be restrained to some extent by steel or fiber
reinforcement, and the location of shrinkage cracks can be controlled
through the use of special joints that divide the concrete into smaller
panels or sections. However, the mix design and ingredient proportions
also have an effect on the potential for shrinkage cracking. The higher
the cement content, the greater the tendency for shrinkage cracks to
form while the concrete is curing and hardening.

1.50 The Reinforcing Steel

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 Concrete is reinforced with steel primarily to make up for concrete’s
incapacity for tensile resistance. Steel embedded in concrete, called
reinforcing steel, can effectively take up the tension that is induced due
to flexural tension, direct tension, ‘diagonal tension’ or environmental
effects. Reinforcing steel also imparts ductility to a material that is
otherwise brittle.
Reinforcing bars are produced in two grades: hot rolled mild steel
bars have a yield strength fy of 250 N/mm 2; hot rolled or cold worked
high yield steel bars have a yield strength fy of 460 N/mm 2. Steel fabric
is made from cold drawn steel wires welded to form a mesh; it has a yield
strength fy of 460 N/mm2.

Types of Reinforcement

1.Metal Reinforcements
If this type is use as concrete reinforcement, it shall be deformed
metal bars, except that plain reinforcement consisting of structural
steel, steel pipe or steel tubing. Reinforcing bars to welded shall be
indicated on the drawing and welding procedure to be used shall
conform to Philippine National Standard (PNS). PNS reinforcing bar
specification shall be supplemented, as a report of material properties
necessary to conform to welding procedures specified in “structural
welding code-Reinforcing steel” (AWS D.14) American Welding
Standards.

2.Deformed Reinforcement
Deformed reinforcing bars shall conform to the standards specified
in section Deformed reinforcing bars with a specified yield strength fy
exceeding 415 MPa shall be permitted, provided fy shall be the stress
corresponding to strain of 0.35 percent and the bars otherwise
conform to one of the ASTM and PNS specification.

3.Plain Reinforcement
Plain bars for spiral reinforcement shall conform to ASTM A615M –
which is carbon steel, A706M – an alloy, A955M – stainless steel and
A1035M – a low carbon chromium steel. For wire specified yield
strength fy exceeding 415 MPa, fy shall be the stress corresponding to
a strain of 0.35 percent if the yield strength specified in the design
exceeds 415 MPa.

Properties of reinforcing Steel

1. Steel Modulus of Elasticity, Es = 200,000 MPa
2. Steel yield strength, fy
3. Steel unit strength, fs

4. Ultimate strength, fu

LSG 23
5. Steel strain below yield point, Єs = fs/Es
6. Steel strain at yield point, Єy = fy/Es

Table 1.10: From National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP)

Volume I, 7th
Edition and ACI Code.

LSG 24
 Table 1.20: From National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP)
Volume I, 7th
Edition and ACI Code. Standard Reinforcement for
Prestress Concrete.

Concrete Protection for Reinforcements:

Steel reinforcement in concrete should be provided with adequate
covering. These covering depend on the type of exposure of the
number and the protection.

For Member Covering, (Depend on Exposure)

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 1) For concrete cast and permanently exposed to earth, such as footings,
minimum concrete cover is 75mm.
2) For concrete member expose to weather, 40 to 50 mm.
3) For slabs walls and joists, minimum covering is 20 mm.
4) For beams and columns, minimum covering is 40 mm.
5) For bundle bars, the minimum concrete cover shall be equal to the
equivalent diameter of the bundle, but need not be greater than 50
mm, except for concrete cast permanently exposed to earth the
minimum cover shall be 75 mm.

Standard Hooks of Reinforcements

Hook Specifications:

1) 180° bend plus 4 d extension but not less than 65 mm at free end.
2) 90° bend plus 12 d extension at free end of bar.
3) For 16 mm Ø bar and smaller, 90° bend plus 6d extension at free end
of bar.
4) 20 mm Ø and 25 mm Ø bar, 90° bend plus 12d extension at free end
of bar.
5) 25 mm Ø bar and smaller, 135° bend plus 6d extension at free end of
bar.

Minimum Bend Diameter:

The minimum bend measured on the inside of the bar, other than for
stirrups and ties, 10 mm Ø to 15mm Ø shall not be less than the
following:

a.) 6d for 10 mm Ø ties to 25 mm Ø bar

b.) 8d for 28 mm to 32 mm Ø
c.) 10d for 36 mm Ø bar

For Stirrups and Ties:

Diameter bend shall not less than 4d for 16mm Ø and smaller.

1.60 Loadings
Load – weight applied to structure during its life and the worst possible
combination that might occur simultaneously. Considered as
forces of other actions that results from the weight of all
buildings materials, occupants and their possessions,
environmental effects, differential movements and restrained
dimensional changes.
Permanents loads – are those loads in which variations over time are
rare or small magnitude.
Nominal loadings – is a designed load that stressed a member of
fastening to the full allowable stresses. This loading maybe

LSG 26
 applied for approximately 10 years, either continuously or
cumulatively, and 90% of this load maybe applied for the
remainder of the life of the member.
Factored loads – a load that is multiplied by appropriate load factor.

Classification of Loads

1.) Dead Loads – are loads of constant magnitude that remain in

one position. This consists mainly of the weight of the structure
and other permanent attachments to the frame.

2.) Live Loads – are loads that may change in magnitude and
position. These are loads produced by the use and occupancy of
the building and other structure and do not include dead load,
construction load and environmental loads.

Types of Live Loads

a.) Moving Loads – are live loads that move under own power, such as
trucks, people and cranes.
b.) Movable Loads – are loads that may be move, such as furniture’s,
warehouse materials and show.
c.) Lateral Loads – are loads caused by Wind and Earthquake.
d.) Traffic Loads for Bridges – series of concentrated loads of varying
magnitude caused by group of trucks or train wheels.
e.)Impact Loads – caused by the vibration of moving or movable loads.

Table 1.30: Live Loads Considered in the Design of Structure for each
Type of Occupancy
Occupancy or Use Live loads (Pa)
1. Residential or Apartments
a.) Barracks 1,900
b.) Dormitories:
Partitioned 1,900
Non-Partitioned 2,900

c.) Multi-family Houses:

Private Apartments 2,400
Public Rooms 4,800
Corridors 2,400
d.) Dwellings
First Floor 1,900
Second Floor 1,400

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 2. Hotels: 1,900
Guest rooms 4,800
Public rooms 4,800
Corridors serving public rooms 4,800
Public corridors 3,800
Private corridors 4,800
Recreational rooms (Not used for dancing)
3. Schools: 1,900
Classrooms 4,800
Corridors 2,900
Shower and Wash rooms 4,800
Stairs, Fire Escapes and Exit ways
4,800
4. Theaters: 2,900
Aisles, Corridors and Lobbies 2,900
Orchestra Floors – Fixed seat 7,200
Balconies – Fixed seat 1,900
Stage Floors
Toilets 2,400
5. Office Buildings: 4,800
Office
Lobbies

1.70 Stresses

Es
1. Modulus Elasticity, n = = 10
Ec
2. Flexure:
Compression, fc = 0.45 f’c= 7.78
Footing and Walls, fc = 0.13 √ f ’ c = 0.54
3. Shear: The tests of concrete shearing stress have yielded values of
one-third to four-fifth of the compressive strength.
a. Diagonal tension at distance “d” from face of support
V = 0.03 √ f ’ c = 0.37
b. Joist with no web reinforcement, v = √ f ’ c = 0.42
c. Punching shear at distance d/2, vp = 0.17 √ f ’ c = 0.71

4. Bearing
a. On full area, fc = 0.25 f’c = 4.32
b. On one third area or less, fc = 0.375 = 6.48

Allowable Stresses

LSG 28
 1. Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete, Ec = 4,730 √ f ’ c Mpa
2. Modulus of Elasticity of Steel, Es = 200,000 MPa
3. Allowable Shearing stress, Va = 0.09 √ f ’ c MPa
4. Allowable Punching shear, Vp = 0.17 f’c MPa
5. Allowable band stress:
7.18 √ f ' c
a. For top bars in tension, Ua = nor 2.42 MPa
D
10.14 √ f ' c
b. Bars other than top bars in tension, Ua = nor 3.46 MPa
D
c. For plain bars; use one-half of the values above but not less than
1.11MPa
d. For tension bars with sizes and deformations conforming to ASTM
A408
Top bars, U = 0.18 √ f ’ c MPa
Bars other than top bars, U = 0.25 √ f ’ c MPa
e. For all deformed compression bars, Ua = 0.54 √ f ’ c MPa

1.80 Reference Code of Practice, NSCP 2015, Volume

Section 103 Occupancy Classification of Structures

Nature of Occupancy
Buildings and other structures shall be classified, based on the
nature of occupancy, according to table 103.1 for purposes of applying
wind and earthquake loads. Each building or other structures shall be
assigned to the highest applicable occupancy category or categories.
Assignment of the same structure to multiple occupancy categories
based on used and the type of loading condition being evaluated (e.g.
wind or seismic) shall be permissible.

Table 103-1 Occupancy Category

LSG 29
`

LSG 30
 Section 104 – Design Requirements

104.1 Strength Requirements

Buildings, towers and other vertical structures and all portions thereof
shall be design and constructed to sustain, within the limitations
specified in this code, all loads set forth in chapter 2 and elsewhere in
this code, combined in accordance with section 203.

104.2 Serviceability Requirements

Structural systems and members thereof shall be design to have

adequate stiffness to limit deflections, lateral drifts, vibration, or any

LSG 31
other deformations that adversely affect the intended used and
performance of buildings, towers and other vertical structures. The
design should also consider durability, resistance to exposure to
weather or aggressive environment, crack control and other conditions
that affect the intended used and performance of buildings, towers and
other vertical structures.

104.3 Analysis

Any system or method of construction to be used shall be based on a

national analysis in accordance with well-established principles of
mechanics that takes into account equilibrium, general stability,
geometric compatibility and both short-term and long-term materials
properties. Members that tend to accumulate residential deformations
under repeated service loads shall have included in their the added
eccentricities expected to occur during their service life. Such analysis
shall result in a system that provides a complete load path capable of
transferring all loads and forces from their point of origin to the load of
resisting-moments. The analysis shall include, but not limited to, the
provisions of section 104.3.1 through 104.3.3.

1. Stability Against Overturning

Every structure shall be designed to resist the overturning effects

cause by the lateral forces specified with adequate Factor of Safety
(FOS). See section 207 for wind loading and section 208 for earthquake
loading.

2. Self-straining Forces

Provisions shall be made for anticipated self-straining forces arising

from differential settlement of foundations and from restrain
dimensional changes due to temperature, moisture, shrinkage, heave,
creep and similar effect.

3. Anchorage

Anchorage of the roof to walls and columns, and of walls and column
to foundations shall be provided and adequately to resist the uplift and
sliding forces that result from the application of the prescribed forces.

Concrete and masonry walls shall be anchored to all floors, roof and
other structural elements, that provide lateral support for the wall. Such
anchorage shall provide a positive direct connection capable of resisting
the horizontal forces.

LSG 32
104.4 Foundation Investigation

Soil exploration should be required for buildings, towers and other

vertical structures falling under categories I, II, III, IV in accordance
with table 103.1 or as required by the building official or the site-
specific conditions make the foundation investigation necessary.

Section 203 Combination of loads

Symbols and Notations

D = dead load
E = earthquake load
Em = estimated maximum earthquake force that can be develop in
the structure.
F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressure and maximum
heights.
H = load due to lateral pressure of soil and water in soil.
L = live load, except road live load, including any permitted live
load reduction.
Lr = roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction.
P = ponding load.
R = rain load on the undeflected roof.
T = self-straining force and effects arising from contraction or
expansion resulting from temperature change, shrinkage,
moisture change, creep in component materials, movement
due to different settlement, or combinations thereof.
W = load due to wind pressure.

Sub-section 203.3 Load Combinations Using Strength Design or

Load and Resistance Factor Design

Basic Load Combinations

Where strength design or load and resistance factor is used,

structures and all portions thereof shall resist the most critical effects
from the following combinations of factored loads:

W = 1.4(D + F) ----------------------------------------- eq. 1

W = 1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or R) ---- eq. 2
W = 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + (f1 or 0.5W) -------------- eq. 3
W = 1.2D + 1.0W + f1L + 0.5(Lr or R) --------------- eq. 4
W = 1.2D + 1.0E + f1L --------------------------------- eq. 5
W = 0.9D + 1.0W + 1.6H ----------------------------- eq. 6
W = 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H ---------------------------- eq. 7

Where:

LSG 33
 f 1 = 1.0 for floors in places of public assembly, for live
loads in excess
of 4.8kPa, and garage live load.
= 0.5 for other live loads.

Sub-section 203.3.2 Other Loads

Where P is to be considered in design, the applicable load

shall be added to section 203.3.1 factored as 1.2P.

Sub-section 203.4 Load Combinations Using Allowable Stress or

Allowable Strength Design

Basic Load Combinations

Where allowable stress or allowable strength design is used,

structures and all portion thereof shall resist the most critical effects
resulting from the following combinations of loads:

W = D + H
--------------------------------------- eq. 8
W = D + H
+ F + L + T ------------------------- eq. 9
W = D + H
+ F + (Lr or R) --------------------- eq. 10
W = D + H
+ F + 0.75[L + T(Lr or R) --------- eq. 11
E
W = D + H + F + (0.6W or ) ---------------- eq. 12
1.4

Alternate Basic Load Combinations

In lieu of the basic load combinations specified in section
203.4.1, structures and portions thereof shall be permitted to be design
for the moist critical effects resulting from the following load
combinations. When using this alternate basic load combinations, a one-
third increase shall be permitted in allowable stresses for all
combinations, including W or E.
E
W = D + H + F + 0.75[L + Lr(0.6W or ) ----- eq. 13
1.4
W = 0.6D + 0.6W + H ---------------------------- eq. 14
E
W = 0.6D + H + ------------------------------- eq. 15
1.4
W = D + L + (Lr or R) ----------------------------- eq. 16
W = D + L + 0.6W --------------------------------- eq. 17
E
W=D+L+ ------------------------------------- eq. 18
1.4

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