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Lecture 1

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Mirryam Galivaka Uluiviti Taukiei
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10 views24 pages

Lecture 1

Uploaded by

Mirryam Galivaka Uluiviti Taukiei
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Lecture 1

MATERIALS, PROPERTIES AND


PRODUCTION OF CONCRETE

Lecturer: Arnold Lal


To start things off, For strength, the reinforced concrete structural members may be designed by two (2)
different methods: Working Stress Design (WSD) or Ultimate Strength Design (USD). The basic principle of
the Working Stress Design (WSD) method is the design of reinforced concrete structures based on the strain
– stress relationship in the structures up to proportional limit and not on its ultimate strength or rupture
strength.
Proportional Limit:

From the origin at point O to a point called the “Proportional Limit” in the figure shown,
shows the stress – strain diagram to be a straight line. From this, we deduce the well-known
relation of Hooke’s Law that stress is directly proportional to strain. At this point the material
will return to its original shape and length when the load acting on the material will be
removed. Beyond this point, the stress is no longer proportional to strain.

Elastic Limit:

The stresses beyond which the material will not return to its original shape when unloaded
but will retain a permanent deform shape.
Yield Point:

The point on the stress strain diagram at which the material will have appreciable elongation
or yielding of the material without any corresponding increase in load. Indeed, the load may
actually decrease while the yielding occurs.

Rupture Strength:

The point on the stress strain diagram on which the material will reach it ultimate strength
beyond which the material will fail.
Instead of adopting the direct value of dead and live load in design analysis, combination
factor was adopted to increase the design load. In the New Zealand standard and Australian
Standard, the current combination factor adopted are those provided AS/NZS 1170.0.
Section 4, AS/NZS 1170.0, provides the following combination of actions for various loadings.
Strength reduction factor (ϕ) was also included to be multiplied to the design strength of the
members of the structure. Clause 2.3.2.2, NZS 3101, 2006 provides the following values for
strength reduction (ϕ)
MATERIALS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE
PORTLAND CEMENT

The cement used most extensively in building construction is Portland cement.


Among the five types of standard Portland cement generally available, Type 1
Portland cement is used. It is a generally purpose cement for use in concrete
designed to reach its maximum compressive strength in 28 days and Type 3, a high-
early- strength cement for use in concrete that attains its desired strength in a
period of weeks or less. All Portland cements set and harden by reacting with water
and this hydration process is accompanied by the generation of heat.
MIXING WATER

The water used in making concrete should be clean and free from
injurious amounts of oil, acid, alkali, organic matter, or other deleterious
substances. In general, any drinking water free from pronounced odor or
taste is satisfactory for used as mixing water. Excessive impurities
however may affect setting time and concrete strength and cause
corrosion of reinforcement or efflorescence on finished concrete
surfaces.

Although sea water containing as much as 3.5% salt can be used for
making plain concrete, it should not be employed for reinforced concrete
because of the risk of corrosion of the steel reinforcement
FINE AGGREGATES

The materials held together by the paste formed of cement and water is
the aggregates. The aggregates are inert materials: natural sand crushed
stone, pebbles, cinders, and slag. The material smaller than 3/8 inch in
diameter is called fine aggregates. The fine aggregate should consist of
natural sand, or of inert materials with similar characteristics, having
clean, hard and durable grains, free from organic matter or loam.

The size and grading of fine aggregate are determined by standard wire
cloth sieves. It is desirable to have a mixture of fine and coarse grains, for
graded aggregate will produce a more compact, hence stronger concrete.
A common specification for grading the fine aggregates requires that not
less than 95% to 100 % shall pass the no. 4 sieve and not more than 30
nor less than 10% shall pass the no. 50 sieve.
COARSE AGGREGATES

All material larger than 3/8 inch in diameter is called coarse aggregates and includes
crushed stone, gravel, slag or other inert materials. Like the fine aggregates, coarse
aggregates should also range in size. In general, the sizes vary from ¼ to 3 inches, the
maximum for reinforced concrete being 1 or 1 ½ inches.
Some building codes limit the sizes of the coarse aggregate to three quarter (¾) of the
minimum clear spacing between reinforcing steel bars and not larger than one fifth
(1/5) of the narrowest dimension between the sides of the form of the member of
which concrete is to be used. When concrete member is small, necessitating close
spacing of bars, the coarse aggregate is usually graded 3/8 to ¾ inch. Any crushed rock
of durable and strong qualities or clean hard gravel may be used as coarse aggregates.
Trap rock makes one of the best aggregates.
Granite and limestone are likewise suitable, but certain sandstones are considered
unfit for use. fine to coarse aggregates, there, are of courses, many possible
combinations, but depending on its maximum size, the coarse aggregates will usually
constitute approximately 50% to 60% of the total aggregates. The fine and coarse
aggregates together generally occupy 60% to 80% of the volume of concrete.
ADMIXTURES

Substances added to concrete to improve its workability, accelerate its set,


harden its surface, and increase its waterproof qualities are known as
admixtures. The term embraces all materials other than cement, water, and
aggregates that are added just before or during mixing. Many of the proprietary
compounds contain hydrated lime, calcium chloride, and kaolin. Calcium
chloride is the most commonly used admixtures for accelerating the set of
concrete, but corrosion of steel reinforcement may be the consequences of its
excessive use.

Caution should be exercised in the use of admixtures, especially those of


unknown composition. The desire properties produced by the use of
admixtures in concrete can often be obtained just as economically and
conveniently by proper proportioning of the mix and selection of suitable
materials, without employing admixtures (except air entraining admixtures).
STEEL REINFORCEMENT

The most common type of steel reinforcement employed in concrete building


construction consists of round bars, usually of the deformed type, with lugs or
projections on their surfaces. The purpose of the surface deformations is to
develop a greater bond between the concrete and the steel. To ensure
sufficient space for placing of concrete around the reinforcement and to
provide adequate cover for bars near the surfaces of the members, minimum
clearance is required.

The clear spacing/distance between parallel bars shall be:


a) Not less than 1.5 times the nominal diameter of the bars
b) b) Not less than 25 mm.
FORMWORKS

An inherent property of concrete is that it may be made in any shape. The wet
mixture is placed in forms constructed of wood, metal or other suitable
materials in which it hardens or sets. The forms must be put together with
quality workmanship, holding to close dimensional tolerances. Formworks
should be strong enough to support the weight of the concrete and rigid
enough to maintain the desired position and shape of the concrete mixture.

In addition, formworks should be tight enough to prevent the seepage of water


and designed to permit easy removal without damaging the concrete elements
or the forms used.
PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTION OF CONCRETE
It is essential that the hardened concrete should have, above all else, strength and
durability. In order that the concrete in its plastic form may be readily placed in forms,
another essential quality is workability. When water tightness is required, concrete must
be dense and uniform in quality.
Hence it is seen that in determining the various proportions of the mixture, the designer
must have in mind the purpose for which the concrete is to be used and the exposure to
which it will be subjected.
The following factors regulate the quality of concrete:
• Suitable concrete materials;
• Correct proportioning of cement, sand and gravel for desired strength of concrete;
• Proper method of mixing and placing of concrete mix in the forms; and,
• Adequate protection of fresh concrete mixture during the curing period.
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
The designer of a reinforced concrete building bases his computations on the use of
concrete with a specified compressive strength at the end of 28 days curing period. The
symbol for this specified compressive strength is f’c. Concrete of different strengths are
produced by varying the proportions of cements, fine aggregates (sand), coarse
aggregate (gravel), and water in the mix. The general theory in establishing the
proportions of fine and coarse aggregates is that the voids in the coarse aggregate
should be filled with the cement paste and fine aggregates.

Note that, it will be more expensive to order a higher compressive strength of ready
mixed concrete; hence the designer should ensure that in the design of reinforced
concrete structures, the right compressive strength of concrete based on the
requirements of the existing design standard of the local building code is properly
adopted for economical purposes.
TESTING OF CONCRETE

a) Test for Workability and consistency of concrete


Types of Failures in Slump Test

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