GENDER STUDIES

UNIT – I CONCEPTUALIZING GENDER

a)Constructing Sex and Gender:

SEX definition:

 Sex refers to biological differences between males and females (e.g. gonads,
sexual organs, chromosomes, hormones.
 Sex is usually assigned at birth (there are examples when it is assigned later,
when sex characteristics do not clearly indicate the sex of the baby, for example in
the case of ‘intersex’ people).
 Sex can be changed: in the case of transsexual people, who are born with the sex
characteristics of one sex and gender identity of the other, sex reassignment
surgeries are performed. This includes a change of sex organs and the
administration of hormones.

GENDER definition:

 Gender is a social, psychological and cultural construct and it is developed in

the process of socialisation. Different societies and cultures may therefore have
different understandings of what is ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’. Societies create
norms and expectations related to gender, and these are learned in the course of
people’s lives – including in the family, at school, through the media. All of these
influences impose certain roles and patterns of behaviour on everyone within
society. Gender norms – often limited to notions of masculinity and femininity –
change over time, but are usually based on a heteronormative order which
stipulates that there are two sexes (genders) and they are attracted to each other.
People who do not appear to fall under this binary notion of gender often suffer
from exclusion, discrimination and violence.
 Gender is both an analytical category – a way of thinking about how identities
are constructed – and a political idea which addresses the distribution of power in
society.
 Gender norms are learned and internalised by all members of society.
 Gender norms vary across different cultures and over time.
 Traditional gender norms are hierarchical: they presuppose an unequal power
structure related to gender that disadvantages mostly women.

 Gender is not necessarily defined by biological sex: a person’s gender may or

may not correspond to their biological sex. Gender is more about identity and how
we feel about ourselves. People may self-identify as male, female, transgender,
other or none (indeterminate/unspecified). People that do not identify as male or
 female are often grouped under the umbrella terms ‘non-binary’ or ‘genderqueer’,
but the range of gender identifications is in reality unlimited.
 Gender is deeply personal to every individual: some people recognise their
gender identity early in childhood, and some only later on.
 Gender intersects with other categories, such as class, skin colour, ethnicity,
religion or disability.
 Gender is something we express (gender expression), sometimes intentionally,
and sometimes without thinking. We communicate our gender in a number of
ways, for example by the way we dress, the way we move, our hair style, and the
way we interact with others.
b)Patriarchy:
Patriarchy, hypothetical social system in which the father or a male elder has absolute
authority over the family group; by extension, one or more men (as in a council) exert absolute
authority over the community as a whole. Building on the theories of
biological evolution developed by Charles Darwin, many 19th-century scholars sought to form a
theory of unilinear cultural evolution. This hypothesis, now discredited, suggested that human
social organization “evolved” through a series of stages: animalistic sexual promiscuity was
followed by matriarchy, which was in turn followed by patriarchy.

The consensus among modern anthropologists and sociologists is that while power is
often preferentially bestowed on one sex or the other, patriarchy is not the cultural universal it
was once thought to be. However, some scholars continue to use the term in the general sense for
descriptive, analytical, and pedagogical purposes.

Social relations: Patriarchy is a system of power relations between men and women, men
and men, and women and women. It can involve the belief that men should hold power in
society and the family, and that violence against women is acceptable to maintain that
control.

Social organization: Patriarchy can also refer to a social organization where the father or
eldest male controls the family or clan. In this system, wives and children are legally
dependent on the father, and descent and inheritance are reckoned in the male line.

Ideology: Patriarchy can also be defined as an ideology that justifies male superiority and
rejects equal structures in public and private life.

Patriarchy can influence many aspects of modern life, including: education, employment
opportunities, income, gender-based violence, and control over women's reproductive
rights.

c) Sexual Division Of Labour (SDL):

 The sexual division of labor is the practice of assigning different tasks to men and
women based on gender, rather than their capabilities. It's a common feature of human
societies, and can be seen in many areas, including:
Household work: Women are often assigned unpaid household work, such as cooking,
cleaning, and childcare.
Market work: Men are often expected to go out to work and earn money for the family.
Occupations: Women are often found in professions like nursing, teaching, and
administrative roles, while men dominate fields such as engineering, construction, and
senior management.
The sexual division of labor can reinforce gender stereotypes and affect career
opportunities and economic equality. However, societal changes are gradually
challenging these traditional roles.
d) Construction of Sexuality:
In gender studies, the social construction of sexuality refers to how societal ideologies limit and
restrict what is considered appropriate sexual functioning. Many sociologists believe that
sexuality and sexual orientation are social constructs, meaning that they are not innate, but are
assigned by society and can vary across cultures and time periods. Here are some other ideas
related to the social construction of gender and sexuality:

Gender: Gender is a social construct that is influenced by a person's interactions with

others in a culture. Gender roles are socially constructed ideas that are reinforced through
socialization.
Sex: Sex refers to the anatomical and physiological differences between men and women.
Social constructionism: Social constructionists examine how people construct their gender
and sex through social activities, language, and other social processes. They believe that
people's accounts of themselves are provisional and specific to particular settings.
Gendered differences: Gendered differences in social construction are often driven by
relations of power, such as patriarchal ideologies. These power relations can influence
sexuality, such as sexual attitudes and behaviors.
Materialist feminist writing: Materialist feminist writing on gender and sexuality suggests
that gender is central to our lived experiences of the social world.

e) Masculinity and Feminity:

 In gender studies, masculinity and femininity are gender identities that are shaped
by culture and vary across time, place, and social context. They are not descriptors of
sexual orientation or biological sex, and they are not tied to gender identities like "man"
or "woman".
"Femininities" and "masculinities" describe gender identities (see Gender). They
describe socio-cultural categories in everyday language; these terms are used differently
in biology (see below). Because femininities and masculinities are gender identities, they
are shaped by socio-cultural processes, not biology (and should not be essentialized).
Femininities and masculinities are plural and dynamic; they change with culture and with
individuals. Points to keep in mind:
● In everyday language, femininities and masculinities do not map onto biological sex. In
any one culture, certain behaviors or practices may be widely recognized as “feminine”
or “masculine,” irrespective of whether they are adopted by women or by men.
Femininities and masculinities are not descriptors of sexual orientation.
● Femininities and masculinities are plural—there are many forms of femininity and
many forms of masculinity. What gets defined as feminine or masculine differs by
region, religion, class, national culture, and other social factors. How femininities and
masculinities are valued differs culturally.
● Any one person—woman or man—engages in many forms of femininity and
masculinity, which she or he adopts (consciously or unconsciously) depending on
context, the expectations of others, the life stage, and so forth. A man can engage in what
are often stereotyped as “feminine” activities, such as caring for a sick parent.
● Cultural notions of “feminine” and “masculine” behavior are shaped in part by
observations about what women and men do. This kind of “gender marking” tends to
discourage women or men from entering “gender-inauthentic” occupations (Faulkner,
2009).
● Femininities and masculinities are learned. Messages about “feminine” and
“masculine” behaviors are embedded in advertising, media, news, educational materials,
and so forth. These messages are present in a range of environments, from the home to
the workplace to public spaces.
Note on biology: Although the terms “feminine” and “masculine” are gender terms
(socio-cultural categories) in everyday usage, they carry different meanings in biology.
Masculinization refers to the development of male-specific morphology, such as the
Wolffian ducts and male reproductive structures. Feminization refers to the development
of female-specific morphology, such as the Müllerian ducts and female reproductive
structures. In order to become a reproductively functioning female, for example, both
feminization and demasculinization are required, and vice versa for males.
 UNIT – II GENDER AND FAMILY IN INDIA:

a)Family as a Gendered Institutuion:

Each member in a family setting has a very specific role to play as a part of the
family. Most often, the role is defined by an individual’s gender and society’s idea of gender
identity. Females are mostly limited to inhouse roles which are considered to be ‘feminine‘
and the males are expected to do roles involving moving away from the household setting, in
line with what is called ‘masculinity’.
During a session where conversations were initiated on the status of daughters in the
family, on being asked what they understood about their respective roles, one of the
participants said, ‘All of us have a particular role, for example, my mother asks me to do
tasks like cooking or setting the dinner table, or that when guests visit, the females are
unconsciously expected (me and my mother in this case) to prepare and serve delicacies for
them. This, according to me, is a commonly perceived role for females in the household’.
According to another participant, that family and/or close relatives exert pressure on
girls to get married immediately after completing their education, and their expectation that a
girl should essentially know how to cook, are examples of a female’s role in a family. She
further added that to an extent, this has effectively come to define her role and others’
expectations from her. She stated, “In creating such stereotypical roles, my choices have
been severely constrained. I think I should decide if I like studying or cooking“. The
participant in a very succinct way ended up defining what we call the gender divide.
The diverse ways in which the participants understood the concept of gender roles
within the family and their role specifically as females in the family, was a connecting
point for other participants too. While some felt that their role was defined by their
genders, others found themselves justifying the expectation by observing that the
gendered roles affect their behavior in turn.
It is important to understand that role allocation or expectation to fit into a role is a
recurring idea in any group setting. Most often, roles are rigid and depend/vary with age
and one’s family culture. Roles can also be understood as recurrent patterns of behavior
by which an individual fulfills family expectations and needs. At different stages of life,
we play different roles like that of a student, a wife, a mother and all of them have certain
expectations attached to them.
Commonly accepted types of roles for women are of a caregiver and nurturer. For
men, they are expected to provide resources and maintain and supervise the family. Defining
a role in a fixed cast of gender identity limits an individual’s choice to act on their own will.
It typifies their behavior by signaling that they will get validation in the family or society
only by conforming to the roles defined by society.
 It is important to understand why roles are imperative. The foremost thing is to
introduce an element of accountability in our character. Without assigning particular roles to
each member, the functioning of any group can at best be haphazard and at worst chaotic.
However, what needs to be taken into consideration is that role allocation needs to conform
with how an individual perceives themselves. Forceful allocation of roles according to
society’s standards can very often lead to personal conflict and has the potential to severely
affect one’s mental health.
b) Family as a site of Vilonce:

Family violence (also called domestic violence) is the use of violence, threats, force or
intimidation to control or manipulate a family member, partner or former partner. In such
a relationship, there is an imbalance of power where abusive behaviour or violence is
used to control others.

Not all family violence is caused by men, but research shows that men are most often the
perpetrators of violence in domestic relationships, and women and children are often the
victims. In Australia, 1 in 3 women have experienced physical and/or sexual violence
perpetrated by a man they know.

Family violence can occur in any kind of family relationship, including between couples,
family members, and against people who are elderly or disabled.

Although family violence can affect anyone, regardless of their social or economic status,
or their racial and cultural background, some people are at greater risk, including:

 Indigenous women
 women in regional or remote areas
 young women
 women from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds
 pregnant women
 LBGTQIA+ and gender diverse people
 women living with disability.

Common factors in family violence:

Gender inequality between men and women, including deeply held beliefs about
masculinity, is a significant factor that contributes to the high rate of violence by men
towards women in relationships.

Masculinity refers to a set of practices, attitudes and behaviours that include the social
norms and 'unwritten rules' about how to behave in society. Social expectations of men
and boys are learnt through institutions, policies and laws.
Many traits commonly associated with people who identify as a man or boy are also
exhibited by others, including those who identify as a woman, a girl, trans, intersex,
queer or gender non-binary.

There is no such thing as a ‘typical’ perpetrator of family violence. However, researchers

have found that perpetrators often:

 use violence and emotional abuse to control their families

 believe that they have the right to behave in whatever way they choose while in
their own home
 hold certain beliefs about masculinity, including that a ‘real’ man should be tough,
powerful and the head of the household. They may believe that they should make
most of the decisions, including about how money is spent
 believe that men are entitled to sex from their partners
 don’t take responsibility for their behaviour and prefer to think that loved ones or
circumstances provoked their behaviour
 make excuses for their violence – for example, they will blame alcohol or stress
 report ‘losing control’ when angry around their families, but can control their
anger around other people. They don’t tend to use violence in other situations, for
example, around friends, bosses, work colleagues or the police
 try to minimise, blame others for, justify or deny their use of violence, or the
impact of their violence on family members.

Coercive control in the context of family violence is complex and can be challenging to
describe and define. Although the tactics and pattern of behaviours used by each
perpetrator and the experience for each victim-survivor is unique, coercive control is
common to all experiences of family violence. It significantly impacts on the safety,
autonomy, health and wellbeing of all victim-survivors, ultimately robbing them of their
sense of identity and liberty.

c) Women as honour and shame of caste, religion, clan:

Definitions:
Human Rights Watch defines "honor killings" as follows: Honor crimes are acts of
violence, usually murder, committed by male family members against female family
members who are perceived to have brought dishonor upon the family. A woman can be
targeted by her family for a variety of reasons including, refusing to enter into an
arranged marriage, being the victim of a sexual assault, seeking a divorce—even from an
abusive husband—or committing adultery. The mere perception that a woman has acted
in a manner to bring "dishonor" to the family is sufficient to trigger an attack.[29]

Men can also be the victims of honor killings, either committed by members of the family
of a woman with whom they are perceived to have an inappropriate relationship; or by
the members of their own families, the latter often connected to homosexuality or
disability diagnosis.

Crimes against women:

Acid attacks: An analyses of Indian news reports determined that 72% of cases reported
from January 2002 to October 2010 included at least one female victim. Sulfuric
acid, nitric acid, and hydrochloric acid, the most common types of acid used in attacks,
are generally cheap and widely available as a common cleaning supply. Acid attacks
against women often are done as a form of revenge and are often done by relatives or
friends. The number of acid attacks has been rising in recent years.[123][124]

Child marriage: Child marriage has been traditionally prevalent in India but is not so
continued in Modern India to this day. Historically, child brides would live with their
parents until they reached puberty. In the past, child widows were condemned to a life of
great agony, shaved heads, living in isolation, and being shunned by society. Although
child marriage was outlawed in 1860, it is still a common practice. The Child Marriage
Restraint Act, 1929 is the relevant legislation in the country.

Domestic violence: Domestic violence in India is endemic. Around 70% of women in

India are victims of domestic violence, according to Renuka Chowdhury, former Union
minister for Women and Child Development. Domestic violence was legally addressed in
the 1980s when the 1983 Criminal Law Act introduced section 498A "Husband or
relative of husband of a woman subjecting her to cruelty".
The National Crime Records Bureau reveal that a crime against a woman is committed
every three minutes, a woman is raped every 29 minutes, a dowry death occurs every 77
minutes, and one case of cruelty committed by either the husband or relative of the
husband occurs every nine minutes. This occurs despite the fact that women in India are
legally protected from domestic abuse under the Protection of Women from Domestic
Violence Act.

Dowry: A map of the Indian dowry death rate per 100,000 people, 2012.
In 1961, the Government of India passed the Dowry Prohibition Act, making dowry
demands in wedding arrangements illegal. However, many cases of dowry-related
domestic violence, suicides and murders have been reported. In the 1980s, numerous
such cases were reported.

In 1985, the Dowry Prohibition (maintenance of lists of presents to the bride and
bridegroom) Rules were framed. According to these rules, a signed list should be
maintained of presents given at the time of the marriage to the bride and the bridegroom.
The list should contain a brief description of each present, its approximate value, the
name of who has given the present, and relationship to the recipient. However, such rules
are rarely enforced.
A 1997 report claimed that each year at least 5,000 women in India die dowry-related
deaths, and at least a dozen die each day in 'kitchen fires' thought to be intentional. The
term for this is "bride burning" and is criticised within India itself.

In 2011, the National Crime Records Bureau reported 8,618 dowry deaths. Unofficial
estimates claim the figures are at least three times as high.

Female infanticide and sex-selective abortion: In India, the male-female sex ratio is
skewed dramatically in favour of men, the chief reason being the high number of women
who die before reaching adulthood. Tribal societies in India have a less skewed sex ratio
than other caste groups. This is in spite of the fact that tribal communities have far lower
income levels, lower literacy rates, and less adequate health facilities. Many experts
suggest the higher number of men in India can be attributed to female infanticides and
sex-selective abortions. The sex ratio is particularly bad in the north-western area of the
country, particularly in Haryana and Jammu and Kashmir.
Ultrasound scanning constitutes a major leap forward in providing for the care of mother
and baby, and with scanners becoming portable, these advantages have spread to rural
populations. However, ultrasound scans often reveal the sex of the baby, allowing
pregnant women to decide to abort female foetuses and try again later for a male child.
This practice is usually considered the main reason for the change in the ratio of male to
female children being born.

Honour killings: Honour killings have been reported widely in India, most frequently in
the northern regions of India. This is usually motivated by a girl (or, less commonly, a
boy) marrying without the family's acceptance, especially for marrying outside
their caste or religion or, more particular to northwestern India, between members of the
same gotra. In 2010, the Supreme Court of India issued notice in regard to honor killings
to the states of Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Himachal
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Rape: Rape in India has been described by Radha Kumar as one of India's most common
crimes against women and by the UN’s human-rights chief as a "national problem". Since
the 1980s, women's rights groups lobbied for marital rape to be declared unlawful, but
the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 still maintains the marital exemption by
stating in its exception clause under Section 375, that: "Sexual intercourse or sexual acts
by a man with his own wife, the wife not being under fifteen years of age, is not
rape". While per-capita reported incidents are quite low compared to other countries,
even developed countries, a new case is reported every 20 minutes. In fact, as per the
NCRB data released by the government of India in 2018, a rape is reported in India in
every 15 minutes. New Delhi has one of the highest rate of rape-reports among Indian
cities. Sources show that rape cases in India have doubled between 1990 and 2008.

Sexual harassment: Eve teasing is a euphemism used for sexual harassment or

molestation of women by men. Many activists blame the rising incidence of sexual
harassment against women on the influence of "Western culture". In 1987, The Indecent
Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act was passed[151] to prohibit indecent
representation of women through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings or
in any other manner.
Of the total number of crimes against women reported in 1990, half related to molestation
and harassment in the workplace. In 1997, in a landmark judgement, the Supreme Court
of India took a strong stand against sexual harassment of women in the workplace.

UNIT – III WOMEN’S MOVEMENT IN INDIA

a)Women and National Movements:

Evolution:
o The movement has transformed over time from serving as a beacon for the
nationalist movement to a rights-based civil society movement to a state-
led movement for economic empowerment.
 Three Phases:
o Nationalist Movement (1936-1970s)
 Women were the face of the nationalist movement. The clarion call
by Mahatma Gandhi to the 1936 All India Women’s Conference was
the hallmark of a nationalist movement that relied on women to serve as
its face.
  The movement aimed to give women political power. The political
history of the Indian women’s movement was observed when women
satyagrahis were arrested during the salt satyagraha and the Quit
India movement.
 These movements set the stage for women's leadership in politics.
o Rights-Based Civil Society Movement (1970s-2000s)
 Women's groups were mobilised to sensitize women about their rights.
 The greatest success of this mobilisation came when
the 73rd Amendment to the Constitution was passed, reserving one-
third of seats in panchayat and leadership positions in local bodies
for women.
 Chipko, one of the earliest ecofeminist movements in the world
broadcasting pictures of women clinging to trees to protest logging.
 It was a non-violent agitation which originated in Uttar Pradesh’s
Chamoli district (now Uttarakhand) in 1973.
 Also, Self Employed Women’s Association began to unionise
women in the informal sector leading the advocacy for reforms in legal
and social protection for women workers.
o State-Led Movement for Economic Empowerment (2000s-present)
 The government invested heavily in building and supporting SHGs.
 SHGs function mainly as thrift and credit institutions.
 The movement aimed to enhance women's access to income-generating
activities.
 The movement seeks to address the deficiency of vocational skills and
entrepreneurship among women.
b) Campaigns by women’s movement around 1960s and 70s – Anti – Price, Anti-
Dowry:

In the late 1960s and 1970s, women's movements in India participated in campaigns
against price rise and dowry violence:
Anti-Price: From 1967 until the Emergency in 1975, thousands of women, known as
latnis, protested against rising prices. In 1975, many latnis were jailed. According to the
WEF, higher fuel and food prices disproportionately impact women.
In the early 1970s, an unusual spectacle unfolded in front of Mumbai’s Mantralaya, the
administrative headquarters of the State government. On a measuring scale, a group of
women weighed an effigy of the then Chief Minister Vasantrao Naik next to a pile
of kachra (waste). The kachra collected was not of the generic kind—this was the dust
and debris found in foodgrains distributed through ration shops.
The “kachra tula” was inspired by a ceremony from the times of kings and noblemen,
when men of distinguished royalty decked with ornaments would weigh themselves
against gold and silver. The scales would divine how much charity poor households
deserved.
The women’s “kachra tula” measured not divinity or wealth, but corruption and hunger.
It was poetic justice; kings, politicians, trash, all whispered in one breath. This was
February 1974. A few days earlier, women beat thalis (plates) with latnis (rolling pins) at
more than a thousand places in Mumbai. It was an ishara ghanta (warning bell) for the
government and a call to the people to awaken, to arise.
Anti-Dowry: The women's movement in India in the 1960s and 1970s led a number of
campaigns against dowry, including protests, demonstrations, and sit-ins:
 Mahila Dakshata Samin: The first women's organization in Delhi to address
dowry and dowry harassment. Mahila Dakshata Samiti (MDS) is an NGO that was
founded in 1976 to combat dowry demands and harassment. The MDS is a non-
profit organization that works to promote women's empowerment and social
equality. The MDS's work in the fight against dowry includes:

o Legal aid: The MDS provides free legal aid services to dowry victims
through its own group of women lawyers. The MDS also works as a liaison
between the Legal Aid Cell of the Government of India and the victims.
Raising awareness: The MDS raises awareness on important issues related
to women.
o Advocacy: The MDS has called for changes in the Dowry Prohibition Act,
the Criminal Law (Amendment) Bill regarding rape, and the Criminal Law,
498A cruelty to women, Bill.
The MDS was established by a group of women including Ms Suman Krishankant, Ms
Pramila Dandavate, Ms Mrudula Sinha, and Dr Sushila Nayyar.
 Stri Sangharsh: A campaign that made dowry murder a household term. Stri
Sangharsh was a feminist organization in India that played a significant role in the
anti-dowry campaign by raising awareness of dowry harassment and making
dowry murder a household term:

o Tarvinder Kaur's death: In 1979, Stree Sangharsh led a march to protest

the death of Tarvinder Kaur, who was burned alive by her in-laws over
dowry. The march was widely covered in the press and brought the issue of
dowry harassment into the public sphere.
 o Feminist street theater: In 1979, women's groups staged feminist street
plays to raise public outrage against dowry killings. One of the plays, about
two friends and victims named Hardeep and Kaur, led to landmark anti-
dowry legislation in 1980.
o Social pressure: The campaign sought action through social pressure on
the perpetrators, in addition to legal investigation.
o Changing legal attitudes: The campaign led to a shift in legal attitudes,
with a series of amendments that set in place protective and investigative
measures for dowry victims.

 Civil liberties and democratic rights organizations: Joined the anti-dowry

movement.

 Dahej Virodhi Chetna Manch: A joint front formed in Delhi by women's and
other progressive organizations in the 1980s. The Dahej Virodhi Chetna Manch
was an anti-dowry platform formed in the 1980s by women's wings of political
parties, autonomous women's organizations, and individuals.

The campaigns led to changes in legal attitudes towards dowry deaths. In 1983, the
Indian Penal Code was amended to increase the punishment for cruelty against women,
including dowry murders. The amendment also made the offense cognizable and non-
bailable.
The Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 consolidated anti-dowry laws that had been passed in
some states. The act provides for penalties for giving, taking, or abetting the giving or
receiving of dowry.
c) Caste, gender and class intersections:

GENDER AND ITS INTERSECTION WITH CASTE

1. It gave a lower status to women:

In the caste system, the women were utterly neglected. They enjoyed a very
conservative and traditional type of status. They were denied the privilege of higher
education. They could not voice their opinion in public affairs. The women belonging to
the higher castes led a still more precarious life due to the practice of child marriage and
prohibition of widow remarriage. The desire for a male made women produce more and
more children which affected their physical and mental condition. Sometimes the lower
caste women were sexually harassed by the higher caste males but they could not protest
against them due to the prevailing social pattern. In a nutshell,women enjoyed a very low
status in the caste system.
2. It resulted in the introduction of Untouchability:
The worst aspect of the caste system was untouchability. The untouchable suffered from
various social, economic, political and religious disabilities. In the name of religion, they
were thoroughly exploited in the most inhuman manner. The lower castes were placed in
the category of untouchables. Their children were never allowed to be educated and they
were compelled to take unclean occupation. The Sudra women were prohibited from
wearing presses in the manner the Brahmin women dressed themselves. They were not
allowed to use public well, ponds, places of worship etc. The fear of the wrath of God
and religious conventions made the lower castes follow all the religious prescriptions and
proscriptions.
3. Exploitation and Patriarchal Power:
The power play of patriarchy saturates every area of Indian society and gives rise
to a variety of discriminatory practices, such as female infanticide, discrimination against
girls and dowry-related deaths. It is a major cause of exploitation and abuse of women,
with a great deal of sexual violence being perpetrated by men in positions of power.
These range from higher caste men violating lower caste women, specifically Dalits
4. Political Participation and Empowerment:
Rural women are politically marginalized, but rural Dalit women are given even
less of a voice in the decision making process. In India, there is a quota system in place
for Dalits to have seats in the local panchayat (town assembly), but the role Dalit women
play is consistently subordinated to their male counterparts. Dalit women who attempt to
utilize their power in the panchayat are met with male and dominant caste backlash,
pressure and sometimes violence.
5. Women’s Access to Justice:
Sanctioned impunity on behalf of offenders is a major issue in India, and the
police often deny or purposefully neglect and delay Dalit women’s right to legal aid and
justice. There is a consistent pattern of delay in report filing and irregularities regarding
criminal procedures, which leads to widespread impunity and creates serious barriers to
justice for Dalit women. Impunity sends the message that gender and caste- based
violence is tolerated and is thus perpetuated because there is no effective deterrence for
offenders. Often in cases of rape, Dalit women are pressured to withdraw or settle,
sometimes making a ‘compromise’ and receiving a small payment by dominant caste
members or others in the community.
6. Access to Key Productive Resources:
In India, Dalit rural women face serious challenges in carrying out their multiple
productive and reproductive roles within their families and communities, in part due to
lack of rural infrastructure and lack of access to essential goods and services. They have
the highest poverty levels, are landless and depend on the dominant caste for
employment, wages and loans. Their access to resources or even their efforts to access
them are often met with violence. Due to the intersection of caste, class and gender, Dalit
women are subjected to direct and structural violence. Specifically, the structural violence
and lack of access to resources perpetuate their poverty and undermine their dignity. Dalit
rural women have very limited access to and control over land, which in turn leads to
food insecurity. They also lack access to water and other communal resources; when
those resources are in non-Dalit areas, the women are attacked for attempting to use
them. When it comes to infrastructure and resources in Dalit communities, the
government often over looks those areas and does not allocate the necessary funds to
ensure equality of access to resources. Further, Dalit women lack employment options
and other livelihood opportunities, more so than their male Dalit counterparts.
d) Patriarchal state and rights of women:
Patriarchy is a system of power relations that gives men dominance over women in both
public and private spheres. It can have a profound impact on society, including women's
rights, and can affect many aspects of life, such as politics, economics, and culture. Here
are some ways patriarchy can affect women's rights:
Gender inequality: Patriarchy can lead to gender inequality in education, employment,
and income. Women often earn less than men for the same work, and men are more
likely to hold leadership roles.
Gender-based violence: Patriarchy can normalize gender-based violence, such as
domestic violence and sexual harassment.
Reproductive rights: Patriarchy can limit women's control over their reproductive
choices, including access to contraception and safe abortions.
Stereotypes and objectification: The media and popular culture can perpetuate gender
stereotypes and the objectification of women.
Subordination: In a patriarchal society, women are not allowed to rise to leadership
levels or make decisions. They are also not allowed to demonstrate independence or
suggest changes to any social order.

Patriarchy is based on a system of beliefs, values, and relationships that are embedded in
political, social, and economic systems. It imposes gender stereotypes that strengthen the
power relations between men and women.
 UNIT-IV
EXPERIENCING GLOBALISATION, CONSUMERISM AND NEOLIBERALISM
IN INDIA
a)Role of Media in constructing ideologies enabling gender inequalities:

Media plays a significant role in constructing ideologies that enable gender

inequalities by perpetuating stereotypical gender roles, often portraying women as
passive, dependent, and focused on appearance, while men are depicted as dominant,
powerful, and in control, thus reinforcing traditional gender norms and limiting societal
expectations for both genders; this can lead to discrimination against women in various
aspects of life, including employment, leadership roles, and social status.
Key ways media constructs gender inequalities:
 Stereotypical Portrayals:
Visual Representation: Women are often depicted as young, thin, and
attractive, with a focus on their bodies rather than their accomplishments, while
men are shown as physically strong and assertive.
Occupational Roles: Women are frequently portrayed in domestic roles like
cooking or childcare, while men are shown in professional or leadership
positions, reinforcing the idea that certain careers are "for men".
Character Traits: Male characters are often depicted as rational and decisive,
while female characters are portrayed as emotional and dependent.

Underrepresentation of Women:
News Coverage: Women are often underrepresented in news stories, particularly
in leadership positions, giving the impression that men hold more power in
society.
Decision-Making Roles: Media production teams often have a disproportionate
number of men, leading to less diverse perspectives and storylines.

Objectification and Sexualization:

Advertising: Women are frequently used as sexual objects in advertisements,
reducing them to their physical appearance and reinforcing the idea that women's
value is based on their attractiveness.
Media Coverage of Women: Female celebrities are often discussed primarily
based on their appearance rather than their professional achievements.
 Gendered Language:
Male as Default: Using masculine language as the standard, even when referring
to a mixed group, can subtly reinforce male dominance.

Impact of Media Representations:

 Internalized Gender Norms:
Exposure to stereotypical gender portrayals can lead individuals to internalize these
norms, affecting their self-esteem, career aspirations, and relationships.
 Limited Opportunities for Women:
Perceptions of gender roles reinforced by media can hinder women's access to
education, leadership roles, and career advancement.
 Normalization of Gender Violence:
Media that portrays violence against women as acceptable or even humorous can
contribute to a culture that tolerates gender-based violence.
Positive Change:
Promoting Diverse Representation: Increasing the number of female characters in
media with complex personalities and diverse roles.
Challenging Stereotypes: Actively depicting gender roles that challenge traditional
expectations.
Media Literacy Education: Empowering audiences to critically analyze media
portrayals and identify gender bias.

b) Market and gender construction:

Gender construction and markets are related in several ways, including:

Gender roles: Gender construction can lead to gender stereotyping in the labor market,
which can result in wage differentials and job segregation. For example, women are
often perceived as caretakers and educators, which can lead to them being concentrated
in jobs like teaching and nursing. Gender roles are socially accepted behaviors and
attitudes that are considered appropriate for individuals based on their sex. They are
usually centered on the concepts of masculinity and femininity, but there can be
variations and exceptions.

Gender roles can include expectations for how people act, speak, dress, groom,
and conduct themselves. For example, girls and women are often expected to be polite,
accommodating, and nurturing, and to dress in a feminine way.
 Gender roles can be influenced by stereotypes, which are preconceived ideas that
assign characteristics and roles to men and women based on their gender. Stereotypes can
be descriptive, meaning they depict the attributes that people ascribe to a group of
people. They can also be prescriptive, meaning they denote norms about behaviors that
are suitable for each gender.

Gender marketing: Gender marketing is a marketing strategy that uses gender-based

properties to tailor advertising and other marketing techniques to different genders.
Gender has a very specific meaning, which differs to “sex”; when we refer to a person’s
“sex” we are speaking of their biological sex (i.e. male or female). This is strictly
physiological, whereas the term “gender” refers to a sociocultural construct. Their gender
is determined by the different gender roles and behavioral differences between men and
women, which are strongly influenced by society and culture. Gender marketing is based
on the various properties assigned to men and women, both physical characteristics and
interests. Behavioral and psychological differences between men and women are the
central focus of gender studies.

Gender integration in market systems: Market systems can be deconstructed into

three components: core function, supporting market functions, and rules and
norms. Gender integration can be applied to each of these components. For example,
gender integration in the core function can examine gender differentials in roles,
responsibilities, and relationships in supply chains.
Gender integration in market systems is a strategy to ensure that women, men, and people
with diverse gender identities are considered in the design, implementation, and evaluation of
market systems. The goal is to make markets work for everyone, rather than perpetuating
inequality. Here are some ways to integrate gender into market systems:

Consider gender differentials: Analyze how women and men experience market
systems differently, and how gender can impact their roles, responsibilities, and access
to services.
Recognize skills and knowledge: Empower women and young people by recognizing
their skills and knowledge, and supporting their access to mentorship and learning.
Increase access to business development support: Provide access to farming inputs,
finance, and technologies.
Create an environment for marginalized groups: Challenge assumptions and
prejudices, and encourage joint decision-making to improve household dynamics.
Market systems development (MSD) is an approach to poverty alleviation that can be
effective in redressing imbalances and empowering women. However, MSD
programming often lacks a focus on gender, especially for young women.

Gender inequities: Gender inequities can be a primary concern in market systems

development. Gender equality is needed to achieve sustainable growth and eradicate
poverty. Gender inequality is discrimination on the basis of sex or gender causing one
sex or gender to be routinely privileged or prioritized over another. Gender inequality is
the lack of equality between men and women in terms of rights, opportunities, and
resources. It can manifest in many ways, including:
Workplace: Women are often paid less than men for the same job, even with similar
qualifications and work experience.
Education: Gender gaps in education can be both a cause and a symptom of gender
inequality. For example, households that can't afford to educate all their children may
favor boys.
Health: Gender bias in healthcare is a well-documented problem that can endanger
people's lives and well-being.
Child abuse: Gender inequality is an important predictor of higher rates of child
physical abuse.
Mortality: Gender disparities in mortality can be significant, with men often having
higher mortality rates than women.
COVID-19: The COVID-19 pandemic has been linked to an increase in gender
inequality, with women being more prone to long-term post-COVID-19 symptoms.

Other manifestations of gender inequality include child marriage, teenage pregnancy,

child domestic work, sexual abuse, and exploitation.
c) Global hegemonic ideologies:

In gender studies, hegemonic masculinity is a concept that describes the idea that men
should be dominant over women in society. Hegemonic masculinity can also be a
problem for men. The system that keeps men in a dominant position over women and in
competition with other men can come at a cost to men's health and quality of life.
Gender ideologies are a set of attitudes about the responsibilities and traits of men and
women in different roles, and how they relate to each other. Hegemonic masculinity is a
concept that describes a pattern of behaviors and views that normalizes the dominance of
men over women. It's been used in gender studies since the early 1980s to explain men's
power over women.Here are some key points about hegemonic masculinity:
Definition: Hegemonic masculinity is a cultural ideal of manhood that's characterized
by "macho" traits like physical strength, control, and aggression.

Legitimacy: It's based on the idea that consent legitimizes men's power over women,
rather than physical or political power.
Multiple masculinities: There can be more than one hegemonic masculinity within a
society, and it can also exist within sub-groups.
Subordination of other masculinities: Hegemonic masculinity also operates by
subordinating other masculinities.
Interdependence: The hierarchy of masculinities and the hierarchy of femininities are
interdependent, so changes to one will affect the other two.

Masculinity in gender studies is the study of the attributes, behaviors, and roles that are
commonly associated with men, and how these are socially constructed and vary across
cultures and time:
In gender studies, hegemonic masculinity is part of R. W. Connell's gender order theory,
which recognizes multiple masculinities that vary across time, society, culture, and the
individual. Hegemonic masculinity is defined as a practice that legitimizes men's
dominant position in society and justifies the subordination of the common male
population and women, and other marginalized ways of being a man.[1][4] Conceptually,
hegemonic masculinity proposes to explain how and why men maintain dominant social
roles over women, and other gender identities, which are perceived as "feminine" in a
given society.
Hegemonic masculinity draws some of its historical roots from both the fields of social
psychology and sociology which contributed to the literature about the male sex role that
had begun to recognize the social nature of masculinity and the possibilities of change in
men's conduct. This literature preceded the Women's Liberation Movement and feminist
theories of patriarchy which also played a strong role in shaping the concept of
hegemonic masculinity. The core concepts of power and difference were found in the gay
liberation movement which had not only sought to analyse the oppression of men but also
oppression by men. This idea of a hierarchy of masculinities has since persisted and
strongly influenced the reformulation of the concept.

Hegemonic masculinity is neither normative in the numerical sense, as only a small

minority of men may enact it, nor in an actual sense, as the cultural ideal of masculinity is
often a fantasy figure, such as John Wayne or John Rambo. It also affects the construct
and perception of the idealised male body from an exclusively Western
perspective. Hegemonic masculinity may not even be the commonest pattern in the
everyday lives of men. Rather, hegemony can operate through the formation of exemplars
of masculinity, symbols that have cultural authority despite the fact that most men and
boys cannot fully live up to them. Hegemonic masculinity imposes an ideal set of traits
which stipulate that a man can never be unfeminine enough. Thus, fully achieving
hegemonic masculinity becomes an unattainable ideal.

Masculinity studies consistently highlight shifts in dominant forms of masculinity shaped

by local contexts, yet with globalization's rise, the impact of global spaces on
masculinity's construction has gained focus. Charlotte Hooper explains how
masculinities play out in international relations, while Connell introduced the concept of
"transnational business masculinity," characterizing the lifestyle corporate
leaders. Because of this, Connell and Messerschmidt have proposed hegemonic
masculinities be analysed at three levels: local, regional, and global. The links between
these levels are critical to gender politics since interventions at any level giving women
more power and representation can influence from the top down or from the bottom up.
Additionally, adopting a framework that distinguishes between the three levels allows
one to recognize the importance of place without making generalizations about
independent cultures or discourses.