WASTE – TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION

Waste is defined as any unwanted or unusable substance that is discarded after primary use.
Wastes are normally generated as a result of human and animal activities. Urbanization and
rapid advancements in industrialization has led to an increase in the production and
consumption processes resulting in the generation of wastes from various sectors that include
agricultural, commercial, domestic, industrial, institutional, social and from community
activities. Over time, these waste accumulate and can have real impacts on the health and the
environment. Waste management is intended to reduce adverse effects of waste on health, the
environment or aesthetics. So to carry out efficient management of wastes, knowledge about
the source of wastes, its types and classification must be known. Hence, this module gives us
an overview about wastes and its classification.
Classification of wastes
Wastes are commonly classified based on the physical state as solid wastes, liquid wastes and
gaseous wastes.
- Solid wastes are any discarded or abandoned materials that can be solid, liquid, semi-
solid or containerized gaseous material discarded by the human society. These include
urban wastes, agricultural wastes, biomedical wastes and radioactive wastes. The term
refuse is also used for solid wastes. Examples of solid wastes include waste tires,
septage, scrap metal, latex paints, furniture and toys, garbage, appliances and vehicles,
oil and anti-freeze, empty aerosol cans, paint cans and compressed gas cylinders,
construction and demolition debris, asbestos, plastics, styrofoam containers, bottles etc.
- Liquid wastes : Liquid wastes can be defined as liquids/fluids that are generated from
washing, flushing or manufacturing processes of the industries. They are also called as
sewage. The most common practice of disposing liquid waste is to discharge it in
ground or rivers and other water bodies without treatment. Examples: domestic
washings, chemicals, oils, waste water from ponds, Wastewater from manufacturing
industries, manure, waste oil, fats, oils or grease (FOG), used oil, and hazardous
household liquids.

Figure 1 Classification of waste based on their physical state

 - Gaseous wastes
It is a waste product released in the form of gases from automobiles, factories, industries,
burning of fossil fuels etc and get mixed in the atmosphere. These gases include carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone and methane etc.
Classification of solid wastes
It is mandatory to classify solid wastes into groups that pose similar risks to the environment
and human health for safe disposal. According to the modern systems of waste management,
solid wastes are classified based on their source, type, properties and its effect on human health
and environment.
1.1 Source based classification
Wastes are produced from different sources and are categorized as follows
1.1.1 Municipal solid waste (MSW)
Municipal solid waste commonly referred to as trash, garbage or refuse comprises of street
wastes, dead animals, market wastes, abandoned vehicles, household garbage, rubbish,
construction and demolition debris, sanitation residue, packaging materials, trade refuges etc.
They are collected from residential houses, markets, streets and other places mostly from urban
areas and disposed of by municipal bodies. The proportion of different constituents of
municipal wastes vary from place to place and season to season depending on the food habits,
life style, standard of living and extent of commercial and industrial activities in the area.
Municipal wastes their contents and source are illustrated in table given below. Municipal solid
wastes are further categorized based on their physical, chemical and biological properties
1.1.2 Industrial wastes
Wastes generated during industrial activities such as manufacturing and processing involved in
chemical plants, paint industry, cement factories, metallurgical plants, thermal power plants,
petroleum, coal, gas, sanitary, textile, food processing and paper industry are referred to as
industrial wastes. Some examples of industrial wastes are chemical solvents, paints, sandpaper,
paper products, industrial by-products, metals, and radioactive wastes. Industrial solid wastes
are further classified as hazardous and non-hazardous wastes.
1.1.3 Institutional/ Commercial wastes
Solid wastes originating from administrative, educational and public buildings such as offices,
schools, colleges, hospitals, government centres, prisons and other commercial establishments
like wholesale and retail stores, restaurants, hotels, markets, warehouses. Paper, cardboard,
plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, special wastes, hazardous wastes are the examples
of industrial and commercial wastes
1.1.4 Agricultural wastes
Agriculture wastes includes both natural (organic) and non-natural wastes generated through
farming activities. These activities include but are not limited to dairy farming, horticulture,
seed growing, livestock breeding, grazing land, market gardens, nursery plots, and even
woodlands. Some of agricultural wastes include spoiled food grains, vegetables, animal and
plant wastes, litter, pesticides, fertilizers etc. Other agricultural wastes are produced from
agricultural products processing industries like sugarcane factories, tobacco processing units,
slaughter houses, livestock, poultry etc. Agricultural wastes are mostly biodegradable but few
wastes like pesticide and fertilizers are toxic. When discharged to the environment, agricultural
wastes can be both beneficial and detrimental to living matter.
1.1.5 Biomedical wastes
Wastes produced from hospitals, medical centres and nursing homes are called biomedical
wastes. Hospital wastes are generated during diagnosis, treatment or immunisation of human
beings/animals or in research activities in these fields or in the production/testing of
biologicals. These wastes are highly infectious and may pose severe threat if not managed
properly. Biomedical wastes may be solid or liquid wastes that includes discarded blood,
sharps, soiled wastes, disposables, anatomical wastes, cultures, discarded medicines, chemical
wastes etc.
1.2 Type based classification
1.2.1 Garbage
Garbage wastes mean and include animal and vegetable wastes generated from kitchen,
cooking, serving of foods, slaughterhouses, market refuse. These wastes contain putrescible
organic matter which produces strong odour. They attract rats, vermins, flies and other insects
and so they require immediate attention in handling and disposal.
1.2.2 Rubbish
Solid wastes arising as a result of households, commercial and institutional activities excluding
garbage and ashes is termed as rubbish. They are categorized into combustible and non-
combustible wastes. Combustible wastes consist of all rubbish and refuse that can be
incinerated to flames at 1400-1500◦F which includes leaves, plants, clothes, paper, leather,
rubber, grasses. Non-combustible wastes are characterized as wastes that cannot be incinerated
to flames at 1400-1500◦F and that includes glass, metals, plastic materials, stones, auto parts
etc.
1.2.3 Bulk waste
Bulky household wastes consist of household furniture; appliances such as stoves, washing
machines and refrigerators; mattresses and springs, rugs, TV sets, water heaters, tires, lawn
mowers, auto parts, tree and brush debris etc.
Commercial bulky wastes include packaging and containers such as cardboard, wood boxes,
fiber, plastic and steel drums, loose and bundled paper, bundles of textiles and plastics, wires,
furniture and equipment etc.
Industrial bulky waste includes crates, cartons; steel, fiber and plastic drums; bales and rolls of
paper, plastics, and textiles; miscellaneous metal items etc.

1.2.4 Ashes
Ashes are defined as fine powdery residues, cinders and clinkers arising from the burning of
wood, coal, charcoal, coke and other combustible materials during cooking and heating in
houses, institutions and outer industrial establishments.
1.2.4 Street wastes
Wastes comprising of leaves, dirt, dust litter, paper, plastics and other vegetable matter
collected from streets, walkways, alleys, parks, beaches and vacant lots are termed as street
wastes.
1.2.5 Dead animals
Animals that die naturally or accidentally comprises of dead animal wastes. They are
categorized as small animals such as cats, dogs, rats, rabbits, poultry and large animals like
horses, cows, goats, Sheep etc. However, animal carcasses and animal parts from
slaughterhouses are excluded from dead animal wastes and considered as industrial wastes.
These dead animal wastes are putrescible and attract flies and other vermin posing severe health
risk to the environment. Hence, they must be collected and disposed off promptly.
1.2.6 Sewage wastes/sludge
Settled solid components, residual or semi-solid materials that are discharged from sewage
treatment plants and septic tanks are classified as sewage waste. The raw and the treated sewage
consist of organic and inorganic fraction. The sewage wastes contains putrescible organic
matter which may contain pathogens and so must be disposed off without delay.
1.2.7 Plastics
Plastic due to their versatile property of being light, durable, easy to mould and economical has
invaded almost all sectors of the economy. Likewise, they are generated as wastes from almost
all sectors that includes agriculture, construction, consumer goods, household, health care,
hotel and catering, packaging, telecommunications, air and travel industries. Some of the
plastic wastes include carry bags, bottles, plates, spoons, glasses, gloves, boxes, syringes,
catheter tubes, surgical items etc. Plastics due to its non-biodegradable nature are now
considered a serious threat to the environmental and health.
1.2.8 Construction and demolition wastes
Construction and demolition wastes are the waste materials generated in large amounts during
the construction, refurbishment, repair and demolition of houses, commercial buildings, roads
and other structures. They consists of earth, stones, concrete, bricks, lumber, steel, roofing
materials, plumbing materials, heating systems and electrical wires.
1.2.9 Mining wastes
Mining wastes are generated from extractive operations of mineral resources. They include
materials such as topsoil, overburden and waste rock that must be removed to gain access to
the mineral resource. Also, other waste material like slags, mine water, mine tailings, water
treatment sludge and gaseous wastes etc are released during or after processing of mineral ores.
Some of these wastes are inert and are not considered as threat to the environment. However,
other fractions, generated by the non-ferrous metal mining industry contains large quantities of
dangerous substances such as heavy metals. These metals and metal compounds after
extraction and subsequent mineral processing, tend to become chemically more available
resulting in the generation of acid or alkaline drainage. Therefore, mine wastes requires to be
carefully characterized to prevent and minimize air, water, and soil contamination.
1.2.10 Radioactive wastes
Radioactive wastes are hazardous, by-products of nuclear reactions. They pose severe threat to
human life and environment. Radioactive wastes decays over time ranging from a few days for
highly radioactive isotopes to millions of years for slightly radioactive ones. Hence, these
wastes have to be isolated and confined at appropriate disposal facilities for it to completely
decay. The sources of radioactive wastes are from mining of radioactive substances, atomic
explosion, nuclear fuel cycle, nuclear weapons reprocessing, medical and industrial wastes etc.
1.3 Property based classification
Solid wastes are also classified based on their biological and chemical property.
1.3.1 Biodegradable / Organic wastes
Biodegradable wastes are those that can be decomposed by the natural processes such as
composting, aerobic/ anaerobic digestion and converted into the elemental form like carbon
dioxide, methane, water or simple organic molecules. Some of the biodegradable wastes
include municipal solid wastes (green waste, food waste, paper waste, biodegradable plastics,
human and animal wastes, sewage, sludge, slaughter house wastes etc).
1.3.2 Non-biodegradable /inorganic wastes
Non-biodegradable wastes are those that cannot be decomposed and remain as such in the
environment indefinitely. They are persistent and threaten to overwhelm landfills and create
disposal problems creating environmental concern. As non-biodegradable wastes cannot be
decomposed, recycling is theideal option for managing it. Example of non-biodegradable
wastes includes plastics, nuclear wastes, glass, rubber tyres, styrofoam, fiberglass and metals.
1.3.3 Hazardous wastes
Hazardous waste is defined as chemical material that can no longer be used for its intended
purpose and is known to be harmful or potentially harmful to plants, animals and human health
or to the environment. Hazardous wastes may be in the form of solids, liquids, sludge’s or
gases. In some cases, although the active agents may be liquid or gaseous, they are classified
as solid waste because they are confined in solid containers. They are generated primarily by
chemical production, manufacturing and other industrial activities. The hazardous waste
materials may be toxic, reactive, ignitable, explosive, corrosive, infectious or radioactive. If
improperly handled, they can cause substantial harm to human health and to the environment.
So good management practice should ensure that hazardous wastes are collected, stored,
transported and disposed off separately, to render them innocuous. Some of the important
hazardous wastes are lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, many drugs, leather, pesticides, dye,
rubber, solvents, paints and effluents from different industries.
1.3.4 Non-hazardous wastes
Non-hazardous wastes are defined as substances safe to use commercially, industrially,
agriculturally or economically. Some of the non-hazardous wastes produced are from the food
processing plants, cotton mills, paper mills, textile mills and sugarcane industries. Other non-
hazardous wastes includes paint, oil, antifreeze, buffers, salts etc.

Figure 2 Classification solid waste based on source of generation, type and physio-
chemical property
2. Waste Characterization
Waste is described as discarded material that does not have no further use to the primary user.
Waste exists in different forms like solid, semi-solid, liquid and gas. Based on its nature and
source of origin it is categorized as municipal waste, hazardous waste, biomedical waste,
radioactive waste and so on. Different waste streams are composed of different materials and
therefore have different health and environmental impacts. Also the quantities to be managed
differ from waste stream to stream. Consequently, the methods by which various waste streams
are collected, recovered, processed, treated or disposed of may vary broadly.
Since the characteristic of waste determines the method of its management it is important and
useful to know about the physical, chemical and biological nature of the waste. These
characteristics vary depending on the source and type of solid waste and this in turn will affect
the leachate and gas production from landfills.
2.1 Physical characteristic of SW
Coming to SW the physical characteristic of the waste includes moisture content, waste particle
size, waste density, temperature and pH as these affect the extent and rate of degradation of
waste.
2.1.1. Moisture content
The moisture content of solid wastes usually is expressed as the weight of moisture per unit
weight of wet or dry material. In the wet-weight method of measurement, the moisture in a
sample is expressed as a percentage of the wet weight of the material; in the dry-weight method,
it is expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the material. In equation form, the wet-
weight moisture content is expressed as follows:
Typically in SW the moisture content varies between 15-40% and this further depends on the
composition of the wastes, the season of the year, and the humidity and weather conditions.
Moisture content is a critical determinant in the economic feasibility of waste treatment by
incineration since energy must be supplied for evaporation of this moisture. Moisture content
also plays an important role in other processing methods such as composting and anaerobic
digestion. Most micro-organisms including bacteria require a minimum of approximately 12%
moisture for growth.
2.1.2 Density
Density of a waste is its mass per unit volume (kg/m3). It is essential for the design of all
elements of the solid waste management system from storage to transportation to final disposal.
In high-income countries, the collected waste is typically of low density as it contains more
recyclables like cans, glasses etc. Here considerable benefit is derived through the use of
compaction vehicles on collection routes, where a 75% reduction of volume is achieved.
However, in low-income countries initial compaction are not favourable due to a high initial
density of waste. Consequently, compaction vehicles offer little or no advantage and are not
cost-effective. Also significant changes in density occur spontaneously as the waste moves
from source to disposal, due to scavenging, handling, wetting and drying by weather etc.,
2.1.3 Particle size and distribution:
Since recovery of waste materials is a key element in solid waste management it is important
to have knowledge on the size and distribution of the waste constituents. This knowledge is
useful in the utilization of mechanical separators and shredders for waste stream processing.
However, the particle size and shape of MSW are challenging to measure due to reasons such
as their complex shape, difficulty in the movement of MSW particles along the sieve surface
and variation in their area depending on the forces acting on the it (von Blottnitz et. al, 2002).
The major means of controlling particle size is through shredding. Shredding increases
homogeneity, increases the surface area/volume ratio and reduces the potential for preferential
liquid flow paths through the waste. Particle size will also influence waste packing densities,
and particle size reduction (by shredding) could increase biogas production through the
increased surface area available to degradation by bacteria. However, the flip side is, the
smaller particles allow higher packing density which decrease water movement, bacterial
movement and the bacterial access to substrate. Therefore, it is important for the particle size
to be in line with the treatment method to be adopted.
2.1.4 Field capacity
The field capacity of solid waste is the amount of moisture that can be retained in a waste
sample subject to the downward pull of gravity. The field capacity of waste materials is of
critical importance in determining the formation of leachate in landfills. Water in excess of the
field capacity will be released as leachate. The field capacity varies with the degree of applied
pressure and the state of decomposition of the waste. The field capacity of uncompacted
commingled wastes from residential and commercial sources is in the range of 50 to 60 percent.
2.1.5 Permeability
Permeability is defined as the hydraulic conductivity of compacted waste. It is an important
physical property and it governs movement of liquid and gases in landfill. It depends on pore
size, surface area and pore size distribution. Permeability is inversely related to density,
implying that denser refuse is less permeable. The reported range of permeability of refuse is
10-1 to 10-5 cm/sec.
2.2 Chemical characteristic of MSW
Chemical composition of solid wastes is important while evaluating alternative processing and
recovery options. Especially while looking at waste to energy processes where waste is used
as fuel it is important to have knowledge of proximate and ultimate analysis of the substrate.
2.2.1 Proximate analysis:
A typical proximate analysis includes moisture, ash, volatile matter, and fixed carbon contents.
2.2.2 Fusing point of ash:
The fusing point ash is defined as that temperature at which the ash resulting from the burning
of waste will form a solid (clinker) by fusion and agglomeration. Typical fusing temperature
for the formation of clinker from solid waste range from 1100 to 1200oC.
2.2.3 Ultimate Analysis of Solid Waste Components:
The ultimate analysis of a waste component typically involves the determination of the percent
C (carbon), H (hydrogen), O (oxygen), N (nitrogen), S (sulphur), and ash. Due to the concern
over the emission of chlorinated compounds during combustion, the determination of halogens
is often included in an ultimate analysis. The results of the ultimate analysis are used to
characterise the chemical composition of the organic matter in MSW. They are also used to
define the proper mix of waste materials to achieve suitable C/N ratios for biological
conversion processes. Analysis for solid waste for carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur can
be done using CHNS analyser.
2.2.4 Heat content:
Calorific value is the amount of heat generated from combustion of a unit weight of a substance,
expressed as kcal/kg. The calorific value is determined experimentally using Bomb calorimeter
in which the heat generated at a constant temperature of 250 C from combustion of a dry sample
is measured. Since the test temperature is below the boiling point of water, the combustion
water remains in the liquid state. However, during combustion gases remain above 1000 C so
that the water resulting from combustion is in the vapour state.
2.2.5 Essential Nutrients and Other Elements:
Where the organic fraction of MSW is to be used as feedstock for the production of biological
conversion products such as compost, methane, and ethanol, information on the essential
nutrients and elements in the waste materials is of importance with respect to the microbial
nutrient balance and in assessing what final uses can be made of the materials remaining after
biological conversion.
2.3 Biological characteristic of MSW
The most important biological characteristic of the organic fraction of MSW is that almost all
of the organic components can be converted biologically to gases and relatively inert organic
and inorganic solids. The production of odours and the generation of flies are also related to
the putrescible nature of the organic materials found in MSW (e.g., food wastes). The organic
fraction of MSW (excluding plastic, rubber and leather) includes water-soluble constituents
(such as sugars, starches, amino acids, and various organic acids), hemicellulose, cellulose,
Fats, oils, and waxes, lignin, lignocellulose and proteins. While evaluating incineration as a
means of disposal or energy recovery, it is important to keep in view the following facts:
- Organic material yields energy only when dry
- The moisture contained as free water in the waste reduces the dry organic material per
kilogram of waste and requires a significant amount of energy for evaporation; and
- The ash content of the waste reduces the proportion of dry organic material per kilogram
of waste. It also retains some heat when removed from the furnace.