Gäajp IX Aø¾³ì aµj

M¾«pc «pì
For more notes

Super Notes on the fundamental concepts of atoms and molecules for

Grade IX students.

Ref Ncert for Figure's referred in the notes

Q1: W¾ ˆ•äìø áä¾á¾ìpj øp •jpa ¾ˆ

j••ì•b•«•ø ¾ˆ ³aøøpä •µ Iµj•a?
A: The idea of divisibility of matter in India was first proposed around 500 BC
by the Indian philosopher Maharishi Kanad.

Q2: Waø aì Maaä•ì• Kaµaj'ì

øp¾ä ab¾ ø j••j•µ‰ ³aøøpä?
A: Maharishi Kanad postulated that if we keep dividing matter (referred to as
"padarth"), we would ultimately reach particles that cannot be further divided.
He called these particles "parmanu."

Q3: Waø j•j Pa¨ ja Kaøaa³a

c¾µøä•b øp ø¾ øp j¾cø䕵p ¾ˆ
j••ì•b•«•ø?
A: Pakudha Katyayama elaborated on the doctrine of divisibility by stating
that particles normally exist in a combined form, which gives rise to various
kinds of matter.

Q4: W•c Gäpp¨ ᐕ«¾ì¾ápäì

øp¾ä•(pj ab¾ ø øp •µj••ì•b•«•ø ¾ˆ
³aøøpä, aµj aø päp øp•ä •pì?
A: The Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus theorized that if we
keep dividing matter, we will eventually reach a stage where particles cannot
be further divided. Democritus named these indivisible particles "atoms."

Q5: W aì Dp³¾cä•ø ì'ì øp¾ä

µ¾ø accpáøpj •µ •ì ø•³p?
A: Democritus's theory was not accepted because it lacked experimental
evidence and validation. Philosophical considerations dominated his time,
with no experimental support for his ideas.

Q6: Waø c¾µøä•b ø•¾µì j•j Aµø¾•µp

La¾•ì•pä ³a¨p ø¾ øp ìø j ¾ˆ
cp³•ca« c¾³b•µaø•¾µì?
A: Antoine Lavoisier laid the foundation for the laws of chemical combination
through his experiments, which contributed to modern chemistry.

Q7: Waø aäp øp ø¾ ˆ µja³pµøa«

«aì ¾ˆ cp³•ca« c¾³b•µaø•¾µ?
A: The two fundamental laws of chemical combination are:

1. Law of Conservation of Mass

2. Law of Constant Proportions

Q8: Waø •ì øp ¾b¥pcø•p ¾ˆ Acø••ø

3.1 jpìcä•bpj •µ øp •³a‰p?
A: The objective of Activity 3.1 is to determine whether there is a change in
mass during a chemical reaction, thereby illustrating the Law of
Conservation of Mass.

Q9: Dpìcä•bp øp ìøpáì ¾ˆ Acø••ø 3.1

ø¾ øpìø øp La ¾ˆ C¾µìpäaø•¾µ ¾ˆ
Maìì.
A:

1. Take two chemical sets:

Set X (e.g., sodium carbonate or lead nitrate).

Set Y (e.g., sodium sulfate or sodium chloride).

1. Prepare a 5% solution of X and Y in separate test tubes.
2. Take a small quantity of solution X in a conical flask and suspend
solution Y in a small ignition tube.
3. Seal the flask and weigh it.
4. Mix the solutions by tilting the flask, allowing the reaction to occur.
5. Weigh the flask again to observe if the mass remains constant.

Q10: Waø ¾bìpäaø•¾µ ì áá¾äøì øp

La ¾ˆ C¾µìpäaø•¾µ ¾ˆ Maìì •µ
Acø••ø 3.1?
A: The observation that the total mass of the flask and its contents remains
unchanged before and after the reaction supports the Law of Conservation
of Mass.
F µja³pµøa« Laì ¾ˆ Cp³•ca« C¾³b•µaø•¾µ
The Law of Conservation of Mass states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction. This
fundamental principle is complemented by the Law of Constant Proportions, which states that in a chemical substance,
the elements are always present in definite proportions by mass, regardless of the source or method of preparation. An
illustrative example of this law is water (H₂O), which is always composed of hydrogen and oxygen in a fixed ratio of 1:8 by
mass, regardless of its source. The Law of Constant Proportions was discovered by Joseph L. Proust in 1799.

John Dalton, a British school teacher and scientist born in 1766, made a major contribution to chemistry with his atomic
theory, which provided a scientific explanation for the laws of chemical combination. The main postulates of Dalton's
atomic theory are:

1. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.

2. Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and chemical properties.
3. Atoms of different elements differ in mass and chemical properties.
4. Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds.
5. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction, only rearranged.

Dalton's theory explains that atoms of different elements combine in simple, whole-number ratios, which accounts for the
fixed composition of compounds. Before Dalton's atomic theory, scientists relied on the ideas of divisibility of matter
proposed by philosophers like Democritus and the laws of chemical combination established by Lavoisier and Proust. The
significance of Dalton's atomic theory lies in its provision of a scientific explanation for the laws of conservation of mass
and constant proportions, laying the foundation for modern chemistry.

Uµjpäìøaµj•µ‰ Aø¾³ì aµj Tp•ä S•(p

An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element. Atoms are extremely small, typically
measuring around 10⁻¹⁰ meters in diameter. To illustrate their size, a million hydrogen atoms stacked side by side would
be as thick as a sheet of paper. Atoms are much smaller than common objects, such as a grain of sand or water droplet.
For instance, a water droplet contains approximately 10^21 atoms. To visualize the arrangement of atoms on surfaces,
scientists use a Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM).

John Dalton was the first scientist to use symbols to represent atoms of different elements. His symbols were simple,
circular designs to visually distinguish one element from another.
Da«ø¾µ'ì Aø¾³•c S³b¾«ì aµj M¾jpäµ E«p³pµø
Rpáäpìpµøaø•¾µ
Dalton's atomic symbols:
Hydrogen: a plain circle
Carbon: a circle with a dot inside

Sulfur: a circle with a cross

Oxygen: a circle with a horizontal line
Modern symbols vs Dalton's symbols: Modern symbols of elements differ from Dalton's symbols because they are
based on the element's Latin or English names, making them more standardized and universally recognizable.
Significance of atoms: Atoms appear insignificant due to their tiny size, but they are the building blocks of all matter.
They combine in various ways to form everything we see around us.

Silicon image representation: The magnified image of silicon (Fig. 3.2) represents the arrangement of silicon atoms
as visualized through advanced techniques such as scanning tunneling microscopy.
Size of a hydrogen atom: The size of a hydrogen atom is approximately 10⁻¹⁰ meters.
M¾jpäµ E«p³pµø S³b¾«ì aµj Na³•µ‰
IUPAC Søaµjaäj•(aø•¾µ
1 Unique one- or two-letter abbreviations

M¾jpäµ E«p³pµø S³b¾«ì

2
Based on Latin or English names

H•ìø¾ä•ca« E«p³pµø Na³•µ‰

3
Often derived from place of discovery

How were the names of elements derived historically?

Historically, the names of elements were often derived from the place where they were first discovered. For example, the
element "Gallium" was named after "Gallia," the Latin name for France.

What is the basis for modern element symbols?

Modern element symbols are based on their Latin or English names. They are typically one or two letters, with the first
letter always capitalized and the second (if present) in lowercase.

Provide examples of elements whose symbols are derived from their Latin names.

Examples include:

Sodium (Na) from "Natrium."

Potassium (K) from "Kalium."
Iron (Fe) from "Ferrum."

What does IUPAC recommend regarding element symbols?

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommends a standardized system of symbols where
each element has a unique one- or two-letter abbreviation derived from its name.

What is atomic mass?

Atomic mass is the mass of an atom, primarily determined by the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus.
Aø¾³•c Maìì aµj Iøì Ca«c «aø•¾µ
Q36: What did Dalton conclude about the atomic mass of elements?

A: Dalton concluded that atoms of different elements have different masses, which was crucial for understanding
chemical reactions and the formation of compounds.

Q37: How do scientists calculate atomic mass today?

A: Scientists calculate atomic mass using the relative masses of atoms, comparing them to the mass of a reference atom,
such as Carbon-12.

Q38: What is the atomic mass unit (u), and why is it used?

A: The atomic mass unit (u) is a standardized unit for measuring atomic mass. It simplifies calculations by providing a
common reference, such as 1 u = (1/12)th the mass of a Carbon-12 atom.

Q39: Why are atomic masses often not whole numbers?

A: Atomic masses are often not whole numbers because they represent the weighted average of the isotopes of an
element, taking into account their relative abundances.

Q40: What is the approximate atomic mass of hydrogen and oxygen?

A: The approximate atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 u, and that of oxygen is 16 u.

Aø¾³•c Maìì aµj Iøì Ca«c «aø•¾µ

Dpˆ•µ•ø•¾µ ¾ˆ Aø¾³•c Maìì Caäb¾µ-12 aì Søaµjaäj Fä •ø Sp««pä Aµa«¾‰

The atomic mass of an element Carbon-12 was chosen as the The fruit seller uses watermelon
is defined as the average mass standard for atomic mass pieces as a standard to weigh
of its atoms compared to 1/12th because it provides a precise whole watermelons. Similarly,
the mass of a carbon-12 atom. and universally accepted scientists use 1/12th the mass
reference. Its mass is exactly 12 of a carbon-12 atom as a
, making it convenient for standard to measure the atomic
comparisons. masses of other atoms.

Aø¾³•c Maììpì ¾ˆ E«p³pµøì Aø¾³ì •µ Naø äp

- Hydrogen: 1 u - Carbon: 12 u - Oxygen: 16 u Atoms rarely exist independently in nature. They
usually combine to form molecules or ions, which are
stable and can exist freely.
Aø¾³ì, M¾«pc «pì, aµj Tp•ä Caäacøpä•ìø•cì
1. Why is it difficult to see an atom with the naked eye? Atoms are extremely small, with sizes in the range of 10⁻¹⁰
meters, making them impossible to see without advanced tools like electron microscopes.
2. What is a molecule? A molecule is a group of two or more atoms chemically bonded together. It represents the
smallest unit of a compound capable of independent existence.
3. What types of atoms can combine to form molecules? Molecules can form by combining:
Atoms of the same element (e.g., O₂, N₂).
Atoms of different elements (e.g., H₂O, CO₂).
4. How do molecules differ from atoms? Atoms are individual units, while molecules are combinations of two or more
atoms bonded together. Molecules are the smallest units of compounds.
5. Give an example of a molecule formed by two atoms of the same element. An example is oxygen O₂, where two
oxygen atoms are bonded together to form a molecule.
M¾«pc «pì aµj Tp•ä Tápì
Question Answer

Q51: What are molecules of elements? Molecules of elements are made up of atoms of the
same type. For example, oxygen O₂ is made up of two
oxygen atoms, while helium (He) is made up of single
helium atoms.

Q52: What is a diatomic molecule? Provide an example. A diatomic molecule consists of two atoms. For
example, oxygen (O₂) is a diatomic molecule formed by
two oxygen atoms.

Q53: What are triatomic and polyatomic molecules? A triatomic molecule consists of three atoms, such
Provide examples. as ozone ( O₃)).
A polyatomic molecule consists of many atoms,
such as sulfur (S₈)).

Q54: What is atomicity, and how does it vary among Atomicity refers to the number of atoms in a molecule
non-metals? of an element. For example:

Monatomic: Helium (He)

Diatomic: Hydrogen (H₂), Oxygen (O₂)
Tetratomic: Phosphorus (P₄)
Polyatomic: Sulfur (S₈)
M¾«pc «pì ¾ˆ C¾³á¾ µjì
Q55: What are molecules of compounds?

A: Molecules of compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in fixed proportions. Examples
include:

Water (H₂O)
Ammonia (NH₃)
Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
M¾jpäµ E«p³pµø S³b¾«ì aµj Na³•µ‰

Tab«p 3.4: M¾«pc «pì aµj Acø••ø 3.2: La ¾ˆ C¾µìøaµø I¾µì aµj I¾µ•c C¾³á¾ µjì
Maìì Raø•¾ì Pä¾á¾äø•¾µì An ion is a charged particle formed
Table 3.4 lists molecules of some Activity 3.2 aims to show the fixed when an atom or a group of atoms
compounds, their combining ratio of masses in water (H₂O) and gains or loses electrons.
elements, and their ratio by mass. For confirm the Law of Constant
A positively charged ion is called a
example: Proportions. It involves calculating the
cation.
ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in water
Water (H₂O): Hydrogen and A negatively charged ion is called
and comparing it to the theoretical
Oxygen, Ratio by Mass = 1:8 an anion.
ratio of 1:8.
Ammonia (NH₃): Nitrogen and
Ionic compounds are formed when
Hydrogen, Ratio by Mass = 14:3 The ratio of masses of hydrogen and
oppositely charged ions (cations and
oxygen is calculated using the
anions) combine in definite
following steps:
proportions. These compounds are
1. Divide the given mass of each typically formed between metals and
element by its atomic mass. non-metals.
2. Simplify the resulting numbers to
find the smallest whole number
ratio.
I¾µ•c C¾³á¾ µjì aµj P¾«aø¾³•c I¾µì
Ionic compound: A chemical compound formed by the combination of oppositely charged ions (cations and anions) in
a fixed ratio. Examples include calcium oxide (CaO) and magnesium chloride (MgCl₂).
Polyatomic ion: A group of atoms that are covalently bonded and have a net charge, such as ammonium (NH₄⁺) or
sulfate (SO₄²⁻).
Table 3.5: Lists examples of ionic compounds, their constituent elements, and the ratio of their masses. For example:
Calcium oxide (CaO): Calcium and Oxygen, Mass Ratio = 5:2
Sodium chloride (NaCl): Sodium and Chlorine, Mass Ratio = 23:35.5
Chemical formula: A symbolic representation of a compound's composition, indicating the elements it contains and
their relative proportions.
Valency: The combining capacity of an element, defined as the number of hydrogen atoms or other monovalent atoms
it can combine with to form a compound.
Aø¾³•c Maìì Uµ•øì aµj Iì¾ø¾ápì
Va«pµc aµj Cp³•ca« F¾ä³ «aì
Uµjpäìøaµj•µ‰ Va«pµc

Valency is a crucial concept in chemistry that determines how atoms combine. Let's explore this through an example and
an analogy:

For hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen and chlorine each have a valency of 1, meaning they combine in a 1:1 ratio.
The text uses the analogy of human hands to explain valency. Just as people use hands to hold objects, atoms use
their valency to combine with other atoms.

Wä•ø•µ‰ Cp³•ca« F¾ä³ «aì

To write the formula of a compound, follow these steps:

1. Write the symbols of the combining elements.

2. Write their valencies as subscripts.
3. Cross-over the valencies to balance the charges and simplify, if necessary.

I¾µì aµj Tp•ä Va«pµc•pì

Table 3.6 provides valuable information about ions, including their names, symbols, and valencies. Here's a summary:

2.4

1.6

0.8

0
Monatomic Polyatomic

Examples from Table 3.6 include:

Monatomic ions: Sodium (Na⁺), Chloride (Cl⁻)

Polyatomic ions: Ammonium (NH₄⁺), Nitrate (NO₃⁻)
M¾«pc «pì aµj Tp•ä Tápì
1. Why do some elements have more than one valency? Some elements
have multiple valencies due to the availability of different numbers of
electrons for bonding.
2. Example of an element with multiple valencies: Copper (Cu) can have
valencies of +1 (Cu⁺) and +2 (Cu²⁺).
Wä•ø•µ‰ Cp³•ca« F¾ä³ «aì

R «pì ˆ¾ä Wä•ø•µ‰ Cp³•ca« F¾ä³ «aì Ea³á«pì ¾ˆ Cp³•ca« F¾ä³ «aì
The valencies or charges of the ions must balance. Hydrogen chloride: (HCl)
If a compound consists of a metal and a non-metal, the Water: (H2O)
symbol of the metal is written first.
Magnesium chloride: (MgCl2)
For compounds with polyatomic ions, the ion is written
Calcium oxide: (CaO)
in brackets if more than one is present.

Q71: Waø aäp øp ä «pì ˆ¾ä ä•ø•µ‰ a cp³•ca« ˆ¾ä³ «a?
A: The rules for writing a chemical formula are:

1. The valencies or charges of the ions must balance.

2. If a compound consists of a metal and a non-metal, the symbol of the metal is written first.
3. For compounds with polyatomic ions, the ion is written in brackets if more than one is present.

Q72: Waø •ì øp cp³•ca« ˆ¾ä³ «a ¾ˆ j侉pµ c«¾ä•jp?

A: The chemical formula of hydrogen chloride is (HCl), where hydrogen and chlorine combine in a 1:1 ratio.

Q73: H¾ •ì øp cp³•ca« ˆ¾ä³ «a ¾ˆ aøpä jpä•pj?

A: For water:

Symbol: (H), (O)

Valency: 1 (Hydrogen), 2 (Oxygen)
Formula: (H2O), where two hydrogen atoms combine with one oxygen atom.

Q74: H¾ j¾ ¾ ä•øp øp cp³•ca« ˆ¾ä³ «a ¾ˆ

³a‰µpì• ³ c«¾ä•jp?
A: For magnesium chloride:

Symbol: (Mg), (Cl)

Valency: 2 (Magnesium), 1 (Chlorine)
Formula: (MgCl2), where one magnesium atom combines with two chlorine atoms.

Q75: Waø •ì øp cp³•ca« ˆ¾ä³ «a ¾ˆ ca«c• ³ ¾•jp?

A: The chemical formula of calcium oxide is (CaO), where calcium (valency 2) combines with oxygen (valency 2) in a 1:1
ratio.
I¾µ•c C¾³á¾ µjì aµj P¾«aø¾³•c I¾µì
Q76: Why is it necessary to simplify the formula of compounds?

A: It is necessary to simplify the formula of compounds to represent them in the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms,
ensuring the valencies are balanced.

Q77: What is the chemical formula of carbon tetrachloride?

A: The chemical formula of carbon tetrachloride is (CCl₄), where one carbon atom (valency 4) combines with four chlorine
atoms (valency 1).

Q78: How is the formula of aluminium oxide derived?

A: For aluminium oxide:

- Symbol: Al, O
- Valency: 3 (Aluminium), 2 (Oxygen)
- Cross-over valencies: Al₂O₃, where two aluminium atoms combine with three oxygen atoms.

Q79: Explain the use of brackets in chemical formulas with polyatomic ions.

A: Brackets are used in chemical formulas when more than one polyatomic ion is present. For example, in calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), the brackets indicate that two hydroxide (OH) ions are combined with one calcium ion.

Q80: Provide an example of a chemical formula where brackets are used.

A: An example is ammonium sulfate:

- Symbols: NH₄⁺, SO₄²⁻

- Formula: (NH₄)₂SO₄, where two ammonium ions combine with one sulfate ion.
Wä•ø•µ‰ Cp³•ca« F¾ä³ «aì

S¾j• ³ N•øäaøp Ca«c• ³ Hj侕jp S¾j• ³ Caäb¾µaøp

Q81: What is the formula of Q82: How is the formula of Q83: What is the formula of
sodium nitrate, and how is it calcium hydroxide written, and sodium carbonate?
derived? what does the bracket indicate?
A: The formula of sodium
A: The formula of sodium nitrate A: The formula of calcium carbonate is Na₂CO₃, where two
is NaNO₃. It is derived by hydroxide is Ca(OH)₂. The sodium (Na⁺) ions combine with
combining: brackets indicate that two one carbonate (CO₃²⁻) ion.
hydroxide (OH⁻) ions combine
Sodium (Na⁺) with a valency of
with one calcium (Ca²⁺) ion.
1.
Nitrate (NO₃⁻) with a valency
of 1.

The charges balance in a 1:1 ratio.

Uìp ¾ˆ Bäac¨pøì M¾«pc «aä Maìì

Q84: Why are brackets used in the formula of calcium Q85: What is molecular mass?
hydroxide but not in sodium carbonate?
A: Molecular mass is the relative mass of a molecule,
A: Brackets are used in Ca(OH)₂ to group the hydroxide calculated as the sum of the atomic masses of all the
ions (OH⁻) because more than one OH⁻ ion is present. atoms present in the molecule.
In Na₂CO₃, the carbonate ion is already a single unit
and does not require brackets.
M¾«pc «aä aµj F¾ä³ «a Maìì
1. Calculating molecular mass of water (H₂O):
Atomic mass of hydrogen = 1 u
Atomic mass of oxygen = 16 u
Molecular mass = 2 × 1 + 16 = 18 u
2. Molecular mass of nitric acid (HNO₃):
Hydrogen = 1 u
Nitrogen = 14 u

Oxygen = 16 u
Molecular mass = 1 + 14 + (16 × 3) = 63 u
3. Formula unit mass: The sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in its formula, expressed in atomic mass units (u).
4. Difference between atomic mass and molecular mass:
Atomic mass refers to the mass of a single atom.
Molecular mass is the total mass of all atoms in a molecule.
5. Molecular masses of compounds:
Al₂(SO₄)₃: (2 × 27) + (3 × 32) + (12 × 16) = 342 u
CaCl₂: 40 + (2 × 35.5) = 111 u
K₂SO₄: (2 × 39) + 32 + (4 × 16) = 174 u

HNO₃: 1 + 14 + (3 × 16) = 63 u
Ca«c «aø•µ‰ M¾«pc «aä Maììpì
Let's explore some key concepts related to molecular masses and the mole concept:

F¾ä³ «a Uµ•ø Maìì

Q91: What is the formula unit mass of CaCl₂?

A: The formula unit mass of CaCl₂ is calculated as: (40) + (2 × 35.5) = 111 u.

M¾«pc «aä Maìì ì F¾ä³ «a Uµ•ø Maìì

Q92: What is the difference between molecular mass and formula unit mass?

A:

Molecular mass is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule (e.g., H₂O, CO₂).
Formula unit mass is used for ionic compounds, representing the sum of the atomic masses of ions in the formula
unit (e.g., NaCl, CaCl₂).

Cp³•ca« Rpacø•¾µì aµj Maìì

Q93: What does the reaction 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O illustrate?

A: This reaction illustrates that:

1. Two molecules of hydrogen combine with one molecule of oxygen to form two molecules of water.
2. 4 grams of hydrogen combine with 32 grams of oxygen to form 36 grams of water.

Tp M¾«p C¾µcpáø

Q94: Why was the concept of "mole" introduced in chemistry?

A: The mole concept was introduced to conveniently express the number of atoms, molecules, or ions in a substance, as
their actual number is extremely large and impractical to count directly.

Q95: Define 1 mole of a substance.

A: One mole of a substance contains 6.022 × 10²³ particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) and is referred to as Avogadro's
number.

Q96: What is Avogadro's number?

A: Avogadro's number is 6.022 × 10²³, which represents the number of particles in one mole of a substance.

Maìì ¾ˆ 1 M¾«p
Q97: How is the mass of 1 mole of a substance determined?

A: The mass of 1 mole of a substance is equal to its molecular or formula mass expressed in grams. For example:

1 mole of H₂O weighs 18 g (molecular mass = 18 u).

1 mole of NaCl weighs 58.5 g (formula unit mass = 58.5 u).

Rp«aø•¾µì•áì •µ M¾«p C¾µcpáø

Q98: What is the relationship between moles, mass, and Avogadro's number?

A:

1 6.022E23
M¾«pì Paäø•c«pì
Number of moles = Mass of substance ÷ Molar mass 1 mole = 6.022 × 10²³ particles

The molar mass of a substance is the mass of 1 mole of its particles in grams.

Ea³á«p: Waøpä (H₂O)

Q99: Give an example of using the mole concept for water (H₂O).

A:

1 mole of water (H₂O) contains 6.022 × 10²³ molecules.

Its molar mass is 18 g.
1 mole of H₂O contains 2 moles of hydrogen atoms and 1 mole of oxygen atoms.

I«« ìøäaø•¾µ ¾ˆ M¾«p C¾µcpáø

Q100: How does Fig. 3.8 illustrate the mole concept?

A: Fig. 3.8 shows the relationships between the number of moles, mass, Avogadro's number, and molecular mass. For
example:

1 mole = Molecular mass in grams.

1 mole = 6.022 × 10²³ particles.
Tp M¾«p C¾µcpáø
Q101: What is the significance of Avogadro's number in the mole concept?

A: Avogadro's number (6.022 × 10²³) defines the number of particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) in one mole of any
substance, making it a standard quantity for measuring particles in chemistry.

Q102: Why is it more convenient to use moles instead of counting individual particles?

A: Counting individual particles is impractical because they are extremely small and numerous. Using moles provides a
standard unit that simplifies calculations involving large numbers of particles.

Q103: What is the mass of 1 mole of hydrogen atoms?

A: The mass of 1 mole of hydrogen atoms is 1 gram, as the atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 u.

Q104: What is the mass of 1 mole of oxygen molecules (O₂)?

A: The mass of 1 mole of oxygen molecules (O₂) is 32 grams, as each oxygen atom has a mass of 16 u, and there are two
atoms in an O₂ molecule.

Q105: How is the relative atomic mass of an element related to its molar mass?

A: The relative atomic mass of an element expressed in atomic mass units (u) is numerically equal to its molar mass
expressed in grams. For example:

- Hydrogen: Atomic mass = 1 u, Molar mass = 1 g/mol.

M¾«pì, Maìì, aµj A¾‰ajä¾'ì N ³bpä
Q106: Waø •ì a ³¾«p •µ øpä³ì ¾ˆ ³aìì, µ ³bpä ¾ˆ
áaäø•c«pì, aµj ¾« ³p?
A:

1 6.022E23 22.4L
Maìì Paäø•c«pì V¾« ³p
1 mole equals the molar mass of a 1 mole contains 6.022 × 10²³ 1 mole of a gas occupies 22.4 liters at
substance in grams. particles. standard temperature and pressure
(STP).

Q107: H¾ •ì øp µ ³bpä ¾ˆ ³¾«pì ca«c «aøpj ˆä¾³ øp

³aìì ¾ˆ a ì bìøaµcp?
A: The number of moles is calculated as: Number of moles = Given mass of the substance ÷ Molar mass of the
substance.

Q108: H¾ •ì øp µ ³bpä ¾ˆ ³¾«pì äp«aøpj ø¾ øp µ ³bpä

¾ˆ áaäø•c«pì?
A: The number of moles is related to the number of particles as: Number of moles = Number of particles ÷ Avogadro's
number.

Q109: Iµ Ea³á«p 3.3, ¾ ³aµ ³¾«pì aäp áäpìpµø •µ

12.044 × 10²³ ³¾«pc «pì ¾ˆ aøpä?
A: Number of moles = Number of particles ÷ Avogadro's number = (12.044 × 10²³) ÷ (6.022 × 10²³) = 2 moles.

Q110: Waø aäp øp ìøpáì ø¾ ca«c «aøp øp ³aìì ¾ˆ a

ì bìøaµcp •ˆ øp µ ³bpä ¾ˆ ³¾«pì •ì ‰•pµ?
A:

1. Use the formula: Mass = Number of moles × Molar mass.

2. Substitute the given values for moles and molar mass.
3. Solve for the mass.
Ca«c «aø•µ‰ Maìì ˆä¾³ M¾«pì
Maìì Ca«c «aø•¾µ
1
Mass = Moles × Molar mass

M¾«pì ˆä¾³ Paäø•c«pì

2
Moles = Particles / Avogadro's number

Paäø•c«pì ˆä¾³ M¾«pì

3
Particles = Moles × Avogadro's number

Q111: How do you calculate the mass of a substance if the number of moles is given?

A: The formula to calculate mass is: Mass = Number of moles × Molar mass.

Q112: What is the mass of 0.5 moles of nitrogen gas (N₂)?

A:

Molar mass of N₂ = 28 g/mol.

Mass = 0.5 × 28 = 14 g.

Q113: How do you calculate the number of moles from the number of particles?

A: The formula to calculate moles is: Number of moles = Number of particles / Avogadro's number (6.022 × 10²³).

Q114: How many moles are there in 3.011 × 10²³ atoms of carbon?

A: Number of moles = 3.011 × 10²³ / 6.022 × 10²³ = 0.5 moles.

Q115: How do you calculate the number of particles from the number of moles?

A: The formula to calculate particles is: Number of particles = Number of moles × Avogadro's number.
Ca«c «aø•µ‰ Paäø•c«pì ˆä¾³ M¾«pì
Q116: What is the number of N₂ molecules in 1.5 moles of nitrogen gas?

A: Number of particles = 1.5 × 6.022 × 10²³ = 9.033 × 10²³ molecules.

Q117: How do you calculate the number of atoms in a given number of moles of a compound?

A: To calculate the number of atoms:

1. Find the number of molecules using Avogadro's number.

2. Multiply by the number of atoms per molecule.

Q118: How many hydrogen atoms are present in 0.25 moles of H₂?

A:

- 1 molecule of H₂ contains 2 hydrogen atoms.

- Number of molecules = 0.25 × 6.022 × 10²³ = 1.505 × 10²³.
- Number of hydrogen atoms = 1.505 × 10²³ × 2 = 3.01 × 10²³ atoms.

Q119: What is the mass of 1.28 × 10²⁴ molecules of nitrogen gas (N₂)?

A:

- Number of moles = 1.28 × 10²⁴ / 6.022 × 10²³ = 2.13 moles.

- Mass = 2.13 × 28 = 59.64 g.

Q120: If 1 mole of carbon atoms weighs 12 g, what is the mass of 6 moles of carbon?

A: Mass = Number of moles × Molar mass = 6 × 12 = 72 g.

La ¾ˆ C¾µìpäaø•¾µ ¾ˆ Maìì aµj Dpˆ•µ•øp
Pä¾á¾äø•¾µì
Q121: Waø j¾pì øp La ¾ˆ C¾µìpäaø•¾µ ¾ˆ Maìì ìøaøp?
A: The Law of Conservation of Mass states that during a chemical reaction, the sum of the masses of the reactants and
products remains unchanged.

Q122: Waø •ì øp La ¾ˆ Dpˆ•µ•øp Pä¾á¾äø•¾µì?

A: The Law of Definite Proportions states that in a pure chemical compound, elements are always present in definite
proportions by mass.

Q123: Waø •ì aµ aø¾³?

A: An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can exist independently and retain all its chemical properties under
ordinary conditions.

Q124: Waø j¾pì a cp³•ca« ˆ¾ä³ «a äpáäpìpµø?

A: A chemical formula represents the composition of a compound by showing the elements and the number of atoms of
each element in the compound.

Q125: Waø aäp ᾫaø¾³•c •¾µì?

A: Polyatomic ions are groups of atoms that act as a single unit and carry a net charge, such as sulfate (SO42-) or
ammonium (NH4+).
Rp«aø•p Aø¾³•c Maìì aµj M¾«aä Maìì
1. Relative atomic mass: The weighted average of the masses of an element's isotopes, measured relative to (1/12) the
mass of a carbon-12 atom.
2. Mole: The amount of a substance containing (6.022 × 10^{23}) particles (atoms, molecules, or ions), also called
Avogadro's number.

3. Molar mass: The mass of 1 mole of a substance, expressed in grams per mole (g/mol).
4. Percentage composition: Calculated as (Mass of the element in the compound / Molar mass of the compound) ×
100%.

5. Mole concept significance: Simplifies counting of atoms, molecules, or ions by providing a standard unit to relate the
number of particles to their mass or volume.
6. Example reaction: 3.00 g carbon + 8.00 g oxygen = 11.00 g carbon dioxide. Governed by the Law of Conservation of
Mass.
7. Polyatomic ions: Groups of covalently bonded atoms with a net charge. Examples: Ammonium (NH₄⁺), Sulfate (SO₄²⁻),
Phosphate (PO₄³⁻).
8. Chemical formulas: MgCl₂ (Magnesium chloride), CaO (Calcium oxide), Cu(NO₃)₂ (Copper nitrate), AlCl₃ (Aluminium
chloride), CaCO₃ (Calcium carbonate).
9. Elements in compounds: Quick lime (CaO): Calcium, Oxygen; Hydrogen bromide (HBr): Hydrogen, Bromine; Potassium
sulphate (K₂SO₄): Potassium, Sulfur, Oxygen.
10. Molar mass calculations: Ethylene (C₂H₄): 28 g/mol; Sulphur molecule (S₈): 256 g/mol; Nitric acid (HNO₃): 63 g/mol.
Ca«c «aø•µ‰ M¾«aä Maììpì
Let's explore how to calculate the mass of different moles of atoms:

Q136: What is the mass of:

1. 1 mole of nitrogen atoms? 2. 4 moles of aluminium atoms?

- Atomic mass of nitrogen = 14 g. - Atomic mass of aluminium = 27 g.

- Mass of 1 mole = 14 g. - Mass = 4 × 27 = 108 g.
Mass and Moles Conversion
Q137: Convert into moles:

1. 12 g of oxygen gas (O₂):

- Moles = Given mass ÷ Molar mass = 12 ÷ 32 = 0.375 moles.

2. 20 g of water (H₂O):

- Moles = Given mass ÷ Molar mass = 20 ÷ 18 ≈ 1.11 moles.

Q138: What is the mass of:

1. 0.2 moles of oxygen atoms?

- Atomic mass of oxygen = 16 g.

- Mass = 0.2 × 16 = 3.2 g.

2. 0.5 moles of water molecules?

- Molar mass of water = 18 g.

- Mass = 0.5 × 18 = 9 g.

Q139: Calculate the number of molecules of sulfur (S₈) present in 16 g of sulfur.

A:

- Moles = Given mass ÷ Molar mass = 16 ÷ 256 = 0.0625 moles.

- Number of molecules = Moles × Avogadro's number = 0.0625 × 6.022 × 10²³ = 3.76 × 10²² molecules.

Q140: Calculate the number of aluminium ions (Al³⁺) present in 0.051 g of aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃).

A:

1. Molar mass of Al₂O₃ = 2(27) + 3(16) = 102 g/mol.

2. Moles of Al₂O₃ = 0.051 ÷ 102 ≈ 0.0005 moles.

3. 1 mole of Al₂O₃ contains 2 moles of Al³⁺.

4. Number of moles of Al³⁺ = 0.0005 × 2 = 0.001 moles.

5. Number of ions = 0.001 × 6.022 × 10²³ = 6.022 × 10²⁰ ions.

Ca«c «aø•µ‰ M¾«pc «pì aµj I¾µì
How many molecules are present in 34 g of H2SO4?

34 98
Gäa³ì H2SO4 M¾«aä Maìì
g/mol of H2SO4

0.347 2.09E23
M¾«pì H2SO4 M¾«pc «pì
of H2SO4

Step 1: Calculate the number of moles of H2SO4

Number of moles of H2SO4 = Given mass / Molar mass

= 34 g / (2 + 32 + 64) g mol-1

= 34 g / 98 g mol-1

= 0.347 mol

Step 2: Calculate the number of molecules

Number of molecules = Number of moles × Avogadro's number

= 0.347 × 6.022 × 1023 molecules mol-1

= 2.09 × 1023 molecules

Therefore, 34 g of H2SO4 contains 2.09 × 1023 molecules.