5.1.

1 Sexual and asexual propagation techniques of

horticultural crops

R.K. Jha
 Introduction
• Plant propagation is a process of creating a new plant.

• It may be defined as it is a multiplication or reproduction process

from one to many sexually or asexually. Hence, this process gives
to many.

• It is a science and an art of reproducing plants to achieve desired

objectives through sound technology of sexual and asexual means.

• Plant propagation and plant breeding both involve genetic

selection.

• Several methods of vegetative propagation have been

standardized for different horticultural crops.

• However, one method of propagation may be suitable for a

particular crop but may not be suitable for the others
 Types of propagation

• Basically, there are two types of plant

propagation

a. sexual
b. asexual.
 1. Sexual method of propagation
• Propagation of plants by seeds or spores is known as sexual
propagation.
• Seeds are formed as result of successful fertilisation of parental
gametes.
• Sexual propagation also includes growth from spores. Spores are tiny
dust-like seeds that grow on sporophytes, plants that produce spores as
means of reproduction. A common sporophyte is the fern.
• It is an old and easy method and is widely used or the propagation of
crops like ornamental annuals, vegetables, medicinal and fruit plants,
such as papaya.
• In this method, plants are raised from seeds and such plants are known
as seedlings.
• It involves the fusion of two sex cells called gametes (male gametes and
female gametes) to produce seed.
• In other word, the sexual propagation requires fertilization to take
place between two opposite gametes leading to the production of
 Advantage of sexual propagation
1. Trees originated from the seeds (seedlings) generally
live longer, bear more heavily and hardier than the
tree propagated from the vegetative means.
2. Sexual propagation is cheaper and easier than asexual
propagation.
3. This is only possible and practical method of
propagation for Papaya and Phalsa which cannot be
produced economically by vegetative means.
4. Hybrids can be obtained through sexual propagation.
5. Sometimes sexual propagation may lead to produce
chance seedlings having superior characteristics to
the parent plants.
6. Root stocks on which desirable scion variety is
budded or grafted are usually raised from seeds.
 Advantage of sexual propagation
7. Since most virus diseases are not transmitted through
seed propagation. Hence, most of the seedling plants
are free from virus diseases.
8. Seeds of some fruits like citrus and mango varieties
are capable of giving out more than one seedling
from one seed. They arise from the cells of the
nucellus and are called polyembyonic. The nucellar
seedlings can be utilized for raising uniform plants, if
they can be carefully detected at the nursery stage.
9. Seeds also offer a convenient method for storing
plants for a long time. Seeds when kept properly may
remain viable for long period.
 Disadvantages sexual propagation
1. Owing to genetic segregation in heterozygous plants like
fruit, the seedlings are not uniform in genetic makeup
(growth, yield and quality) as compared to asexually
propagated plants. Seedling trees are not usually true to
true type and show variation.

2. Seedling trees take more time to come to bearing than

grafted plants. For example, mango seedlings take 8-10
years to come to bearing compared with 2-3 years for
grafted plants.

3. Seedling trees are generally tall, large and spreading

nature causing inconvenient for care and management
of orchards (e.g. training, pruning, weeding, irrigating,
harvesting, etc.).
 Disadvantages sexual propagation
4. It is not possible to derive the benefits of rootstocks if the
plant is not propagated vegetative by means of grafting or
budding.

5. Continuous seed propagation leads to inferior in the progeny.

6. Sexually propagated plants have long juvenile (pre-bearing)

period.

7. Choice or chance trees or hybrid trees cannot be multiplied

true to true type because of segregation of characters.

8. Seeds lose their viability very soon like in mango, citrus,

jackfruit, papaya, jamun, etc.
 Techniques of propagation by seeds
• Seeds can either be sown directly in the field or are
planted in nursery and transplanted to desired field.

• Vegetables like cabbage, cauliflowers, tomato, pepper,

broad leaf mustard, onion, etc are seeded to the nursery
beds and transplanted to the main field.

• Other vegetables like radish, turnip, bean, peas, etc are

sown directly in the field.

• Some vegetables like cucurbits are sown both ways;

directly in the field or sown in nursery or poly-pots then
transplanted in main field. Seed treatments is done before
the sowing the seeds.
 Asexual propagation/vegetative propagation
• Asexual propagation is method of reproducing a new plant from the
vegetative parts (roots, stems, leaf, etc.) without sexual relationship.

• The produced new plant is identical or true to true type to the parent
plant.

• Vegetative parts possess somatic cells and these cells multiply by

mitosis (a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each
having the same number and kind of chromosomes).

• The principle behind the asexual propagation is the potential for

regeneration possessed by vegetative parts of plants known as
totipotency.

• In other word, the capacity to regenerate the missing parts by the

detached part is called totipotency.

• For example, adventitious roots arise from stem cuttings, and in turn, root
cuttings can produce a new shoot system from adventitious buds, new
shoots and roots can develop adventitiously from leaves.
 Advantages of asexual propagation
1. Maintains true to true type: Most of the horticultural plats (fruits) are cross pollinated and
naturally highly heterozygous. Such cross pollinated plants are not true to true type and
may lose their characters when raised from the seeds. For example, seedlings of mango
cultivars like Desheri bears fruits unlike those of parent plants. In contrast, the trees raised
by vegetative means like grafting bears fruits just like characters of parents. Hence,
asexual propagation maintains the characteristics of each cultivar.

2. This method of propagation is suitable for those plants that have no viable seeds or
seedless i.e. some varieties of banana, pineapple, guava, fig (angir), grapes, etc.

3. Sometimes vegetative propagation is easier, faster and economical than the seeding. In
some species the germination is very slow and complex dormancy problem (peach and
olive) or seeds may lose its viability very quickly (mango, litchi, citrus).

4. Hardiness to cold and unfavourable conditions: Budding or grafting may be used for
certain fruit crops to make adaptable in unfavourable environmental condition. Trifoliate
orange are better adapted in severe winter, Rangpur lime is more salt tolerant than other
rootstocks. Hence, we can use these rootstocks for adaptable crops.
 Advantages of asexual propagation
5. Picking or harvesting of fruits become easier due to restricted
growth.
6. Many diseases and insect pests are easily eliminated by the means
of grafting and budding due to using different scions and root stocks.
7. Trees of propagated are more vigour than the seeding.
8. Dwarfing plants can be obtained by vegetative means e.g. the apple
tree can be dwarfted by using Malling Merton series root stock.
9. Vegetative propagated fruit trees come into bearing earlier as scion
is selected from the plants that have passed the juvenile phase.
10. Methods like bridge grafting can be used for healing of the wound
caused by rodents.
11. The inferior quality tree is converted into superior quality tree by
top working.
12. We can produce the fancy tree i.e. 3-4 varieties of roses can be
produced on different branches of same plant.
 Disadvantages of asexual propagation
1. New varieties cannot be evolved by this method of propagation.
2. In many cases, this method of propagation is expensive.
3. This method needs more expertise, knowledge, and special
training to propagate.
4. Plants produced from this method are genetically identical,
hence cannot adapt in the changing environment.
5. Loss of genetic diversity is happened because of not evolved in
gamete formation.
6. Genetic recombination and interaction are not occurred due to
there is no variation in offspring.
7. Plants produced from this method are short lived due to lack of
tap root system in propagated plants, hence poor in anchorage in
the soil.
8. Plants propagated by this method are less hardy than seeds.
9. Plants are transmitted the viral diseases from plant to plant.
 Methods of asexual/vegetative propagation
1. Utilization of apomictic seeds
• Apomixis refers to the development of an embryo without the fertilization (completion of
sexual process). It is, therefore a form of non-sexual or vegetative propagation. In apomixes,
seeds are formed but the embryo develops without fertilization. Such seeds are called
apomictic seeds and the seedlings produced in this manner are known as apomictic
seedlings. The embryo is produced from a diploid cell which is non-reduced megaspore
mother cell. Apomictic seedlings are identical to their mother plant. There are different types
of apomixes.

1. Recurrent apomixes: In this apomixes, the embryo is produced from a non-reduced

megaspore mother cell or from the diploid cells of embryo sac without fertilization
such as apple, raspberry, etc.

2. Non-recurrent apomixes: In this apomixes, embryo develops from the haploid egg cell or
some other haploid cells of embryo sac. Haploid plants contains only one set of
chromosome which are sterile in nature and cannot be normally perpetuated into the next
generation.

3. Nucellar embryonic: Embryo arise from diploid saprophytic cells outside the embryo
sac i.e. cells of nucellus, integument, etc. This type of apomixes is quite common in citrus,
mango varieties. Sprout while still on the mother plant.

4. Vegetative apomixes: The flowers and its parts are replaced by bulbils or vegetative
propagules like bulbs, runner, suckers, etc.
 2. Utilization of specialized vegetative structures
1. Bulb: Bulbs are specialized underground stem which
function as storage organs of foods (e.g. onion, garlic, tulip,
daffodil, amaryllis, etc.). Small bulbs called bulblets are
formed around the base of the mother bulbs at the periphery
of the stem. These bulblets can be separated and used as
propagating materials.

2. Corms: Corms are solid, enlarged, fleshy underground stem

similar to bulbs in appearance but are enlarged modified
stems rather than compacted fleshy leaves. Cormels are
separated from their corms and used as planting materials
such as colocasia, gladiolus, etc.

3. Rhizomes: Rhizomes are modified underground stems in

which main axis of the plant grows horizontally just below or
on the surface of the ground. The stem appears segmented
with nodes and internodes. Clums are separated and used
for propagation such as bamboo, banana, iris, etc.
 2. Utilization of specialized vegetative structures
4. Tuber: Specialized swollen underground stems which
possess eyes in regular order over the surface such as
potato.
4. Runners: They are specialized aerial stems (stolen) arising
in the leaf axils of plant. This is found in strawberry.
5. Slips: Slips are actual shoots that are originated from
axillary buds borne at the base of the plant. Pineapple and
cabbage slips are common example.
6. Suckers: These are adventitious shoots produced from the
underground portion of the stem. These suckers are
utilized as propagating materials such as banana and
pineapple.
7. Crown: The shoot produced on the top of the pineapple
fruits or off-sets or plantlets arising from the base of the
main stem of certain plants like pineapple, date palm,
dendrobium, etc.
 3. Cuttings
• Cuttings are the parts of the plants separated from the
mother plants to induce new plant.

• In other word, a portion of stem, root and leaf which is cut

from the parent plants to produce new plants which are
identical to their parent plants.

• Different plants are propagated by cuttings because it is

most convenient and easiest method.

• Various methods of cutting are used based on the parts

used in the cuttings.
 Types of cutting

Cutting

Root Stem Leaf Leaf bud

Semi-hard
Herbaceous Soft wood Hard wood
wood
 A. Root cutting
• Propagation by root suckers and adventitious shoots is
generally practiced in some plants like guava, cherry,
persimmon, pear, apple, citrus, rhododendron, plum etc.

• Adventitious buds at the proximal end and new lateral roots

arise from below the ground surface.

• The size of cutting should about 3-5 cm long with pencil

size thickness at the time of late winter or spring when the
ample of carbohydrate is reserved.
B. Stem cutting (Short branch with buds are used for stem cutting. This
is most common method. Stem cuttings are divided into four types)
(i) Herbaceous cutting

• A tender, succulent, and leafy terminal portion is used. In

general, 7.5-12.5 cm long terminal portion of vigorous
shoots are selected, cut and removed the basal leaves.

• Immediately after cutting, cuttings are placed into rooting

media with high humidity.

• Some of the plants like chrysanthemum, dahlia, coleus,

carnation, geranium, delphinium, petunia, sweet potato, etc.
can be propagated by this method.
 (ii) Soft wood cutting
• Cuttings are prepared from soft, succulent, and
non-lignified portion of vigorous stems for propagation.

• The cuttings are taken with intact leaves to retain the

carbohydrate and to prevent from the wilting.

• The lateral shoots emerged from heading back are the

excellent source for cuttings.

• Generally, 10-15 cm long terminal shoots with buds and

with at least 2-3 nodes are good materials for cuttings.

• Plants such as Nerium, crotons, etc. can be propagated by

this method.
 (iii) Semi-hardwood cutting
• Cuttings of partially matured and slightly woody shoots are
considered as semi-hardwood cutting.

• Generally, 7.5-15 cm healthy vigorous with or without

terminal buds are used.

• Basal leaves are removed.

• Plants of Rose, olive, citrus, etc. can be propagated by this

method.
 (iv) Hard wood cutting
• The leafless hard wood from the previous season growth or
that from the 2-3 years old growth may be taken.

• The size of 10-30 cm long and 1-2.5 cm diameter cuttings are

used.

• A slanting cut is given at the basal end to give maximum

surface to increase the water uptake and rooting areas.

• Higher percentage of humidity or facility of mist propagation

is better to success.

• Plants of bougainvillea, poinsettia, roses, grapes,

pomegranates can be propagated by this method.
 4. Layering
• The techniques of developing new plantlet by rooting the branch or stem when
still its is attached.

• The rooted stem or branch is called layer and it is detached from the parent
plant to become a new plant.

• Accumulation of carbohydrates and hormones in the rooting area is an

important factor in root initiation.

• Girdling of the stem and exclusion of light (etiolation) from the stem are used
for accumulation of carbohydrates and hormones.

• The light is excluded by burying the stem is soil. Application of hormone (IBA)
promotes root formation on layers.

• This rooting media excludes the light and provides the sufficient moisture.

• There are different kinds of layering which are:

 A. Simple layering
• In this method, the braches near the
base of the 15-20 cm long stem are bent
as 'U' shape towards the ground and
then the portion to be layered is
covered with soil leaving the tip of the

• Sometimes a notch or girdle is made to

initiate the root.

• A wooden peg or stone may be used to

anchor the buried part of the stem.

• This layering is practiced in rainy or

spring season and rooting is completed
4-8 weeks period.
 B. Tip layering
• In this method, a tip of the stem
or branches are bent down and
buried in the soil to the depth of
5-7 cm.

• For large scale production, a

shallow trench is dug along the
rows, a short distance from the
plants, in which all the available
lateral tips are laid and covered.

• This method is commonly used

for blackberry, raspberry,
gooseberry, etc.
 C. Compound or multiple layering
• This method is practiced in the plants
which have long, slender, and flexible
shoots such as Jasminum. This is two
types; one is continuous and another is
serpentine. In continuous type, long
shoots of these plants are bent over
horizontally to the trench and covered
with soil as 'U' shaped leaving the
terminal portion exposed. In serpentine
method, branch is alternatively covered
and exposed entire the length. Plants of
Jasminum, Clematis, Wisteria, etc are
propagated by this method.
 D. Mound or stool layering

• The tree is cut back to the

ground level during the dormant
season and new growing shoots
are covered with soil to initiate
roots.

• Wounding the basal portion of

young shoots hastens rooting.
 E. Air layering
• Air layering also called gootee, Chinese layering or marcotting.

• In this method, roots are produced in the branch or tree.

• The branch is girdled 1.8-2.5 cm and sphagnum moss or any

other rooting media is placed around the girdled portion and tied
with polythene or gunny bags.

• This work is done in spring or rainy season and takes place

roots in 4-6 weeks.

• This is ancient method used to propagate a number of tropical

and subtropical trees and shrubs like litchi, citrus, mango,
croton, etc.
 5. Grafting
• The techniques of joining a part of one plant to the part of that
another plant together so that they form a union and grow as one
plant.

• There are mainly two parts in grafting; one is scion and another is
rootstock.

• Rootstock (also called stock or under stock) is the lower or root

bearing portion of the graft on which scion is grafted.

• Scion is a upper or shoot bearing portion of the graft. Sometimes

an inter stock is inserted between the root stock and scion to
combine the two portion.
 • The success of grafting depends on the compatibility, contact of cambium, and
closeness between the root stock and scion.

• In grafting, freshly cut tissue of the plant, act as a scion is placed in the freshly cut
tissue of the root stock.

• The cambial layers of the two partners come into contact with each other.
•
• New parenchyma cells which develop from the stock and the scion get intermingled
and produce callus.

• Some cells of this callus form a new cambium which cuts off cells and differentiate
from xylem towards the inner side and phloem towards the outer side thereby
establishing the vascular connection between the root stock and scion.

• There are four steps in a successful graft union.

I. Contact of stock and scion
II. Production of callus
III. Production of new cambium
IV. Vascularisation of new cambium
 Types of grafting
A. Approach grafting/inarching:
• In this method, selected shoots of desired
plant is united to the branches of mother
plant or grown together.

• A healthy shoots of 3.5 cm girth on the

selected mother plant is selected as scion.

• In the other side, a root stock (raised in the

pot) of the same size to the scion is
selected.

• The slice of the bark at 2.5-5 cm thick is

cut from scion and root stock.
 B. Veneer grafting
• This is also a kind of side grafting with
slight modification. It is widely used
grafting in small potted plants and insitu
grafting.

• Plants like avocado, mango, etc. can be

grafted. A long inward cut as 'V' shape
(2.5-5 cm) is given to the root stock.

• In the other side, scion is cut slanting

(2.5-5 cm). The cuts of root stock and
scion should be in same direction and
size.

• Then, the piece of scion is inserted to

the root stock and tied with grafting tape.
After union has healed, cut back the
stock above the graft union.
 C. Epicotyl grafting
• This is also known as stone grafting.

• This is one of the new and best method of grafting in mango. Stones are sown in
polythene bag.

• New seedlings of 7-10 days after germination (before they turn green in colour) are
used as stock.

• These young stocks are cut at 3-5 cm above the ground level a incision is made in
their middle up to a depth of 2.5-5 cm.

• On the other hand, 5-8 cm long scion (3-4 months dormant terminal) is selected
from the mother plant.

• The lower end of the scion is cut as wedge shape giving slanting and inward cut.

• Then, a wedge shaped scion is inserted to the stock.

• The joint is tied with grafting tape and watering immediately. June to September is
the best time for it.

• Sprouting the scion takes place in three weeks.

Epicotyle grafting
 D. Splice grafting
• In this method, equal size of
slanting cut should be made on
the lower end of the scion and
upper end of the rootstock.

• These two cut surfaces are placed

together, firmly tied, and wrapped
by grafting tape.
• This method is applied in those
plants which have pithy stem.

• This work should be done during

winter. This method can be
applied for apple, pear, cherry, etc.
 E. Tongue grafting
• Rootstock and scion are
prepared in same way as in
splice grafting.
• Another a deep cut (tounge
shape) is given on the first
splice cut on both rootstock
and scion and interlocked
each other.
• The cambium is more firmly
by the interlocking.
• This method is applied for
apple, pear, etc.
 F. Cleft grafting
• It is called also top working.

• In this method, the stem or limb

is sawed off at right angle and a
vertical slit is made at centre with
deep enough to hold the scion.

• In the other hand, the scion is

prepared by cutting its basal end
with long tapering wedge, and
then inserted in the slit of
rootstock.

• Then this union is covered by

grafting wax.
 F. Saddle grafting
• A saddle (inverted V
shape) cut is made at
the lower end of
scion.

• A tapering wedge is
made on the top
portion of stock.

• Both portions are

joined together by
grafting tape.
 G. Side grafting

• In this method, a long

sloping downward cut is
made in the rootstock.
• Scion is prepared by
cutting the same direction
and length then inserted in
the rootstock.
• The graft union is wrapped
with grafting tape
properly.
 H. Bark grafting
• In this method, the stock is
stumped.
• A downward cut is made
through the bark of the stem.
• This bark can be split to adjust
the scion.
• The scion is prepared by giving
downward sloping cut at the
basal end.
• The prepared scion is inserted
to the bark of the stock and tied
by grafting tape.
• Sometimes two or more scions
are inserted in same stock.
 I. Bridge grafting
• Sometimes the bark of the tree is
damaged and destroyed by
rabbits, rabbits, rodents,
mechanical injury, insect and
disease.

• The scion of the same plant

species are collected during the
dormant period and inserted into
the bark making a bridge over
the girdled portion of the tree.

• The exposed portion is covered

with grafting wax. By this
method, the damaged portion of
the tree is repaired.
 6. Budding
• Budding is also form of grafting, hence sometimes
called as bud grafting.

• It is similar to grafting, but small bud is used as scion

which is attached to the stem of rootstock in the
budding.

• The new plant is called as a budded plant. The

physiological process involved in the budding are same
as in grafting.

• There are different budding.

 A. T-budding (Shield budding)
• In this method, a bud and section of the bark from the
selected plant is taken in the shape of T or shield.

• At first stock is selected from the desired mother plant.

• Then, a cut is given vertically at a height of 15-25 cm from

the ground level and another cut is given horizontally
making a T-shaped on the bark of the stem of the stock.

• A shield shaped bud is taken from the desired mother plant

and inserted in the T-shaped cut of the rootstock.

• The attached part is wrapped with grafting tape properly.

• Once the attached bud resumes growth, the top of the

rootstock above the bud union is cut off and all the bud on
the rootstock should be removed.
 B. Patch budding
• This method is applied in
the plant having the thick
bark.

• A rectangular patch of
bark is removed from the
stock plant and is
replaced with a same size
bark piece containing a
bud from a desired plant.
•
• Then attached patch is
wrapped with grafting
tape and waxed to prevent
drying.
 C. Chip budding
• Generally, this method is
practiced in those species
in which the bark does
not slip easily.

• A chip of bark and wood

containing a dormant
bud is placed in the
stock properly.

• Then joining is tied with

grafting tape.
 D. Flute budding
• It is modified patch budding.

• In this method, encircled patch of the bark

except narrow strip is removed from the
rootstock.

• Scion bud is similarly taken by giving two

transverse cuts encircling just above and
below the bud.

• A vertical cut is given between two cuts

just to separate the patch bud.

• The flute is fitted to the stock and

wrapped with tape.
 E. Forkert and modified forkert budding
• In forkert budding, a
transverse cut is
given to the stock
and the bark is
carefully peeled
down to a depth of
about an inch.

• Corresponding size of
scion bud is
collected and fitted to
the stock.
 F. Ring budding

• In this method, the stock is

completely girdled by
removing 1.25 to 2.5 cm of
bark.

• A ring of bark containing a

dormant bud from a desired
plant is placed in the girdled
space and wrapped with
grafting tape.