REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

All living things reproduce by producing offspring (new individuals). Reproduction

makes new organisms of the same species as the parents. The ability to produce new
generation of individual of the same species as of the parents is one of the fundamental
characteristics of living things.

Importance of reproduction
 To replace those members of the specie that die thus preventing extinction.
 To allow an increase in number of species where the conditions are suitable.

Types or forms of reproduction

1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is the process resulting in the genetically identical offspring from
one parent. It is also defined as the form of reproduction where an organism reproduces
itself without the help of another organism. Asexual means ‘without sex’. In short it does
not require another organism of the same species just one parent is enough to reproduce
asexually. In this type of reproduction, only mitosis occurs and it results in similar
offspring called Clones.

Organisms or cells that are genetically identical to the original source are known as clones.
In contrast to sexual reproduction, clones are produced by a different mechanism that does
not combine the DNA of two parents, which accounts for this genetic resemblance. Cloning
can be accomplished artificially or naturally.

Examples of Cloning:

 Plants: Gardeners can produce clones of plants by taking cuttings and growing them into
new plants. These new plants have the same genetic makeup as the original plant.

Clones, by definition, share the same DNA as their source organism, but their
environmental experiences can cause differences in appearance, behavior, or health.

MITOSIS IN PLANT REPRODUCTION

Mitosis plays a crucial role in plant production, especially in growth, development, and
asexual reproduction. Here’s how mitosis is applied in plant production:

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1. Growth of Plants:

 Cell Division: Mitosis is the process by which plant cells divide, resulting in two
genetically identical daughter cells. In plants, this process primarily takes place in areas
known as meristems, located at the tips of roots and shoots. The meristematic cells undergo
rapid division, contributing to the growth of plant structures such as roots, stems, and
leaves.
 Expansion of Tissues: As plants grow taller or wider, the production of new cells through
mitosis helps the plant develop new tissues and structures, increasing its size and biomass.

2. Vegetative Propagation:

 Many plants reproduce asexually through vegetative propagation, where mitosis is the key
mechanism. In methods like cutting, grafting, and layering, parts of the plant (e.g., leaves,
stems, roots) produce new individuals through mitotic divisions.
o Cuttings: In this process, a piece of the plant (like a stem) is cut and placed in soil
or water. The cells at the cutting site undergo mitosis to form roots and shoots,
eventually developing into a new plant that is genetically identical to the parent.
o Grafting: A stem or bud from one plant (the scion) is attached to another plant (the
rootstock), and the cells from both plants divide mitotically to fuse the two plants
together, allowing them to grow as one.
o Tubers, Bulbs, and Rhizomes: Plants like potatoes (tubers) and onions (bulbs)
reproduce using underground structures. Mitosis occurs within these structures to
produce new shoots and roots.

3. Wound Healing and Regeneration:

 Repair of Damaged Tissue: When a plant is injured (e.g., a branch breaks or a leaf is torn),
cells around the damaged area undergo mitosis to replace the lost or damaged cells. This
helps the plant heal and continue to grow effectively.
 Tissue Culture: In laboratory techniques like plant tissue culture, small pieces of plant
tissue (explants) are taken and placed in a nutrient medium. Through mitotic cell division,
these explants grow into whole plants. Tissue culture is widely used in plant production to
rapidly clone plants, especially those with desirable traits.

4. Seed Germination and Early Growth:

 After a seed germinates, mitosis occurs in the cells of the embryo to promote the
development of roots, stems, and leaves. This ensures the young plant can grow and
establish itself, transitioning from the seedling stage to maturity.

5. Improvement of Crop Yield:

 Hybridization and Cloning: Mitosis is key to producing genetically identical clones of

high-yield or disease-resistant crops. Farmers can use plants that have been selectively bred
for desirable traits and propagate them asexually to ensure uniform crops with enhanced
productivity.

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Benefits of Mitosis in Plant Production:

 Rapid Growth and Reproduction: Plants can grow faster and reproduce asexually without
the need for seeds, accelerating crop production.
 Genetic Stability: Mitosis produces genetically identical cells, ensuring that the desired
traits of the parent plant (e.g., disease resistance, high yield) are passed on to the new plants.
 Cost-Effective Propagation: Mitosis-based methods such as cuttings or tissue culture can
produce large numbers of plants without the need for seeds, making the process more
economical for farmers.

Examples of asexual reproduction in plants

Plants reproduce asexually through vegetative propagation. This involves the production
of offspring using vegetative parts e.g. buds, stem etc.

Arttificial vegetative propagation

a. Budding

Artificially securing a bud from one plant on to the stem (stock) of another
plant. It is commonly in citrus plants for good varieties of fruits.

Waxed tape is use to:

 hold the bud onto the stock
 prevent loss of water through cut surface
 prevent entry of pathogens

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b. Grafting

It involves attaching part of one plant into another part of the same or related
species. The cut part is called scion. The part to which the scion is joined is
called stock. A waxed/greased tape is used to join them.
The scion and the stock must be in direct contact so that the movement of water
and food substances is not interrupted.

c. Cuttings

The cut part of a stem from a plant is planted in moist soil or put in a container of
water. After a few days, roots develop. A growth hormone can be used in order to
promote growth.
Cutting is a common method of artificial propagation of sugar cane, grapes etc.
Sugar cane is cut into sections and placed horizontally in small trenches on the
ground.

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 d. Layering

A branch is bent, buried and watered. A peg is used to hold the bent part to the
ground. Contact with the soil in this way causes the branch to develop roots at that
point, thus a new plant established.

Natural vegetative propagation

a. Sucker

Suckers are new growths which occur at the base of the parent plant. The main
stem of the banana plant develops buds at its base. These grow in size until they
form a new plant.
b. Bulb

The onion is the commonest example of bulb. Buds develop in the axils of the
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 leaves that make up the bulb.
b. Stem tubes

The Irish potato is example of a stem tuber. The swollen portion of the plant act
as storage organ. The organ produce buds and can be propagated by cutting the
tuber into sections.

c. Rhizome

It is underground stem growing horizontally. New shoots develop from the buds or the
rhizome. Several plants develop from the same rhizome.

Advantages of asexual reproduction

o It involves only one parent and no fertilization is required.

o The young plant can use the food stored in its organ as it develops.
o High yield in a short period of time.
o Varieties with particular characteristics are produced exactly.
o If plants are already in a suitable habitat, they can colonize the area rapidly.
o It is economical in some plants thus saving planting materials e.g. use of buds.
o Juvenile period is reduced.

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 o Plants propagated by vegetative means are small in size and this makes
harvesting and other operations easier.

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction

 Undesirable characteristics may be retained.

 Lack of dispersal mechanism might lead to overcrowding and therefore young
individuals may compete for food and space with the parents.
 Lack of variety may result in the plant being unable to resist unfavorable
conditions.

Commercial applications of asexual reproduction in flowering plants

a. growing of sweet potatoes :

Since the offspring is genetically identically to the parent, this means the good
characteristics of the parent are passed onto the new individual hence preserving good
qualities. Therefore sweet potatoes are produced using vegetative propagation
i.e.cutting. The part that is cut is then covered by soil and it is being watered for a few
days. The cut part develops roots and the plant grows faster than if seeds were used.

b. Production of oranges using grafting and budding methods:

A bud of an orange is inserted under the bark of a lemon plant since the two plants are
close varieties. This is used to produce a plant which will produce fruits with the
combination of the two plants. This can also be used to produce desired qualities of
plants with flowers of a particular or shape can be produced by gardeners.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
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This is the process resulting in the production of genetically dissimilar offspring. There is
the fusion of the nuclei from two gametes to form a zygote. In this form of reproduction
there is variation.

Flower structure

The male part of a flower is called stamen and it comprises of the anther and the filament.

The female part of a flower is called carpel/ pistil comprising of the stigma, style and
ovary.

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 PART FUNCTION
Petals Brightly coloured in order to attract insects
for pollination
Sepals Protects the flower at bud stage. They are
green hence can photosynthesize.
Anther Produces pollen grains
Filament Supports the anther
Stigma Receives pollen grains during pollination
Style Supports the stigma
Ovary -Produces ovules
-Where fertilization occurs

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Structure of a pollen grain for an insect pollinated flower

POLLINATION
This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.

Types of pollination

a. Self Pollination
This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same or
another flower of the same plant.

b. Cross Pollination
This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one plant to the stigma of
another plant of the same species.

Agents of pollination
 Insects
 Wind

Insect pollinated flower Wind pollinated flower

Large brightly coloured, scented petals to No or Small dull petals or has bracts
attract insects
Anthers are firmly attached and enclosed in Anthers are loosely attached and hanging
petals hence insects can easily brush against inside the petals. This helps them to be
them. easily shaken by wind to release pollen
grains.
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The stigma is smooth, sticky and enclosed in The stigma is feathery and hangs outside the
the petals. petals The feathery structure increases the
surface area, making it more effective at
capturing pollen grains carried by the air.

Pollen grains are large Pollen grains are small and light in weight
hence can easily be carried by wind.
Small quantities of pollen grains produced Large quantities of pollen grains produced to
increase chances of pollination
Pollen grains are rough(have spikes), this Pollen grains are smooth
helps them to stick to the stigma
Have nectaries No nectaries

N.B Some flowers have bracts. Bracts are leaf-like structures found at the base of the
flower. They are often colorful to attract insects for pollination. For example, Bogainvilea
flower has colorful bracts that surround tiny true flowers.

Common Importances of Both Cross- and Self-Pollination

1. Reproductive Success: Both methods enable plants to produce seeds and offspring,
ensuring the species can propagate and maintain its population. Whether through
cross-pollination or self-pollination, the primary goal is achieving fertilization and
successful reproduction.
2. Survival of the Species: Pollination, whether cross or self, is crucial for species
survival, as it enables plants to produce the next generation. Both methods ensure
the continuation of plant reproduction across various environments and over
successive generations.
3. Continuation of Traits: Both methods enable the transmission of favourable traits
through generations. While cross-pollination increases genetic diversity, self-
pollination helps stabilize traits. However, both processes contribute to preserving
the plant's genetic information across generations.
4. Seed Production: Both cross- and self-pollination result in seed production, which
is essential for plant regeneration and dispersal. Seeds ensure that plants can
colonize new areas and establish populations over time.
5. Adaptation to Environment: Both strategies enable plants to reproduce in response
to their environmental conditions. While cross-pollination increases adaptability
through genetic diversity, self-pollination ensures that reproduction can still happen
even under challenging conditions like pollinator scarcity, ensuring that the species
remains viable.

Importance of Cross-Pollination to a species

1. Genetic Diversity: Cross-pollination involves pollen transfer between different plants of

the same species, creating offspring with a mix of genetic material. This diversity
strengthens populations by increasing genetic variation, enabling plants to adapt to changing
environments, resist diseases, and tolerate stress such as drought or temperature changes.

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 2. Adaptability and Evolution: Genetic variation introduced by cross-pollination drives
evolutionary processes, allowing plants to develop favorable traits that improve survival
over generations. These traits may include better resistance to pests or improved
reproduction strategies in different environments.
3. Hybrid Vigor (Heterosis): Cross-pollinated plants often exhibit hybrid vigor, meaning they
tend to be more robust, grow faster, and produce higher yields than self-pollinated plants.
This is particularly important in agricultural practices where increased productivity is
desired.
4. Improved Disease Resistance: By mixing genetic material, cross-pollination reduces the
likelihood of harmful recessive traits being expressed, such as susceptibility to certain
diseases. This results in healthier populations with a better chance of survival.

Some disadvantages of cross pollination

1. Dependence on Pollinators: Cross-pollination relies on external agents like wind,

insects, birds, or water for pollination, making it vulnerable to factors like climate,
habitat loss, or pollinator population decline.
2. Energy Consumption: Plants that rely on cross-pollination often need to invest
energy in producing attractive flowers, nectar, or scents to attract pollinators, which
could be used for other growth processes.
3. Uncertainty of Pollination: Since cross-pollination depends on external agents,
there is no guarantee that pollination will occur, which can lead to lower
reproduction rates in some seasons.
4. Risk of Hybridization: Cross-pollination can result in hybridization with other
species, potentially leading to undesirable traits in the offspring, especially in
agricultural settings.
5. Wasted Pollen: A significant amount of pollen may be wasted during cross-
pollination, as not all pollen grains reach the target flowers, reducing efficiency.
6. Slower Reproduction: Cross-pollination can be slower compared to self-pollination
since it relies on favourable environmental conditions or the availability of
pollinators.

Importance of Self-Pollination to a species

1. Reproductive Assurance: Self-pollination occurs when a flower’s own pollen fertilizes its
ovules, allowing reproduction without needing external pollinators or another plant. This is
crucial in isolated environments or when pollinators are scarce, ensuring that the species can
continue to reproduce.
2. Stable Traits: In self-pollination, offspring inherit genes from a single parent, which helps
maintain the stability of specific traits. This is beneficial in environments where those traits
are well-suited to survival and there is little need for variation.
3. Energy and Resource Efficiency: Self-pollinating plants do not need to expend energy
attracting pollinators through nectar, scent, or large, colorful flowers. This allows them to
conserve resources while still reproducing successfully.
4. Rapid Colonization: Self-pollinating species can spread quickly in new or disturbed
environments because they do not rely on external pollination agents. This makes them
efficient colonizers, able to establish populations even when isolated from other plants of
the same species.

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Self-pollination also has its disadvantages:

1. Lack of Genetic Diversity: Since self-pollination involves the fusion of gametes

from the same plant, there is little to no genetic variation, making plants less
adaptable to changing environmental conditions.
2. Inbreeding Depression: Continuous self-pollination over generations can lead to
inbreeding depression, where harmful genetic mutations accumulate, resulting in
weaker plants, reduced fertility, or poor-quality offspring.
3. Limited Adaptation: Without genetic variation, plants produced through self-
pollination are less likely to evolve or develop traits that help them survive pests,
diseases, or environmental changes.
4. Reduced Vigor: Offspring from self-pollination tend to be less vigorous compared
to those from cross-pollination, potentially leading to smaller, weaker plants and
reduced yields.
5. Limited Evolutionary Potential: Self-pollinating species are less likely to adapt or
evolve into new species since the process does not introduce new genetic
combinations over time.
6. Over-Reliance on Self-Pollination: Some plants may become over-reliant on self-
pollination and lose the ability to cross-pollinate, reducing their potential for long-
term survival.

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