Nonlinear OpAmp Circuit

Applications
• Comparators with Zero Reference
 Inverting Comparator

Diode Clamps
 Diode Clamps
Here we see two diode clamps protecting the comparator against excessively large input voltages.
For instance, the LM311 is an IC comparator with an absolute maximum input rating of ± 15
V. If the input voltage exceeds these limits, the LM311 will be destroyed. With some
comparators, the maximum input voltage rating may be as little
as 65 V, whereas with others it may be more than ±30 V. In any case, we can
protect a comparator against destructively large input voltages by using the diode
clamps shown in Fig.. These diodes have no effect on the operation of the
circuit as long as the magnitude of the input voltage is less than 0.7 V. When the
magnitude of the input voltage is greater than 0.7 V, one of the diodes will turn on
and clamp the magnitude of the inverting input voltage to approximately 0.7 V.
Converting Sine Waves to Square
Waves
 Converting Sine Waves to Square Waves

The trip point (also called the threshold or reference) of a comparator is the input
voltage that causes the output voltage to switch states (from low to high or from
high to low). In the noninverting and inverting comparators discussed earlier, the
trip point is zero because this is the value of input voltage where the output switches
states. Since a zero-crossing detector has a two-state output, any periodic input
signal that crosses zero threshold will produce a rectangular output waveform.
For instance, if a sine wave is the input to a noninverting comparator
with a threshold of 0 V, the output will be the square wave shown in Fig.
As we can see, the output of a zero-crossing detector switches states each time the
input voltage crosses the zero threshold.
Linear Region

When the sensitivity of the 2 channel is changed to

200 V/Div, we can see that the transition is not
vertical, as shown in Fig. 20-4b. It takes
approximately ±100 V to get positive or negative
saturation. This is typical for a comparator. The
narrow input region between approximately +100
and -100µV is called the linear region of the
comparator. During a zero crossing, a changing
input signal usually passes through the linear region
so quickly that we see only a sudden jump between
negative and positive saturation, or vice versa.
Interfacing Analog and Digital Circuits
Comparators usually interface at their outputs with digital circuits such as CMOS,
EMOS, or TTL (stands for transistor-transistor logic, a family of digital circuits).
Figure 1 shows how a zero-crossing detector can interface with an
EMOS circuit. Whenever the input voltage is greater than zero, the output of the
comparator is high. This turns on the power FET and produces a large load current.
Figure 2 shows a zero-crossing detector interfacing with a CMOS
inverter. The idea is basically the same. A comparator input greater than zero
produces a high input to the CMOS inverter.
Most EMOS devices can handle input voltages greater than ±15 V, and
most CMOS devices can handle input voltages up to ± 15 V. Therefore, we can
interface the output of a typical comparator without any level shifting or clamping
Clamping Diodes and Compensating
Resistors
Bounded Output
Comparators with Nonzero References

• Moving the Trip Point

Single-Supply Comparator
In Fig. 20-15a, the input voltage is a sine wave with a peak value of 10 V. What
is the trip point of the circuit? What is the cutoff frequency of the bypass circuit?
What does the output waveform look like?
 Comparators with Hysteresis
Noise
Noise is any kind of unwanted signal that is not derived from
or harmonically related to the input signal. Electric motors,
neon signs, power lines, car ignitions, lightning, and so on
produce electromagnetic fields that can induce noise voltages
into electronic circuits. Power-supply ripple is also classified
as noise since it is not related to the input signal. By using
regulated power supplies and shielding,
 Inverting Schmitt Trigger

https://www.multisim.com/content/wy8jZXDgAtbeLDXouGHoke/sc
hmitt-trigger/open/
 Non-Inverting Schmitt Trigger

• https://www.multisim.com/content/kwwhp3PBMfgfDuRBy
37rSF/schmitt-trigger/open/
Non-Inverting Schmitt Trigger
 Speed-Up Capacitor
• Besides suppressing the effects of noise, positive feedback speeds up the switching
of output states. When the output voltage begins to change, this change is fed back
to the non inverting input and amplified, forcing the output to change faster. Sometimes a
capacitor
Oscillators
Theory of Sinusoidal
Oscillation
 Starting Voltage Is Thermal
Noise

• AvB Decreases to Unity

 The Wien-Bridge Oscillator
The Wien-bridge oscillator is the
standard oscillator circuit for low to
moderate frequencies in the range of 5 Hz
to about 1 MHz. It is often used in
commercial audio generators and is
usually preferred for other low-frequency
applications
Lag Circuit
Lead Circuit
 Lead-Lag Circuit
At very low frequencies, the series capacitor appears open to the input signal, and there is no
output signal. At very high frequencies, the shunt capacitor looks shorted, and there is no
output. In between these extremes, the output voltage reaches a maximum where the output is
maximum is the resonant frequency fr. At this frequency, the feedback fraction B reaches a
maximum value of 1⁄3.
How It Works
Phase-Shift Oscillator
• Explanation of wein bridge and Phase shift
oscillator:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1xd9auZwg
6qsiT7bz20DS43YUxriYkU7f/view?usp=dri
ve_link
 The Colpitts Oscillator
LC Oscillators

One way to produce high-frequency oscillations is with an LC oscillator, a circuit that can be used
for frequencies between 1 and 500 MHz. This frequency range is beyond the funity of most op amps.
This is why a bipolar junction transistor or an FET is typically used for the amplifier. With an
amplifier and LC tank circuit, we can feed back a signal with the right amplitude and phase to
sustain oscillations
Hartley Oscillator
 Piezoelectric Effect

• Some crystals found in nature exhibit the piezoelectric

effect. When you apply an ac voltage across them, they
vibrate at the frequency of the applied voltage.
Conversely, if you mechanically force them to vibrate,
they generate an ac voltage of the same frequency.
• The main substances that produce the piezoelectric
effect are quartz, Rochelle salts, and tourmaline.
Rochelle salts have the greatest piezoelectric activity.
For a given ac voltage, they vibrate more than quartz or
tourmaline. Mechanically, they are the weakest because
they break easily.
Crystal Oscillator
When Q approaches infinity, the resonant frequency approaches the
ideal value determined by the values of L and C, which are precise in a
crystal. By comparison, the L and C values of a Colpitts oscillator have
large tolerances, which means that the frequency is less precise
 LC Oscillators
An oscillatory circuit produces electrical oscillations of a desired frequency. They are also known as
tank circuits.
A simple tank circuit comprises of an inductor L and a capacitor C both of which together determine
the oscillatory frequency of the circuit.
To understand the concept of oscillatory circuit, let us consider the following circuit. The capacitor in
this circuit is already charged using a dc source. In this situation, the upper plate of the capacitor has
excess of electrons whereas the lower plate has deficit of electrons. The capacitor holds some
electrostatic energy and there is a voltage across the capacitor.

When the switch S is closed, the capacitor discharges and the current flows through the inductor. Due
to the inductive effect, the current builds up slowly towards a maximum value. Once the capacitor
discharges completely, the magnetic field around the coil is maximum.

Now, let us move on to the next stage. Once the capacitor is discharged completely, the magnetic
field begins to collapse and produces a counter EMF according to Lenz’s law. The capacitor is now
charged with positive charge on the upper plate and negative charge on the lower plate.
Once the capacitor is fully charged, it starts to discharge to build up a magnetic field around the coil,
as shown in the following circuit diagram.

This continuation of charging and discharging results in alternating motion of electrons or an

oscillatory current. The interchange of energy between L and C produce continuous oscillations.
In an ideal circuit, where there are no losses, the oscillations would continue indefinitely. In a
practical tank circuit, there occur losses such as resistive and radiation losses in the coil and dielectric
losses in the capacitor. These losses result in damped oscillations.
Frequency of Oscillations
The frequency of the oscillations produced by the tank circuit are determined by the components of
the tank circuit, the L and the C. The actual frequency of oscillations is the resonant frequency(or
natural frequency) of the tank circuit which is given by Capacitance of the capacitor

The frequency of oscillation fo is inversely proportional to the square root of the capacitance of a
capacitor. So, if the value of the capacitor used is large, the charge and discharge time periods will be
large. Hence the frequency will be lower.
Mathematically, the frequency,
Fo α1/ sq rt( C )
Self-Inductance of the coil
The frequency of the oscillation fo is proportional to the square root of the self-inductance of the coil.
If the value of the inductance is large, the opposition to change of current flow is greater and hence
the time required to complete each cycle will be longer, which means time period will be longer and
frequency will be lower.
Mathematically, the frequency,
fo α1/ sq rt( L)
ombining both the above equations,
fo α1/ sq rt(L C )

The above equation, though indicates the output frequency, matches the natural frequency or
resonance frequency of the tank circuit.
An Oscillator circuit is a complete set of all the parts of circuit which helps to produce the
oscillations. These oscillations should sustain and should be Undamped as just discussed before. Let
us try to analyze a practical Oscillator circuit to have a better understanding on how an Oscillator
circuit works.
Practical Oscillator Circuit
A Practical Oscillator circuit consists of a tank circuit, a transistor amplifier, and a feedback circuit.
The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a practical oscillator.

Let us now discuss the parts of this practical oscillator circuit.

Tank Circuit − The tank circuit consists of an inductance L connected in parallel with capacitor C.
The values of these two components determine the frequency of the oscillator circuit and hence this
is called as Frequency determining circuit.
 Transistor Amplifier − The output of the tank circuit is connected to the amplifier circuit so that
the oscillations produced by the tank circuit are amplified here. Hence the output of these oscillations
are increased by the amplifier.

Feedback Circuit − The function of feedback circuit is to transfer a part of the output energy to LC
circuit in proper phase. This feedback is positive in oscillators while negative in amplifiers.

Frequency Stability of an Oscillator

The frequency stability of an oscillator is a measure of its ability to maintain a constant frequency,
over a long time interval. When operated over a longer period of time, the oscillator frequency may
have a drift from the previously set value either by increasing or by decreasing.
The change in oscillator frequency may arise due to the following factors −
Operating point of the active device such as BJT or FET used should lie in the linear region of the
amplifier. Its deviation will affect the oscillator frequency.

The temperature dependency of the performance of circuit components affect the oscillator
frequency.

The changes in d.c. supply voltage applied to the active device, shift the oscillator frequency. This
can be avoided if a regulated power supply is used.

A change in output load may cause a change in the Q-factor of the tank circuit, thereby causing a
change in oscillator output frequency.

The presence of inter element capacitances and stray capacitances affect the oscillator output
frequency and thus frequency stability.
Colpitts Oscillator − It uses capacitive feedback.

Hartley Oscillator
A very popular local oscillator circuit that is mostly used in radio receivers is the Hartley Oscillator
circuit. The constructional details and operation of a Hartley oscillator are as discussed below.
Construction
In the circuit diagram of a Hartley oscillator shown below, the resistors R1, R2 and Re provide
necessary bias condition for the circuit. The capacitor Ce provides a.c. ground thereby providing any
signal degeneration. This also provides temperature stabilization.
The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block d.c. and to provide an a.c. path. The radio frequency
choke (R.F.C) offers very high impedance to high frequency currents which means it shorts for d.c.
and opens for a.c. Hence it provides d.c. load for collector and keeps a.c. currents out of d.c. supply
source
Tank Circuit
The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of the inductors L1
and L2 along with a variable capacitor C. The junction of L1 and L2 are earthed. The coil L1 has its
one end connected to base via Cc and the other to emitter via Ce. So, L2 is in the output circuit. Both
the coils L1 and L2 are inductively coupled and together form an Auto-transformer.
The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a Hartley oscillator. The tank circuit is shunt
fed in this circuit. It can also be a series-fed.
Operation
When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or tank circuit.
The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across L1.
The auto-transformer made by the inductive coupling of L1 and L2 helps in determining the frequency
and establishes the feedback. As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, another 180o
phase shift is provided by the transformer, which makes 360o phase shift between the input and
output voltages.
This makes the feedback positive which is essential for the condition of oscillations. When the loop
gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one, oscillations are sustained in the circuit.
Frequency
The equation for frequency of Hartley oscillator is given as
Here, LT is the total cumulatively coupled inductance; L1 and L2represent inductances of 1st and 2nd
coils; and M represents mutual inductance.
Mutual inductance is calculated when two windings are considered.
Advantages
The advantages of Hartley oscillator are
 Instead of using a large transformer, a single coil can be used as an auto-transformer.

 Frequency can be varied by employing either a variable capacitor or a variable inductor.

 Less number of components are sufficient.

 The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed frequency range.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Hartley oscillator are
 It cannot be a low frequency oscillator.

 Harmonic distortions are present.

Applications
The applications of Hartley oscillator are
 It is used to produce a sinewave of desired frequency.

 Mostly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.

 It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.

Colpitts oscillator
A Colpitts oscillator looks just like the Hartley oscillator but the inductors and capacitors are
replaced with each other in the tank circuit. The constructional details and operation of a colpitts
oscillator are as discussed below.
Construction
Let us first take a look at the circuit diagram of a Colpitts oscillator.
The resistors R1, R2 and Re provide necessary bias condition for the circuit. The capacitor Ce provides
a.c. ground thereby providing any signal degeneration. This also provides temperature stabilization.
The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block d.c. and to provide an a.c. path. The radio frequency
choke (R.F.C) offers very high impedance to high frequency currents which means it shorts for d.c.
and opens for a.c. Hence it provides d.c. load for collector and keeps a.c. currents out of d.c. supply
source.
Tank Circuit
The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of variable capacitors
C1 and C2 along with an inductor L. The junction of C1 and C2 are earthed. The capacitor C1 has its
one end connected to base via Cc and the other to emitter via Ce. the voltage developed across C1
provides the regenerative feedback required for the sustained oscillations.
Operation
When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or tank circuit.
The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across C1 which are
applied to the base emitter junction and appear in the amplified form in the collector circuit and
supply losses to the tank circuit.
If terminal 1 is at positive potential with respect to terminal 3 at any instant, then terminal 2 will be at
negative potential with respect to 3 at that instant because terminal 3 is grounded. Therefore, points 1
and 2 are out of phase by 180o.
As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, it makes 360o phase shift between the
input and output voltages. Hence, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous Undamped
oscillations. When the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one, oscillations are sustained in
the circuit.
Frequency
The equation for frequency of Colpitts oscillator is given as

CT is the total capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series.

Advantages
The advantages of Colpitts oscillator are as follows −
 Colpitts oscillator can generate sinusoidal signals of very high frequencies.

 It can withstand high and low temperatures.

 The frequency stability is high.

 Frequency can be varied by using both the variable capacitors.

 Less number of components are sufficient.

 The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed frequency range.

The Colpitts oscillator is designed to eliminate the disadvantages of Hartley oscillator and is known
to have no specific disadvantages. Hence there are many applications of a colpitts oscillator.
Applications
The applications of Colpitts oscillator are as follows −
Colpitts oscillator can be used as High frequency sinewave generator.
This can be used as a temperature sensor with some associated circuitry.
Mostly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.
It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.
It is also used in Mobile applications.
It has got many other commercial applications.

Clapp Oscillator

Another oscillator which is an advanced version of Colpitts oscillator is the Clapp Oscillator.
This circuit is designed by making a few changes to the Colpitts oscillator.
The circuit differs from the Colpitts oscillator only in one respect; it contains one additional
capacitor (C3) connected in series with the inductor. The addition of capacitor (C3) improves
the frequency stability and eliminates the effect of transistor parameters and stray
capacitances.
The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of atransistor Clapp oscillator.
The operation of Clapp oscillator circuit is in the same way as that of Colpitts oscillator. The
frequency of oscillator is given by the relation,

Where

Usually, the value of C3 is much smaller than C1 and C2. As a result of this, C is approximately

equal to C3. Therefore, the frequency of oscillation,

It is understood that the Clapp oscillator is similar to the Colpitts oscillator, however they
differ in the way the inductances and capacitances are arranged. The frequency stability
though is good, can be variable in a Clapp oscillator.
A Clapp oscillator is sometimes preferred over a Colpitts oscillator for constructing a
variable frequency oscillator. The Clapp oscillators are used in receiver tuning circuits as a
frequency oscillator.
One of the important features of an oscillator is that the feedback energy applied should be
in correct phase to the tank circuit. The oscillator circuits discussed so far has employed
inductor (L) and capacitor (C) combination, in the tank circuit or frequency determining
circuit.
We have observed that the LC combination in oscillators provide 180o phase shift and
transistor in CE configuration provide 180° phase shift to make a total of 360o phase shift
so that it would make a zero difference in phase.
Drawbacks of LC circuits
Though they have few applications, the LC circuits have fewdrawbacks such as
Frequency instability
Waveform is poor
Cannot be used for low frequencies
Inductors are bulky and expensive
Whenever an oscillator is under continuous operation, itsfrequency stability gets affected.
There occur changes in its frequency. The main factors that affect the frequency of an
oscillator are
Power supply variations
Changes in temperature
Changes in load or output resistance
In RC and LC oscillators the values of resistance, capacitance and inductance vary with
temperature and hence the frequency gets affected. In order to avoid this problem, the
piezo electric crystals are being used in oscillators.
Crystal Oscillators
The use of piezo electric crystals in parallel resonant circuits provide high frequency
stability in oscillators. Such oscillators are called as Crystal Oscillators.

Crystal Oscillators
The principle of crystal oscillators depends upon the Piezo electric effect. The natural
shape of a crystal is hexagonal. When a crystal wafer is cur perpendicular to X-axis, it is
called as X-cut and when it is cut along Y-axis, it is called as Y-cut.
The crystal used in crystal oscillator exhibits a property called as Piezo electric property. So,
let us have an idea on piezo electric effect.
Piezo Electric Effect
The crystal exhibits the property that when a mechanical stress is applied across one of the
faces of the crystal, a potential difference is developed across the opposite faces of the
crystal. Conversely, when a potential difference is applied across one of the faces, a
mechanical stress is produced along the other faces. This is known as Piezo electric effect.
Certain crystalline materials like Rochelle salt, quartz and tourmaline exhibit piezo electric
effect and such materials are called as Piezo electric crystals. Quartz is the most commonly
used piezo electric crystal because it is inexpensive and readily available in nature.
When a piezo electric crystal is subjected to a proper alternating potential, it vibrates
mechanically. The amplitude of mechanical vibrations becomes maximum when the
frequency of alternating voltage is equal to the natural frequency of the crystal.

Working of a Quartz Crystal

In order to make a crystal work in an electronic circuit, the crystal is placed between two
metal plates in the form of a capacitor.Quartz is the mostly used type of crystal because of
its availability and strong nature while being inexpensive. The ac voltage is applied in
parallel to the crystal.
The circuit arrangement of a Quartz Crystal will be as shown below –

If an AC voltage is applied, the crystal starts vibrating at the frequency of the applied
voltage. However, if the frequency of the applied voltage is made equal to the natural
frequency of the crystal, resonance takes place and crystal vibrations reach a maximum
value. This natural frequency is almost constant.
Equivalent circuit of a Crystal
If we try to represent the crystal with an equivalent electric circuit, we have to consider
two cases, i.e., when it vibrates and when it doesn’t. The figures below represent the
symbol and electrical equivalent circuit of a crystal respectively.

The above equivalent circuit consists of a series R-L-C circuit in parallel with a capacitance
Cm. When the crystal mounted across the AC source is not vibrating, it is equivalent to the
capacitance Cm. When the crystal vibrates, it acts like a tuned R-L-C circuit.
Frequency response
The frequency response of a crystal is as shown below. The graph shows the reactance
(XL or XC) versus frequency (f). It is evident that the crystal has two closely spaced resonant
frequencies.

The first one is the series resonant frequency (fs), which occurs when reactance of the
inductance (L) is equal to the reactance of the capacitance C. In that case, the impedance of
the equivalent circuit is equal to the resistance R and the frequency of oscillation is given
by the relation,

The second one is the parallel resonant frequency (fp), which occurs when the reactance of
R-L-C branch is equal to the reactance of capacitor Cm. At this frequency, the crystal offers a
very high impedance to the external circuit and the frequency of oscillation is given by the
relation.

Where

The value of Cm is usually very large as compared to C. Therefore, the value of CT is

approximately equal to C and hence the series resonant frequency is approximately equal
to the parallel resonant frequency (i.e., fs = fp).
Crystal Oscillator Circuit
pierce crystal oscillator
A crystal oscillator circuit can be constructed in a number of ways like a Crystal controlled
tuned collector oscillator, a Colpitts crystal oscillator, a Clap crystal oscillator etc. But
the transistor pierce crystal oscillator is the most commonly used one. This is the circuit
which is normally referred as a crystal oscillator circuit.
The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a transistor pierce crystal
oscillator.

In this circuit, the crystal is connected as a series element in the feedback path from
collector to the base. The resistors R1, R2 and RE provide a voltage-divider stabilized d.c.
bias circuit. The capacitor CE provides a.c. bypass of the emitter resistor and RFC (radio
frequency choke) coil provides for d.c. bias while decoupling any a.c. signal on the power
lines from affecting the output signal. The coupling capacitor C has negligible impedance at
the circuit operating frequency. But it blocks any d.c. between collector and base.
The circuit frequency of oscillation is set by the series resonant frequency of the crystal and
its value is given by the relation,

It may be noted that the changes in supply voltage, transistor device parameters etc. have
no effect on the circuit operating frequency, which is held stabilized by the crystal.
Advantages
The advantages of crystal oscillator are as follows −
They have a high order of frequency stability.
The quality factor (Q) of the crystal is very high.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of crystal oscillator are as follows −
They are fragile and can be used in low power circuits.
The frequency of oscillations cannot be changed appreciably.
Frequency Stability of an Oscillator
An Oscillator is expected to maintain its frequency for a longer duration without any
variations, so as to have a smoother clear sinewave output for the circuit operation. Hence
the term frequency stability really matters a lot, when it comes to oscillators, whether
sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal.
The frequency stability of an oscillator is defined as the ability of the oscillator to maintain
the required frequency constant over a long time interval as possible. Let us try to discuss
the factors that affect this frequency stability.
Change in operating point
We have already come across the transistor parameters and learnt how important an
operating point is. The stability of this operating point for the transistor being used in the
circuit for amplification (BJT or FET), is of higher consideration.
The operating of the active device used is adjusted to be in the linear portion of its
characteristics. This point is shifted due to temperature variations and hence the stability is
affected.
Variation in temperature
The tank circuit in the oscillator circuit, contains various frequency determining
components such as resistors, capacitors and inductors. All of their parameters are
temperature dependent. Due to the change in temperature, their values get affected. This
brings the change in frequency of the oscillator circuit.
Due to power supply
The variations in the supplied power will also affect the frequency. The power supply
variations lead to the variations in Vcc. This will affect the frequency of the oscillations
produced.
In order to avoid this, the regulated power supply system is implemented. This is in short
called as RPS.
Change in output load
The variations in output resistance or output load also affects the frequency of the
oscillator. When a load is connected, the effective resistance of the tank circuit is changed.
As a result, the Q-factor of LC tuned circuit is changed. This results a change in output
frequency of oscillator.
Changes in inter-element capacitances
Inter-element capacitances are the capacitances that develop in PN junction materials such
as diodes and transistors. These are developed due to the charge present in them during
their operation.
The inter element capacitors undergo change due to various reasons as temperature,
voltage etc. This problem can be solved by connecting swamping capacitor across offending
inter-element capacitor.
Value of Q
The value of Q (Quality factor) must be high in oscillators. The value of Q in tuned
oscillators determine the selectivity. As this Q is directly proportional to the frequency
stability of a tuned circuit, the value of Q should be maintained high.
Frequency stability can be mathematically represented as,
Sw=dθ/dw
Where dθ is the phase shift introduced for a small frequency change in nominal frequency
fr. The circuit giving the larger value of (dθ/dw) has more stable oscillatory frequency.