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Topic 1 Introduction

The document provides an introduction to the science of geology, including: 1) Geology examines Earth's materials and processes both at the surface and within the planet. 2) Early theories included catastrophism but uniformitarianism established that current processes shaped Earth over immense time. 3) Geologists use relative dating and the geologic time scale to place events in proper sequence across billions of years of Earth's development.

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17 views

Topic 1 Introduction

The document provides an introduction to the science of geology, including: 1) Geology examines Earth's materials and processes both at the surface and within the planet. 2) Early theories included catastrophism but uniformitarianism established that current processes shaped Earth over immense time. 3) Geologists use relative dating and the geologic time scale to place events in proper sequence across billions of years of Earth's development.

Uploaded by

h.heedayah2000
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 37

Introduction to Geology – I

ERSC 2101

Department of Earth Sciences, SQU


The Science of Geology
• Geology is the science that pursues an
understanding of planet Earth
• Physical geology – examines the materials
composing Earth and seeks to understand
the many processes that operate beneath
and upon its surface
• Historical geology – seeks an
understanding of the origin of Earth and
its development through time
The Science of Geology
• Some historical notes about geology
• The nature of Earth has been a focus of
study for centuries
• Catastrophism
• Uniformitarianism and the birth of
modern geology
The Science of Geology
❖ Catastrophism (James Ussher, mid 1600s) - He interpreted the Bible to
determine that the Earth was created at 4004 B.C.
❖ This was generally accepted by both the scientific and religious communities.
❖ Subsequent workers then developed the view on catastrophism, which held that
the Earth’s landforms were formed over very short periods of time.

❖ Uniformitarianism (James Hutton, late 1700s) - He proposed that the same


processes that are at work today were at work in the past. Summarized by “The
present is the key to the past.”
❖ Hutton, not constrained by the concept of a very young planet, recognized that
time is the critical element to the formation of common geologic structures.
❖ Uniformitarianism is a basic foundation of modern geology.
Geologic Time
• Geologists are now able to assign fairly
accurate dates to events in Earth history
• Relative dating and the geologic time
scale
• Relative dating means that dates are
placed in their proper sequence or order
without knowing their age in years
Geologic Time
• The magnitude of geologic time
• Involves vast times – millions or billions of
years
• An appreciation for the magnitude of
geologic time is important because many
processes are very gradual
Hajar Super-group (Carbonate)
Terrace 1

Terrace 2

Terrace 3

Terrace 4

Noch Terrace 5
B 2 Terrace 6
Noch Terrace 7
1

A
The Geologic
Time Scale
Earth as a System
• Earth is a dynamic planet with many
interacting parts or spheres
• Parts of the Earth system are linked
• It is characterized by processes that
• Vary on spatial scales from fractions of a
millimeter to thousands of kilometers
• Have time scales that range from
milliseconds to billions of years
The intersection of four spheres
The atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and the
Lithosphere
Earth as a system
Hydrosphere: the global ocean is the
most prominent feature of our (blue)
planet. The oceans cover ~71% of our
planet and represent 97% of all the water
on our planet.

Atmosphere: the swirling clouds of the


atmosphere represent the very thin
blanket of air that covers our planet. It
is not only the air we breathe, but
protects us from harmful radiation from
the sun.
Earth as a system
Biosphere: includes all life on Earth -
concentrated at the surface. Plants and
animals don't only respond the their
environment but also exercise a very strong
control over the other parts of the planet.
Solid Earth: represents the majority of the
Earth system. Most of the Earth lies at
inaccessible depths. However, the solid
Earth exerts a strong influence on all other
parts (ex. magnetic field).
Geosphere
• Based on compositional differences, it consists of the crust, mantle, and core.
- Crust—the thin, rocky outer layer of Earth.
- Mantle—the 2890-kilometer-thick layer of Earth located below the crust.
- Core—the innermost layer of Earth, located beneath the mantle.
Earth as a system
This figure shows the dynamic
interaction between the major
spheres.

As humans, we desire to divide the


natural world into artificial portions
to make it easier. It should be
stressed that these divisions are
artificial.

What are some of the interactions


between these spheres?
Earth's Major Spheres

1cm-30km
Earth's Major Spheres 96cm-2890km
Geosphere 116cm-3481km
• Based on compositional differences, it
consists of the crust, mantle, and core.
- Crust—the thin, rocky outer layer of Earth.
- Mantle—the 2890-kilometer-thick layer of
Earth located below the crust.
- Core—the innermost layer of Earth, located
beneath the mantle.
Earth as a system
• The Earth system is also powered from
Earth’s interior
• Heat remaining from the Earth’s
formation and heat that is continuously
generated by radioactive decay powers the
internal processes that produce volcanoes,
earthquakes, and mountains
Formation of Earth

Formation of Earth
◆ Most researchers conclude that Earth
and the other planets formed at
essentially the same time.
◆ Nebular Hypothesis
• The solar system evolved from an enormous
rotating cloud called the solar nebula.
Formation of Earth

Formation of
Earth
◆ Nebular Hypothesis
• The nebula was composed mostly of
hydrogen and helium.
• About 5 billion years ago, the nebula began
to contract.
• It assumed a flat, disk shape with the
protosun (pre-Sun) at the center.
Formation of Earth

Formation of Earth
◆ Nebular Hypothesis
• Inner planets begin to form from metallic and
rocky clumps.
• Larger outer planets began forming from
fragments with a high percentage of ices.
Nebular hypothesis
• Emanuel Swedenborg -(1734)
• a Swedisha Swedish scientista Swedish
scientist and philosopher
The Nebular Hypothesis
A

E
Origin of Solar System
Our Solar System

Mercury Earth

Venus Mars
Ouranos Neptune

Jupiter Saturn
Evolution of the Earth
Layered Structure of The Earth

• Melting of the original materials occurred due to heat


generated by.
• Impact of falling meteorites
• Compression of rocks due to gravity
• Decay of radioactive elements
• Heavy metals (e.g. iron & nickel) sank deeper whereas
lighter elements (e.g. oxygen & silicon) accumulated in the
outer parts .
• This process is known as differentiation (fractionation)
which led to the formation of a layered structure.
Artist’s View of Comets hitting the Planet
1_7
Planetesimal
s
strike growing
Earth
Iron melts and
begins to sink
Lighter materials
DIFFERENTIATION
concentrate
closer to surface
Interior of Earth is
Crust and hotter than surface
mantle
Liqui
d
core The moon formed
Atmosphere after a Mars-sized
Crust planet hit earth,
Mantl about 4.6 bya
e core
Outer
We use that event
as Earth’s origin
Inner core date
Process of differentiation

Z Symbol Lithosphere abundance ppm

8 O 46%

14 Si 27.7%

13 Al 8,1%

26 Fe 5%

20 Ca 3,6%

11 Na 2.8%

19 K 2.5%

While it was still in the molten state, separation of elements occurred within the earth.
Light Inert Gases like Helium (He) and Krypton (Kr) were lost to outer space Heavy
elements like Nickel (Ni) and Iron (Fe) sink to the center.
Earth’s Internal Structure

• Earth’s internal layers defined by


• Chemical composition
• Physical properties
• Deduced from Seismographs of Earthquakes
• Meteorites lend support

• Layers defined by composition


• Crust
• Mantle
• Core

Iron-Nickel Meteorite
Summary
• Physical and Historical geology
• Catastrophism vs Uniformitarianism
• Cycles and spheres…interfaces
• Time (some processes take seconds and some
processes take million years) Relative time ..law
of superposition
• Crust, Mantle, Core
• Lithosphere oceanic crust and continental crust
• Nebular theory
End of Topic:1

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