Chapter 1

Introduction to Geology
(Engineering Geology)

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 Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Definition of Geology and Branch of Geology
What is Geology?
The word Geology comes from two Greek words geo and logos, Geo means Earth and Logos
means study.

Geology: is the science that deals with the study of earth as a whole and its surrounding.

Geology Deals with

The study of solid Earth, the rocks and soils of which it is composed, and the processes by which
they change.
The study of the solid features of any celestial body (such as the geology of the Moon or Mars).
The processes which gave rise to the existence of the Earth (physical, chemical, biochemical).
The general structure and compositional makeup of the Earth.

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 Branches of Geology
There are two subdivisions of geology which are:
Pure geology
Applied geology.
Pure Geology is a subdivision which enable us to understand about the Earth and to
formulate geological Principles and laws. It include :
Crystallography,
Mineralogy,
Petrology,
Paleontology,
Geomorphology, and
Stratigraphy etc. 3
Applied Geology is a subdivision which enable us to apply the geological principles in the
Exploration of earth resources. It includes:-
Hydrogeology,
Engineering Geology,
Geophysics,
Geochemistry,
Mining Geology,
Economic Geology,
Environmental Geology, and
Remote sensing…….etc.

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 I) Pure Geology
Deals with the origin of the Earth, the processes, which form and change it and the nature of
the materials, which constitute it.
The main aim of pure geology is to understand about the earth and to formulate geological
principles and laws.

Physical Geology

It is the study of the process and agents which brings about the changes on the earth.

Mineralogy

It is the study of the minerals

Petrology

It is the study of the composition, origin, occurrence and types of the Rocks

Geomorphology

The study of the origin of landforms and their modification by dynamic processes
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 II ) Applied Geology
Applies the principles of pure geology and other sciences to understand the nature of the earth and to
extract the natural resources of the Earth.

Generally, its aim is to utilize the geologic principles & laws in the exploration of Earth resources.

Engineering Geology
Applies the principles of Geology to Civil Engineering works such as in dams, roads, and
building constructions.
Mining Geology
It is the structure of the exploration and extraction of metallic and nonmetallic ores.

Economic Geology
It involves the commercial and industrial uses of the earth resources.

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 Geophysics
This branch of geology deals with the application of principle of geology and physics to the
study of earth.
Geochemistry
It concerned with composition of earth materials and the chemical changes that occur within
the earth and on its surface/ about element not about minerals

6) Hydrogeology
It deals with underground water management

7) Remote sensing
It is the study of the earth and other planets using satellite images and aerial photos.

8) Environmental Geology
It is an applied geology that concerns on solving the major environmental problems such as
pollution, resource depletion, and other global problems. 7
 1.2 Origin and History of the Earth

In general, the theories of origin of solar system can be divided into two categories.
Evolutionary theory
Catastrophic theory

Evolutionary theory
This theory suggests that planets are formed during the evolution of the sun. Example:
Nebular hypothesis theory.

Catastrophic theory
This theory suggests that planets are formed by some special accident or catastrophe such as
the close approach of two stars or by collision of two stars.

However, the possibility of such scenario is extremely rare. Example of catastrophic theory
include Planetesimal and gaseous tidal hypothesis.

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The best known hypothesis for origin of the earth and other planets of the solar system
include:
Nebular hypothesis
Planetesimal hypothesis
Gaseous tidal hypothesis
Binary star hypothesis
Gas dust cloud hypothesis RA
1) Nebular Hypothesis
Kant (in 1755) and Laplace (in 1796) independently developed the Nebular hypothesis based
on the hot origin of our planets.

They suggested that the earth and other planets were formed from disc-shaped rotating nebula.
A nebular hypothesis theory may explained as follows:
Originally there was a large, hot, gaseous nebula which rotated along its axis.
As gaseous materials lost it energy through radiation, it becomes cooler. As a result, the nebula
contracted inward and its speed of rotation about its axis increased to preserve angular momentum. Due to
this, centrifugal force in the equatorial region also increased thereby causing the nebula to bulge out
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in the equatorial zone.
 The cooling and contraction of the nebula continued and ultimately a stage came when the
centrifugal force became greater than the gravitational attraction acting inward. As a result, a gaseous ring
was formed.
The above process was repeated and a successive rings of gaseous materials where thrown off central mass.
At the final stage, the rings were condensed into planets and the central mass into the sun.

Gaseous Materials in the Nebula are mostly elements and

complex compound including :
Hydrogen
Helium
Small amount of more complex compounds:
Silicates
Hydrocarbons
Methane
Water
Organic Molecules
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 2) Planetesimal Hypothesis
Thomas Chamberlin and Forest Moulton, in 1905 suggested that the planets were formed from the
collusions and union of numerous small planetary fragments called Planetesimals.

The hypothesis assumes that Sun existed even before the formation of planets.
A planetesimal hypothesis theory may be explained as follows:

The near approach of a larger star caused tidal distortions upon the surface of the Sun.

These distortions together with the eruptive forces present in the Sun, led to the distortion of the Sun’s
mass. This caused a number of gaseous bolts to be shot into space for great distances.

This gaseous solar material cooled down and assumed the shape of a number of solid particles called
Planetesimals. These Planetesimals rotated around the Sun in highly elliptical orbits.

They intersected and collided with each other. This led to the coalescence of several large nuclei,
eventually forming planets.
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 3. Gaseous Tidal Hypothesis

James Jeans, a British astronomer in 1916 explained the origin of the planetary system.
A gaseous tidal hypothesis may be summarized as follows:

A very large star progressively approached close to the sun. Due to the gravitational pull on the
star, a gaseous tide was raised on the surface of the sun.

As this star came closer, the tide increase in size and intensity.

Afterwards, this star began to move away from the sun. As a result, the gaseous materials detached
away from the sun. The shape of the tide was like a spindle.

This spindle shaped gaseous material broke into ten pieces nine of which condensed into
planets and the remaining one broke into small pieces and finally formed planetoids.
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 History of the Earth
So the Earth’s history starts from 4.6 Ba years ago

By this time the Earth was It Means uniform in composition and density
homogeneous = throughout the whole thickness

But gradually replaced by a series of concentric layers of differing composition and

density, resulting in a differentiated layers called Crust, Mantle and Core

Then the crust was tectonically deformed and eventually formed the continents

It was also responsible for the emission of gases from the interior of the earth that
eventually led to the formation of the oceans and atmosphere.
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 Cont.,

Early Earth was probably of uniform composition and density throughout.

Heating of early Earth reached the melting point of iron and nickel, denser than
silicate minerals, settled to Earth’s center; the lighter silicates flowed upward to form
the mantle and the crust.
A differentiated Earth formed, with dense iron-nickel @ core, Ferro-Magnsia silicate
@ mantle, and a low density silicate (Qtz and feldspars) @ crust
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 1.3 Internal structure and composition of the Earth
Density is a key concept for understanding the structure of Earth. The differences in density lead to
stratification (layers).
The internal materials of Earth are separated into layers according to:
Chemical composition
mechanical/physical properties

1.3.1 Internal layering based on Chemical

Composition

Crust
Mantle
Core
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 Three Main Layers of the Earth

1. Crust

It is the thin, solid, outermost layer of the Earth

It is thinnest beneath the oceans (thickness 5 kms) and is thickest beneath large
mountain ranges (thickness 70 kms)

The average thickness of the crust is 35-40 km

Made up of light weight materials (light silicate rocks).

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 Continental crust
Thickness - 40 - 70 km
Composition - granitic rock
Density – about 2.7 g/cm3
Geologically older.

Oceanic crust
Thickness - about 8 km
Composition – basaltic rocks
Density - about 3.0 g/cm3
Geologically younger.

What are the main differences between oceanic and continental crust? 18
 2. Mantle
Is located between the crust and the core, partly solid, partly melted layer and it can be flow.
Ranges from 40 to 2900 km in depth.
Composed of silicate rocks (compounds of silicon and oxygen) containing abundant iron and
magnesium.
Density varies from 3.2 g/cm3 in its upper part to nearly 5 g/cm3 near its contact with the core.
The cool, solid crust and uppermost (rigid) mantle “float” and move over hotter, deformable lower mantle.

Upper Mantle
It is the solid uppermost part of the mantle found below the crust
It floats on the lower mantle.

Lower Mantle
As we go deep into the Earth, temperature rises and we reach
part of the mantle that is partially molten, the asthenosphere
It has more Iron and magnesium than upper mantle. 19
 3. Core
It is the center of the Earth about 6370 km in diameter
and is super-dense.

The core of the Earth is made up of two distinct layers:

Outer core (liquid) &

Inner core (solid)

The core is made up of metallic iron-nickel alloy

Density increases with depth but averages about 10.8

g/cm3.

Makes up only 16% of Earth’s volume, but, because of

its high Density, it accounts for 32% of Earth’s mass.

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Summary Table 1 – Chemical Properties

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 1.3.2 Internal Layering Based On Physical Properties
Layers based on physical properties (rheology- how easily rock flow) are:

Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Mesosphere
Outer core
Inner core

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Earth’s layered structure according to mechanical behavior of rocks ranges from very rigid to
deformable

1) Lithosphere
It comprises of crust and upper part of the mantle.
It is solid, strong and rigid outer part of the Earth.
It extends from surface to 100 km depth.

2) Asthenosphere
Located below the lithosphere and comprises of weak and ductile part of the mantle.
It is semi-solid.
The asthenosphere is denser than both continental and oceanic lithosphere
This means that the plates are floating on top of the asthenosphere
extends from 100 km depth to 350 km.
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 3) Mesosphere
It is located below asthenosphere and is comparatively stronger, solid and much rigid than
asthenosphere. Why? ? Because the high pressure at this depth offsets the effect of high
temperature.
It extends from 350 to 2900 km
4) Liquid Outer Core
Located below the mesosphere and is liquid because temperature is high as compared to
pressure in this zone
Extends from 2900 to 5200km
5) Solid Inner Core
Located below the outer core and is solid because pressure is greater than temperature in this
zone.
Extends from 5200 to 6400Km.
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Summary Table 2 – Physical Properties

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 The enlarged portion:
lithosphere (composed of the continental crust, oceanic crust,
and solid upper mantle)

the underlying asthenosphere and lower mantle

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 1.3.3 Evidence for Internal Earth Structure and Composition
Geophysical Method- Seismic wave data:
Two types of seismic waves are there: P-wave and S-wave. P-wave move through both solid
and liquid media but S-wave only moves through solid media.

Variation of seismic velocity with depth has forwarded the following information
The velocity of both P and S-wave increases at the base of the crust from about 6Km to
nearly 8Km beneath the oceanic crust and to depth of 100km beneath continental crust.
This means this part of the earth is solid.(This corresponds lithosphere).
Then, suddenly velocity of both P and S-wave starts to decrease to the depth of 350km.
This is potentially due to semi-solid asthenosphere (Asthenosphere).
Then, there is sharp increase in velocity of both waves to depth of 2900km and this
corresponds strong and rigid Mesosphere.
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 Then, there is sharp decrease in P-wave
velocity while S-wave velocity becomes zero
until depth of 5200km. This is due to the
presence of liquid material. Thus, marks the
starting point of liquid outer core.

Then, velocity of both waves starts to increase

and this point marks starting point of inner core

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 Simple mathematical models
The average density of the Earth is 5.5g/cm3, but the average density of the crustal earth is 2.7g/cm3. What
this indicates?
The Earth's interior is composed of materials that are denser than those found in the crust.
OR…The Earth's interior is primarily composed of heavier elements such as iron and nickel, which are
denser than the lighter elements that make up the Earth's crust, such as silicon, aluminum, and oxygen.
This variation in density is a key indicator of the Earth's internal structure, which consists of several
layers including the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The denser materials tend to sink towards
the center of the Earth due to gravity, while lighter materials rise towards the surface, resulting in the
distinct layers observed in the Earth's structure.
Meteoritic Evidence
Are representatives of Asteroids w/c are similar to inner planets
There are 3 types of meteorites:
Stony :composed of silicates, similar to crust
Iron-stony: both silicate & Fe-Ni alloys, represents the intermediate part of Asteroids
Iron Meteorites: Fe-Ni alloys, interior of asteroids
These different types of meteorites indicates that the inner planet are made up of different layers of materials.
So earth is also made up of these different layers
Stony Meteorites----Crustal rocks
Iron-stony Meteorites----Mantle rocks
Iron Meteorites-----Core of the Earth
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 4. Xenoliths (Volcanic Evidences)

Xenoliths : fragmented materials which are enclosed with in magma.

Comes from the depth due to volcanic eruptions from 100kms due to volcanic
eruption.

They are having heavy minerals of Mg, Fe that way we say that mantle is
composed of heavy minerals like Mg and Fe

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 1.4 Earth’s Continental Plate Movement
Pangea initially broke up into two super continents:
The Gondwanaland = continents in the southern hemisphere (South America, India, Australia,
Africa and Antarctica) and
Laurasia = continents in the northern hemisphere (North America, Greenland, Europe and Asia).
and later on broke up in to seven continent

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 1.4.1 Tectonic Plates Boundaries
Three major types of plate boundaries (margins):
Divergent plate boundary
Convergent plate boundary
Transform plate boundary
1. Divergent plate boundary
What is Divergent plate boundary?

Zones where lithospheric plates move apart from

one another.
Characterized by tensional stresses that typically
associated

long rift zones

Normal faults
Basaltic volcanism.

Earthquakes are common in divergent plate

boundaries 33
Divergent Plate Boundaries……

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Divergent Plate Boundaries……

The East African Rift Valley (Length = 6400km) 35

 2. Convergent plate boundary
Is plate boundary when the plates move towards each other.
Almost 95% of the total energy released by all earthquakes come from this margin.

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Convergent Plate Boundaries

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 3.Transform Plate Boundary
Is a plate boundary when the plates are horizontally grind against one another.
All transform-fault earthquakes have a shallow focus, so the larger ones on land can cause
disaster.
The 2010 earthquake in Haiti is a tragic example of such an earthquake. Some estimates place
the death toll at 230,000, about 2.5% of the country’s population

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 1.4.2 Evidences For Plates In Motion

What are the evidences for plates in motion?

Fit of Continents Shorelines

Structure and Rock Type

Distribution of Fossils

Palaeoclimatic

Paleomagnetism

Seafloor Spreading And Topography

Age Of Sea Floor 40

 1.5 Age Determination Techniques
How do geologists determine Age of rocks?

Relative dating -- determine whether the rock is older or younger than other rocks or geologic events

2. Absolute dating -- use radiometric dating techniques to determine how long ago the rock formed in the exact number
of years
In order to properly interperate or understand the geologic events you need to know Geologic Principles associated with
Relative Dating

Principle of Superposition

Rock layer above is younger than the ones below it.

(Oldest on bottom, youngest on top)

Principle of Original Horizontality

Sedimentary layers are deposited in approximately horizontal sheets.

Principle of Crosscutting Relationships

Any feature (e.g. fault or intrusion) that cuts across rocks is younger than the youngest rock that
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is cut.
Illustration of Relative Age Principles

C-----B-----A-----D-----E

Oldest Youngest 42
 1.6 Definition of Engineering Geology and its application
What is Engineering Geology?
Is an applied discipline of Geology that relies heavily on geologic principles and processes in the
application of geologic fundamentals to engineering practice.
Is a science devoted to the investigation, study and find a solution of the engineering and
environmental problems that arise as the result of the interaction between geology and
human activities.
According to IAEG (2000), Engineering geology is a discipline of applying geologic data,
techniques, and principles to the study both of:
Naturally occurring rock and soil materials, and surface and subsurface fluids,
and
The interaction of geological materials and processes with the geologic environment, so
that geologic factors affecting the planning, design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of engineering structures (fixed works) and the development, protection, and
remediation of groundwater resources, are adequately recognized, interpreted, and
presented for use in engineering and related practice.
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 Cont..

Engineering geology is the branch of geology which deals with applying principles for geology
for construction of civil engineering structures or for extraction of earth’s natural resources.
Engineering geology is the application of geology in design, construction and performance of
civil engineering works.
It is an applied discipline of geology that relies heavily on knowledge of geologic principles and
processes and applies geologic skills to identify and solve an engineering problem.
It fills the gap between Geology and Civil Engineering.
Geology is the principle while Engineering Geology is the practice.

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 B) Applications of Engineering Geology

1) Foundation Engineering

Almost all civil engineering structures rests on

the soil or rocks.
Knowledge of Engineering Geology is
essential to assure that the structures are
properly supported.

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 2) Transportation Engineering

Road beds are often built of soils or rocks, and

the roadways themselves can often pass through
mountains.
Understanding Engineering Geology can
preclude problems cracking etc.
3) Hydraulic Engineering
Hydraulic structures such as dams are constructed
mostly on rocks.
Moreover, earth dams are constructed from soils
while rock-fill dams are constructed from rocks.
Therefore, knowledge of permeability and shear
strength of soils and rocks are very important. 46
 4) Slope Engineering

Slope failures are common are common

engineering geological problems that can lead to
loss life, property and infrastructures.
Soil slope failures mainly occurs due high pore
water pressure and low shear strength within the
soil.
In rocks such failures mostly occurs due to low
shear strength and orientation of discontinuities.
Therefore, knowledge of Engineering Geology is
very important to mitigate such problems.

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4) Other Civil Engineering Sectors
Bridges,
Retaining structures,
Tunnels and underground space
facilities,
Geological construction
materials with respect to:
Occurrence,
Composition,
Durability,
Workability, and
Strength, deformability and
other properties.
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 Importance of Geology in Civil Engineering

In General Geologic engineers:

Find safe locations for Engineering Projects,

Recommend earthquake-resistant Design of Structures, and

Apply geologic Knowledge's to engineering practices & help in safe construction, operation

and maintenance of engineering works.

Therefore, Geology is important to make investigations:

for the suitability of the site for civil engineering works,

to identify engineering problems, and

To provide solutions for engineering problems.

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 C) Relevance of Engineering Geology in Ethiopia:
Dams and Reservoirs: for
hydropower, irrigation, drinking,
etc

Railways,

Roads,

Buildings,

Mining,

Waste disposals and environmental

issues,

Energy development: Geothermal,

Wind, etc.

Geological Construction Materials 50

D) Scope of Engineering
Geology link with other
disciplines

Abdullah Sabtan (2010) 51

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d-z0eQOEzkE

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