Investment casting

 Investment casting is an industrial process based on and

also called lost-wax casting, one of the oldest known
metal-forming techniques .From 5,000 years ago, when
bees wax formed the pattern, to today’s high-technology
waxes, refractory materials and specialist alloys, the
castings allow the production of components with
accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity in a
variety of metals and high-performance alloys.
 The process is generally used for small castings, but has been used to
produce complete aircraft door frames, steel castings of up to 300 kg
(660 lbs) and aluminium castings of up to 30 kg (66 lbs). It is
generally more expensive per unit than die casting or sand casting, but
has lower equipment costs. It can produce complicated shapes that
would be difficult or impossible with die casting, yet like that process, it
requires little surface finishing and only minor machining..
 Processes:
1. Produce a master pattern:
2. Mould making:
3. Produce the wax patterns:
4. Assemble the wax patterns:
5. Investment:
6. De wax:
7. Burnout & preheating:
8. Pouring:
9. Removal:
We shell discuss all processes one by
one…!!!
 Produce a master pattern:

 An artist or mould-maker creates an original pattern

from wax, clay, wood, plastic, steel, or another material….!!!
 Mould making:

 A mould, known as the master die, is made of the master

pattern. The master pattern may be made from a low-
melting-point metal, steel, or wood. If a steel pattern was
created then a low-melting-point metal may be cast
directly from the master pattern. Rubber moulds can also
be cast directly from the master pattern. The first step
may also be skipped if the master die is machined
directly into steel.
 Produce the wax patterns:
 Although called a wax pattern, pattern materials also include plastic
and frozen mercury. Wax patterns may be produced in one of two
ways. In one process the wax is poured into the mold and swished
around until an even coating, usually about 3 mm (0.12 in) thick,
covers the inner surface of the mould. This is repeated until the
desired thickness is reached. Another method is filling the entire
mould with molten wax, and let it cool, until a desired thickness has
set on the surface of the mould. After this the rest of the wax is
poured out again, the mould is turned upside down and the wax
layer is left to cool and harden. With this method it is more difficult
to control the overall thickness of the wax layer
 Assemble the wax patterns:

 The wax pattern is then removed from the mould. Depending on the
application multiple wax patterns may be created so that they can all
be cast at once. In other applications, multiple different wax patterns
may be created and then assembled into one complex pattern. In the
first case the multiple patterns are attached to a wax sprue, with the
result known as a pattern cluster, or tree; as many as several
hundred patterns may be assembled into a tree. Foundries often use
registration marks to indicate exactly where they go. The wax
patterns are attached to the sprue or each other by means of a heated
metal tool. The wax pattern may also be chased, which means
the parting line or flashing are rubbed out using the heated metal
tool. Finally it is dressed, which means any other imperfections are
addressed so that the wax now looks like the finished piece.
 Investment:

 The ceramic mould, known as the investment, is produced by three

repeating steps: coating, stuccoing, and hardening. The first step
involves dipping the cluster into a slurry of fine refractory material
and then letting any excess drain off, so a uniform surface is
produced. This fine material is used first to give a smooth surface
finish and reproduce fine details. In the second step, the cluster
is stuccoed with a coarse ceramic particle, by dipping it into
a fluidised bed, placing it in a rainfall-sander, or by applying by
hand. Finally, the coating is allowed to harden. These steps are
repeated until the investment is the required thickness, which is
usually 5 to 15 mm
 De wax:
 The investment is then allowed to completely dry, which can take 16
to 48 hours. Drying can be enhanced by applying a vacuum or
minimizing the environmental humidity. It is then turned upside-
down and placed in a furnace or autoclave to melt out and/or
vaporize the wax. Most shell failures occur at this point because the
waxes used have a thermal expansion coefficient that is much
greater than the investment material surrounding it, so as the wax is
heated it expands and induces great stresses. In order to minimize
these stresses the wax is heated as rapidly as possible so that the
surface of the wax can melt into the surface of the investment or run
out of the mold, which makes room for the rest of the wax to
expand. In certain situations holes may be drilled into the mold
beforehand to help reduce these stresses. Any wax that runs out of
the mold is usually recovered and reused.
 Burnout & preheating:

 The mold is then subjected to a burnout, which heats the mold

between 870 C & 1095 C to remove any moisture and residual
wax, and to sinter the mold. Sometimes this heating is also used as
the preheat, but other times the mold is allowed to cool so that it can
be tested. If any cracks are found they can be repaired with ceramic
slurry or special cements. The mold is preheated to allow the metal
to stay liquid longer to fill any details and to increase dimensional
accuracy, because the mold and casting cool together
 Pouring:

 The investment mold is then placed cup-upwards into a tub filled

with sand. The metal may be gravity poured, but if there are thin
sections in the mold it may be filled by applying positive air
pressure, vacuum cast, tilt cast, pressure assisted pouring,
or centrifugal cast
 Removal:

 The shell is hammered, media blasted, vibrated, waterjeted, or

chemically dissolved (sometimes with liquid nitrogen) to release the
casting. The sprue is cut off and recycled. The casting may then be
cleaned up to remove signs of the casting process, usually
by grinding
 The investment shell for casting a turbocharger rotor:
 A view of the interior investment shows the smooth
surface finish and high level of detail:
 The completed workpiece:
 Advantages of Investment casting:

 A very smooth surface is obtained with no parting line.

 Dimensional accuracy is good.

 Certain unmachinable parts can be cast to preplanned

shape.
 Disadvantages of Investment casting:

 This process is expensive, is usually limited to small

casting, and presents some difficulties where cores are
involved.

 Holes cannot be smaller than 1/16 in. (1.6mm) and

should be no deeper than about 1.5 times the diameter.

 Investment castings require very long production-cycle

times versus other casting processes.

 This process is practically infeasible for high-volume

manufacturing, due to its high cost and long cycle times.
 Applications:

 Investment casting is used in the aerospace and power

generation industries to produce turbine blades with
complex shapes or cooling systems
 Lost-foam casting

Lost-foam casting (LFC) is a type of evaporative-

pattern casting process that is similar to investment
casting except foam is used for the pattern instead
of wax.
This process takes advantage of the low boiling point of
foam to simplify the investment casting process by
removing the need to melt the wax out of the mold
 Process:
 First, a pattern is made from polystyrene foam, which can be done many different ways.
For small volume runs the pattern can be hand cut or machined from a solid block of foam;
if the geometry is simple enough it can even be cut using a hot-wire foam cutter. If the
volume is large, then the pattern can be mass-produced by a process similar to injection
molding. Pre-expanded beads of polystyrene are injected into a preheated
aluminum mold at low pressure. Steam is then applied to the polystyrene which causes it to
expand more to fill the die. The final pattern is approximately 97.5% air and 2.5%
polystyrene. Pre-made pouring basins, runners, and risers can be hot glued to the pattern to
finish it.
 Next, the foam cluster is coated with ceramic investment, also known as
the refractory coating, via dipping, brushing, spraying or flow coating. This coating creates
a barrier between the smooth foam surface and the coarse sand surface. Secondly it
controls permeability, which allows the gas created by the vaporized foam pattern to
escape through the coating and into the sand. Controlling permeability is a crucial step to
avoid sand erosion. Finally, it forms a barrier so that molten metal does not penetrate or
cause sand erosion during pouring. After the coating dries, the cluster is placed into a flask
and backed up with un-bonded sand. The sand is then compacted using a vibration table.
Once compacted, the mold is ready to be poured . Automatic pouring is commonly used in
LFC, as the pouring process is significantly more critical than in conventional foundry
practice.
 There is no bake-out phase, as for lost-wax. The melt is poured directly into the foam-filled
mould, burning out the foam as it pours. As the foam is of low density, the waste gas
produced by this is relatively small and can escape through mould permeability, as for the
usual out gassing control
 Advantages and disadvantages:
 This casting process is advantageous for very complex
castings that would regularly require cores. It is also
dimensionally accurate, maintains an excellent surface finish,
requires no draft, and has no parting lines so no flash is
formed. As compared to investment casting, it is cheaper
because it is a simpler process and the foam is cheaper than
the wax. Risers are not usually required due to the nature of
the process; because the molten metal vaporizes the foam the
first metal into the mold cools more quickly than the rest,
which results in natural directional solidificationFoam is easy
to manipulate, carve and glue, due to its unique properties

 The two main disadvantages are that pattern costs can be high
for low volume applications and the patterns are easily
damaged or distorted due to their low strength.
 If a die is used to create the patterns there is a large initial
cost.
 Centrifugal casting

 Centrifugal casting or roto-casting is

a casting technique that is typically used to cast thin-
walled cylinders. It is noted for the high quality of the
results attainable, particularly for precise control of their
metallurgy and crystal structure. Unlike most other
casting techniques, centrifugal casting is chiefly used to
manufacture stock materials in standard sizes for further
machining,
 Process:

 In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold is rotated continuously

about its axis at high speeds (300 to 3000 rpm) as the molten metal
is poured. The molten metal is centrifugally thrown towards the
inside mold wall, where it solidifies after cooling. The casting is
usually a fine-grained casting with a very fine-grained outer
diameter, owing to chilling against the mould surface. Impurities and
inclusions are thrown to the surface of the inside diameter, which
can be machined away.
 Casting machines may be either horizontal or vertical-
axis. Horizontal axis machines are preferred for long, thin cylinders,
vertical machines for rings.
 Features of centrifugal casting:

 Castings can be made in almost any length, thickness & diameter.

 Different wall thicknesses can be produced from the same size mold.

 Eliminates the need for cores.

 Resistant to atmospheric corrosion, a typical situation with pipes.

 Mechanical properties of centrifugal castings are excellent

 Only cylindrical shapes can be produced with this process.

 Materials:

 Typical materials that can be cast with this process

are iron, steel, stainless steels, glass, and alloys
of aluminum, copper & nickel.
 Two materials can be cast together by introducing a second
material during the process.

 Applications:

 Typical parts made by this process are pipes, boilers, pressure

vessels ,flywheels, cylinder liners and other parts that are
axi-symmetric. It is notably used to cast cylinder
liners and sleeve valves for piston engines, parts which could
not be reliably manufactured otherwise.