Fire Protection

UNIT 3 FIRE PROTECTION IN BUILDING in Building

Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Fire Causes in Building
3.3 Effects of Fire
3.3.1 Safety Hazards
3.3.2 Fire Load
3.3.3 Fire Grading Materials
3.3.4 Fire Resisting Properties of Building Materials
3.4 Fire Protection and Prevention
3.4.1 Fire Detection
3.4.2 Fire Alarm Systems
3.4.3 Fire Fighting Systems
3.4.4 Automatic Systems
3.4.5 Mobile Fire Fighting Systems
3.4.6 Water Systems
3.5 Fire Safety Buildings
3.5.1 Load Bearing Elements
3.5.2 Roofs and Floors
3.5.3 Openings
3.5.4 Fire Escape Elements
3.6 Summary
3.7 Answers to SAQs

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Fire is a very serious hazard. When a fire breaks out it can have a devastating
effect causing loss of precious human life in addition to loss of property and
damage to created facility. Some of the factors which make fire a dangerous
hazard could be the speed with which it can spread, poisonous smoke fumes
generated and large numbers of people who can be affected particularly in a high
rise building. The havoc created by fires in a picture hall in Delhi and Victoria
Park in Meerut, is still alive in the memory of public. In addition to the dangers to
the life and property, a fire can cripple business to a very great extent resulting in
a loss of many million of rupees or even pushing the affected organization out of
business making them bankrupt.
To help prevent fire from breaking out, eliminating fire accidents and to control it
when unfortunately it does occur, it is essential to understand some basic ideas
about the nature of the fire and how it reacts.
Fire is defined as a process of combustion characterized by the emission of heat
accompanied by smoke of flame.
When a fuel (inflammable material) and sufficient heat comes together in
presence of air (oxygen) a volatile and dangerous situation develops and fire
breaks out creating more heat thus more fires in a cascading phenomenon.
Removal of any one link can prevent fire breakout or in case of fire, extinguishing 41
Construction Technology-II it. Flames are generated in any fire as regions of reacting gases releasing chemical
energy. The flame gases are turbulent and fluctuating, radiating heat and light
from partially burnt carbonaceous particles (smoke and soot). Being higher than
surrounding air, these flame gases become diluted by entrained air.

Objectives
Fire is a serious hazard having devastating effect on building resulting in
destruction of created facility and human life and property. Fire protection of
building is, therefore, an essential requirement.
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• explain the basic nature of fire, its causes and classifications,
• describe the fire loads and fire resistivity of different building
materials,
• discuss the different methods of fire prevention, fire protection and
fire fighting, and
• explain the fire safety provisions in buildings and its elements.

3.2 FIRE CAUSES IN BUILDING

There are several factors, which may cause the initiation of a fire development.
Most of the fire accidents in buildings and on construction sites are caused by a
combination of several factors. Some of these factors are discussed below :
Ignorance
Most of the persons occupying the building or working on construction sites
may not be even aware of the fire dangers and hazards. Even smaller
numbers may know how to deal with fire accident if and when they occur or
the preventive measures or precautions they can take to minimize their
occurrences and the havocs caused by them.
For an effective fire prevention and fighting strategy it is important that
every worker at site and user of the constructed facility have the basic
knowledge of the nature of fire, and of the procedures, tasks, materials and
operations associated with the site and facility. Fire safety is every person’s
responsibility and every person shall be exposed to the understanding of fire
hazards. Basic knowledge about fire is essential. It may be noted that
hundreds of devastating fires are being caused by carelessness in throwing
glowing cigarettes butts and matchs, or burning sigris in the closed rooms.
Poor Judgement
People often become careless, even when they know of the fire causes and
hazards. They do many things, which they know they shouldn’t do ignoring
their own commonsense. They may try to start a fire using petrol, fail to
store flammable liquids and other materials carefully or place them too
close to heaters or stoves. A fire does not discriminate between ignorance
and poor judgement and its effects can be catastrophic. People may have a
tendency to ignore thinking about safety, even neglecting some basic
precautions.
Lack of Thought and Breaking Rules
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 The major reason of fire accidents is due to the failure to follow instructions Fire Protection
in Building
even when the fire safety procedures and signs are scientifically prepared
and enforced. Most of the people have developed a culture of negligence
and making the assumption that the rules are made to be followed by others,
they personally are above the rules. The basic tendency of “SAB CHALTA
HAI”, developed in our culture, results frequently in keeping the fire doors
propped open, fire extinguishers not working or even closed in cupboards,
sand buckets empty and firewater hoses broken. The fire codes are regularly
breached as a rule rather than examples. Human error has a much larger part
to play in the causes of fire occurrence and fire accidents.

3.3 EFFECTS OF FIRE

3.3.1 Safety Hazards
The fire safety of buildings can be considered from the type of hazard risks
experienced by them. These hazards risks or effects of fire can be broadly
classified as personal hazard, internal hazard and exposure hazard.
Personal Hazard
The risk of possible damage or loss to human life is termed as personal
hazard.
Internal Hazard
It is the hazard risk of fire spreading, inside the building or in the campus
area surrounding the building or construction site.
Exposure Hazard
This is the hazard risks of fire spread from the fire occurrence location to
adjoining buildings and other areas.
It is estimated that nearly 15000 people are killed every year in India by fire
accidents, resulting in a loss of more than 1000 crores. These are expanding
exponentially every year. Even in the technologically advanced country like USA
it is reported that a fire breaks out every 37 seconds per day. In case of a fire
hazards, the greatest loss occurs due to heat, smoke and flames. Even more
critical is the panic created by a fire accident. Probably more lives are lost in
stampede due to panic rather than the fire itself.
The occupied buildings contain different materials during use, which produce
different gases when ignited. These gases could be carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, etc. Some of them are toxic. These
gases create either barrier to oxygen intake, or other serious affects. Smoke
during fire hampers vision and thinking process.
3.3.2 Fire Load
From hazard risk point of view fires are classified in severity depending upon the
fire load; Fire load is a measure of amount of heat librated in a fire accident and is
expressed in terms of kilo Joules of energy released per square meter of floor area
of the building or of any component of the building (kJ/m2), generated by the
combustion of the content of the building and the combustible part of the building
itself. IS : 1641 : 1960 divides the fire load in three categories :

(a) Low Fire Load (b) Moderate Fire Load (c) High Fire Load
6 2
Not exceeding 1.15 × 10 kJ/m 6
between 1.1.5 × 10 to 2.30 ×106 to 4.60 × 106 kJ/m2 43
Construction Technology-II (or 2.75 × 105 k Cal /m2 ) 2.30 × 106 kJ/m2 (or 2.75 ×105 to (or 5.50 ×105
5.50 ×105 k Cal/m2) to 11.0 ×105 k Cal/m2)

Buildings with fire loads of more than 4.60 ×106 kJ/m2 or 11.0 ×105 k Cal/m2 are
considered unfit for occupancy.
It may be noted that different materials, having the same weight and same
calorific values, may cause different hazards due to their combustion properties,
e.g. rate of ignition, speed of burning, libration of toxic fumes, etc. hence
materials are also graded according to their potential hazards, as discussed in
Section 3.3.4.
IS : 1641 gives the types of occupancy of building as per their fire load grading.
These are given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 : Building Occupancy as Per Fire Load
Fire Load Energy Limits (kJ/m2) Occupancy
Low < 1.15 × 106 kJ.m2 Residential buildings, hotels
5 2 boarding houses, restaurants,
< (2.75 ×10 k Cal/m )
schools, hospitals, worship
places, etc.
Moderate >1.15 ×106 KJ/m2 < 2.30 × 106 kJ/m2 Retail shops, markets,
> 0.275 ×106 < 0.55 ×106 k Cal /m2 shopping malls, emporium,
factories, workshops, etc.
High > 2.30 ×106 kJ/m2 Godowns, warehouses and
6 2 similar buildings used for bulk
< 4.60 ×10 kJ/m
storage of non-hazardous
> 0.55 ×106 k Cal/m2 materials and goods.
< 1.10 ×106 k Cal/m2

3.3.3 Fire Grading of Materials

For assessing the fire grading of materials, these are broadly categorized as :
(a) non-hazardous (NH),
(b) hazardous (H), and
(c) extra hazardous (EH).
For this classification it is usual to consider and evaluate following
characteristics :
(a) Difficulties in extinguishing the fire when materials is burning,
(b) Generation of heat energy when burning,
(c) Spontaneous combustion tendencies (lighting temperature/Flash
point),
(d) Tendency to intensify the fire,
(e) Tendency to expand fire zone,
(f) High inflammability, and
(g) Explosive tendencies.
Non-hazardous materials are those which are non-combustible. These may be
decomposed and absorb the heat energy endothermically during fire when high
temperature are reached. Hence these may be damaged but do not contribute to
the growth or spread of fire. Stones, bricks, concrete, metals, glass and clay
products are example of non-combustible non-hazardous materials. The structural
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elements of the building such as floors, load bearing elements, e.g. walls, slabs, Fire Protection
in Building
beams, columns, etc. and roof are constructed of these materials.
Hazardous materials are combustible materials, which combine exothermically
with oxygen, librating huge heat energy and high temperature zones like flames.
Timber and timber products, fibre boards, strawboards, PVC, etc. are examples of
combustible materials and are hazardous with a risk of fire initiation and spread.
Extra hazardous materials have abnormal fire risks like :
(a) ammunitions,
(b) explosive and fuels,
(c) compressed, liquefied and dissolved gases like natural gas or LPG,
(d) Substances which become explosive when exposed to air or water,
e.g. oxidizing agents,
(e) all materials with low flash points (below 65oC) e.g. oil, fats, waxes,
rubber, bitumen, etc.
(f) corrosive and poisonous substances, and
(g) readily ignitable, e.g. wood shavings, fabrics, cotton, coal dust, paper
etc.
The use and storage of such materials are not governed by normal municipal rules
and bylaws. These are governed by Indian explosive rules as applicable and
modified from time to time.
The structural elements of the building are graded by Bureau of Indian Standards
depending upon their fire resistance properties. IS: 1641-1960 have given five
grades as reproduced in Table 3.2 indicating class of fire, fire load and the period
of minimum resistance against standard fire.
Table 3.2 : Classification of Building Materials
Class of Fire Load in kJ/m2 Time in Hours for Grade
Fire Resisting Standard Fire No.
Very high 4.60 × 106 and over 6 1
6 6
High 2.10 × 10 to 4.60 × 10 4 2
6 6
Medium 1.15 ×10 to 2.10 ×10 2 3
6
Low Less than 1.15 ×10 1 4
Very low ½ 5

3.3.4 Fire Resisting Properties of Building Materials

While grading the fire resistance, and assessing the properties of commonly used
building materials, following characteristics of materials are taken into
consideration :
(a) Material composition should be such that it does not get damaged and
disintegrated at high temperatures generated by intense heat during
fire accidents.
(b) The thermal expansion/contraction of materials under such
temperatures and heat energy shall not be excessive as to induce
instability and strength loss in the structure particularly its load
bearing capacity. It may be noted that the catastrophic damage to
world trading centre NY in USA on 11th September occurred not
primarily due to airplane collision, but melting of encased steel
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Construction Technology-II columns of the building at high temperatures created by burning of
aviation fuel of the airplanes on collisions.
(c) The material contraction due to sudden cooling because of water
sprinkling during fire fighting operations, should not cause its
disintegration or loss of stability and strength.
(i) Stone is a bad conductor of heat and is non-combustible hence a
good building material, but it has a tendency to disintegrate into
small pieces when suddenly heated and cooled during fire and
fire fighting operations. Granite in particular explodes at high
temperatures, while limestone crumbles even at low temperature
fires. Probably sand stone exhibits moderate fire resistance
without any serious cracking or damage.
(ii) Bricks are non-combustible, and bad conducting material,
which can withstand fairly successfully temperatures upto
1300oC. with good workmanship and mortar quality. Bricks are
fairly good fire resistant building materials.
(iii) Concrete is an effective fire resistant material due to its thermal
stability and bad conductance of heat. It offers better resistance
to fire than other commonly used materials of construction.
There is practically zero strength loss upto 250oC, though it
looses some strength beyond 300oC. The reduction rate
gradually increases upto about 900oC at which temperature, the
strength is nearly 20 percent of its strength at normal
temperatures.
The actual behaviours of concrete under fire will depend upon the
quality of cement and aggregate used. Cement expands upon heating
but the expansion is counter balanced by shrinkage due to loss of
water. Normally the shrinkage and contraction is more than the
thermal expansion leading to crack formation in concrete. The
expansion of aggregate coupled with this contraction of cement may
cause spalling of concrete surface. The depth up to which the effect of
fire temperature has influence will depend upon the surface
temperature and time of exposure. For half an hour exposure at
surface temperature of above 700oC, the temperature of concrete
recorded in experimental studies was 510oC at 12.7 mm, 320oC at
25.40 mm and only 110oC at 50.8 mm. It can thus be concluded that
cover plays a critical and significant role in fire resistance of
reinforced and prestressed concrete. A normal RCC structure is
observed to behave adequately in fire accidents with surface
temperatures upto 1000oC and exposure period of several hours.
Metals
Though steel is highly non-combustible but it is a very good heat conductor,
hence heat spread in it is very fast in case of fire. Another weakness of steel
is that it looses its strength rapidly with increase in temperature. Its yield
stress at 600oC is about 30 percent of its normal value. Under fire accidents
producing intense heat beams sag, columns buckle and structures collapse.
However its non-combustibility helps in fire comfinement. In plate or sheet
from steel effectively prevents spreading of flames.
Aluminium is another metal widely used in buildings. It is highly heat
conductive and is poor fire resistant. Hence cast iron, steel or aluminium,
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 whenever used in construction, are generally encased either by brickwork or Fire Protection
in Building
concrete to increase its fire resistance.
Timber
This is widely used in construction. Most of the houses in hilly regions,
earthquake prone zones and in areas surrounded by forests, are constructed
in timber. Even in other areas it is widely used for doors, windows,
ventilators, cup boards and furnishings. As a general rule timber is highly
combustible, it is easily ignited and assist in rapid development and
spreading of fire. However, timber is a very bad conductor of heat, hence in
heavy sections, it requires sufficient heat to develop to initiate flame
formation. This increases heat/fire resistance of timber. The fire resistance
properties can be further enhanced by coating its surface with chemicals
such as ammonium phosphate and sulphate, borax and boric acid, zinc
chloride, etc. This surface coating will retard the temperature rise during
fire.
Glass
It is non-combustible and poor heat conductor with thermal expansion but it
shatters and cracks when heated and cooled. Certain thermal glasses are
developed which can resist high temperatures but these are very costly to be
of general use. Glass can be made highly fire resistant by reinforcement
with steel wire, it makes glass to withstand sudden changes in temperature.
This glass may crack and fracture but it remains in original position due to
reinforcement.
Asbestos
It is another construction material widely used for industrial roofing and
partitions. It is non-combustible, low conductor of heat and low thermal
expansion. It is also widely used for providing protective covering for
structural members of steel/concrete to increase their fire resistance.

3.4 FIRE PROTECTION AND PREVENTION

The fire resistance, protection and prevention is a process designed to protect a
large area from fire accidents. It can be considered to be consisting of four basic
and distinct operations, which are, interrelated and interdependent. These are :
(a) Fire detection,
(b) Fire alarms and signals,
(c) Fire fighting, and
(d) Fire prevention.
3.4.1 Fire Detection
The first step in fire protection of a building is to be able to detect the occurrence
of fire as soon as it starts to build up. Early fire detection will help in taking
timely and adequate measures to prevent its escalation and putting it out or taking
other measures to fight the fire and prevent the damage to life and property. There
are several types of fire detectors, developed and used. These detectors may be
installed in the building by the experts.
3.4.2 Fire Alarm Systems
These are installed in the buildings with an objective of giving a warning alarm as
soon as fire/flame/smoke is detected by the fire detection system or otherwise. It
47
Construction Technology-II has been widely recognized that first few minutes of a fire accident are vitally
important in fire protection than the next five hours. Earlier the fire is detected
and alarm given, better will be the effectiveness and efficiency of the subsequent
protection exercise.
Alarm systems could be visual, audio or mixed type either operating manually or
automatically or both. The manual alarm system may consists of a hand bell or
similar system by which the occupants and users of the services are warned about
the fire accident. The alarm circuit may also be triggered by pushing a press
button or breaking a glass seal. In automatic alarm system the warning
mechanism is activated by triggering action caused by fire detector. The
automatic fire alarm sends the information to be nearest control point along with
an S.O.S. message to the nearest fire brigade station. It is usually installed in large
industrial or other such buildings, e.g. libraries, offices, cinema halls and
marketing malls, etc.
National Building Code has divided the fire alarm systems in fine categories as
given below :
(a) Manually operated electric fire alarm systems.
(b) Automatic fire alarm systems using heat sensitive detectors or fusible
link or bimetallic/pneumatic rate of rise type.
(c) Automatic system of thermistor type.
(d) Automatic alarms with smoke detectors.
(e) Automatic alarm and fire fighting system with carbon dioxide or
halon.
In air-conditioned areas, smoke detector systems are provided, while
thermistor/bimetallic/pnuematic tube detectors systems are provided above false
ceiling. Rate of risk types along with fixed temperature detectors are used in cold
storages while fusible link type detectors are provided in non air-conditioned
areas.
Laboratories employing delicate and costly equipment are provided with
automatic fire extinguishing systems like sprinklers, fixed CO2, or foam type fire
extinguisher systems.
3.4.3 Fire Fighting Systems
National building code and other laws relating fires, prescribe that adequate fire
fighting measures must be provided and regularly serviced and maintained in
operative conditions. Every person, occupying or using the building or its
facilities must know about their location and operation and should also be trained
what to do in case of a fire.
If the persons understand the chemistry of fire, they have a better chance to fight
and extinguish it. On the basis of three components of a fire, e.g. fuel, oxygen and
heat, following three actions can be taken.
Heat Removal
This is typically achieved using a fire extinguisher, fire blanket or some
other form of cooling the heat.
Cutting Off Oxygen
An effective way to control the fire is to cut off the supply of oxygen from
fire effected area. In buildings, fire doors are provided. These door and
other doors and windows of buildings are kept closed whenever not in use
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 to prevent spread of fire in buildings and cutting of the free flow of oxygen. Fire Protection
in Building
Some types of fire equipment and extinguishers also achieve this objective.
Elimination of Fuel
One of the main reason of fire accidents in building is by short-circuiting in
electrical wiring. Switching off the electric supply in case of fire in such
cases can effectively control the spreading of fire.
Based on these three basic principles, various modes of fire fighting
commonly employed are listed below :
(a) Automatic fire fighting systems, e.g. water sprinklers and
multifire systems, carbon dioxide and halon systems, etc.
(b) Mobile fire fighting systems, e.g. fire extinguishers, fire
blankets, etc.
(c) Water systems, e.g. fixed hydrant type or dry or wet riser.
(d) Fire fighting provisions in planning, designing and construction
of buildings.
(e) First aid arrangements.
3.4.4 Automatic Systems
In this arrangement, pipes and sprinklers are provided in the building in such a
way that these operate automatically by heat of the generated fire and discharge
water upon the fire working on the principle of heat cooling. Number of overhead
pipes are fixed in the ceiling at about 3 m c/c and are provided with fusible plugs
at suitable intervals. Water is supplied to these pipes from storage tanks. The fuse
in the sprinkler nearest the fire location melts due to heat generated during fire,
allowing the water to sprinkle on fire automatically. For systems to become more
effective, automatic alarm devices are fitted with the sprinklers to give warning
alarm simultaneously with water sprinkling.
3.4.5 Mobile Fire Fighting Systems
These are portable fire fighting equipment, which are provided for immediate use
in case of fire breakout. These may consists of water buckets, sand buckets or
asbestos blankets, kept in readiness all the time, to be used in case the fire is
observed, and to quench it immediately at its occurrence. More effective portable
fire extinguishers depends on its capacity and lasts from a short duration of
10 seconds to as much as 120 seconds. Safety regulations and building laws
provide that adequate numbers of fire extinguishers of the right type and capacity
shall be provided throughout the buildings and continuously serviced and
maintained in operative conditions.
Five different types of fire extinguishers are commonly used in different fire
environments. These are painted in red with a triangle, stupe or lettering in
different colours to differentiate between them.
Red Mark
These are using water for spray and are the most common type of
extinguishers. These can be used on wood, paper, textile, etc. but never on
electrical apparatus or burning liquids. These may also be unsafe for a
number of different chemicals.
Black Mark
Fire extinguishers contain carbon dioxide gas and can be used on
flammable liquids and high voltage electric apparatus. They work on
principle of cutting off the oxygen supply from fire areas and are less 49
Construction Technology-II effective than red marked on paper or other such materials. Carbon dioxide
is a clean,
non-corrosive and non-combustible gas.
Blackish Mark
Similar to CO2, halon is used for fire extinguishing. Halon is a specific
family of chemicals, which are produced by replacing one or more
hydrogen atoms with halogen atoms. It contains number of carbon, fluorine,
chlorine, bromine and iodine atoms in their molecules. Most commonly
used is the halon 1301, which is non-toxic at low concentrations. It is
contained in cylinders under pressure in liquid form and is released through
nozzles.
Cream Mark
Extinguishers contain foam and are safe for use on all flammable liquids.
Mechanical foam is formed by passing a foam producing liquid and water
through an agitation device, generating an aggregate of bubble filled air. It
forms a continuous blanket over the entire flammable liquid surface thus
effectively cutting off oxygen supply from it. However, these are unsafe for
electrical installations and are also extremely messy in use.
Blue Mark
Fire extinguishers contain dry chemical powder, which is extremely good
general fire extinguisher. It is provided in cylinders along with an expellant
gas such as compressed nitrogen, and fitted with a release mechanism and
nozzles for discharging the dry chemical in hazard areas.
Different types of fire extinguisher used in different classes of fires along with
corresponding BIS codes is given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3
Test Test Type of Fire
Sl.
Extinguisher Pressure for Period A B C D E
No.
3 Minutes in Years
1. Soda Acid 1.75 Pa 2 S NS NS NS –
(IS : 934 –1976)
2. Water type of a cartridge 1.75 Pa 2 S NS NS NS –
(IS : 940 –1976)
3. Water type Bucket pump – – S NS NS NS –
(IS : 924-1973)
4. Water type stored pressure – 1 S S NS NS –
(IS : 6239 – 1971)
5. Carbon monoxide 2.1 Pa 5 NS S S NS –
(IS : 2878 –1976)
6. Carbon Tetra Chloride (CTC) – – NS S S NS S
7. Chemical Foam 1.75 Pa 2 S S NS NS –
IS : 933-1976
8. Aqueous film foam – – S S NS S NS
9. Dry powder 1.75 Pa 3 NS S S NS –
IS : 2171-1976
10. Combustible Metal – – – – S – –
11. CBM, BCF, MB – – NS S S NS S
12. Ferion – – S S NS S NS
13. High Rate Discharge container – – S S S S S
S : Suitable; NS : Not Suitable

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3.4.6 Water Systems Fire Protection
in Building
Fixed water systems like hose reels, fire hydrants, dry risers, water spray systems,
wet riser systems, in isolation or in combination are provided depending on the
size of premises, and the diversity and processes of the use of the building facility
Such a provision is quite expensive though necessary. These need significant
investment and precise design calculations, hence can be installed only after
obtaining the experts advice.
(a) Hydrant system consists of hydrants located at strategic points, which
can either be operated manually or automatically. The hydrant valve
is designed for the required discharge under pressure to create a jet of
water to reach the desired elevation. It is generally the backbone of all
the fire fighting operations and is provided under mandatory legal
requirements. These are essential for all important buildings, e.g.
multistoried apartments, power plants, industrial buildings, hospitals,
warehouses, airports, etc.
One hydrant per 4000 to 10000 m2 of service area is generally
provided based on population density and importance.
These are also provided one at each crossing of street not more than
90 to 120 meters distance from remotest building.
Two types of hydrants are in use which are
(i) Pillar or post hydrant, or
(ii) Flush or flunk hydrant.
A vertical pipe of firehose is screwed on the hydrant when required,
water jet is obtained from the nozzle of the hose pipe.
(b) Water Spray Systems : Water spray is used to extinguish the fire.
Depending upon the type of spray required, the system could be
(i) Multifire system designed to have a coarse water spray
discharged at high velocity to reach up to the base of
flame zone of fire, and
(ii) Protecto spray system designed to have a fine spray at low
velocity to cool the burning surface and creating an inert
vapour in the combustion zone.
(c) Wet Riser System : Vertical GI pipes of 100 to 150 mm diameter are
provided at strategic locations, known as risers. These are fed from
underground storage tanks with the help of pumps creating a pressure
of a minimum of 3 kN/mm2 at top outlet. Suitable connections at each
floor level at a multistorey facility are provided to supply adequate
quantity of water in case of fire occurrence.

3.5 FIRE SAFETY IN BUILDINGS

The prime objective of building planners and designer is to create a structure
which offers sufficient protection against fire accidents. A truly fire resistant
building is fully protected against any fire, which may occur during its lifetime
usage. It may be noted that it is too expensive to make all the buildings fully fire
proof hence the effort is made to reduce the loss in case of fire breaking out. The
efficiency of fire resistance provision is measured in terms of the amount spent on
fire resistance and the corresponding reduction in loss due to fire occurrence. The 51
Construction Technology-II degree of fire resistance required will largely depend upon the building usage and
its importance. Experience world over has shown that if escape in a tall building
is not effected within 10 to 15 minutes of the fire breakout, the temperatures built
up (as high as 800o C) and toxic smoke and gases can fatally trap the people
within the building. The fire fighting equipment normally used cannot go beyond
10 storeys.
The buildings are planned and designed such that structural elements and
components can withstand the fire for specified time duration for its particular
type and use. Efforts are made to contain and minimize fire spread. Adequate
means of escape are provided for occupants to evacuate the building quickly and
safely. All structural elements, e.g. columns, slabs, beams, walls, etc. are
designed to withstand fire and continue to function without failure for adequate
duration to allow safe evacuation of occupants. These are essentially constructed
from fire resisting materials. Escape elements, e.g. corridors, stairs, lobbies and
exit entrance are planed and designed for additional fire resistance and are
separated from main building areas to remain operative during fire.
Details of fire protection in buildings are provided in Part IV of National Building
Code of India in the chapter on fire protection. This code classifies the
construction of buildings into four categories, e.g. Type 1, Type 2, Type 3 and
Type 4 depending upon the fire resistance offered by the building components for
fire duration of 4 hours, 3 hours, 2 hours and 1 hour, respectively. All the major
building components are designed to withstand fire as an integrated system.
Following building elements are considered critical to evaluate fire resistance
capability of the building.
(a) Load bearing element, e.g. walls and columns,
(b) Roof slabs, beams and floors,
(c) Wall openings, and
(d) Fire escape elements, e.g. entrances, exits, corridors, stairs, lifts, etc.

3.5.1 Load Bearing Elements

These are very critical components as structural stability and safety of the entire
building system depends on them during any fire accident. They are designed so
that they can withstand the effect of heat and higher temperature for large
duration, longer than other components. Thick and specially treated timber
elements gets their surface charred, thus retard the fire damage. Steel columns
have a tendency to melt and soften during fire and buckle, hence must be encased
in bricks or concrete to increase fire strength and durability. Concrete is a good
fire resistant material for such members provided that adequate cover over rebars
and prestressing tendons is ensured. BIS recommends a minimum cover of
50 mm for all structural elements. Walls, both load bearing and partitions, shall
be of larger thickness as these acts as vertical barriers to the passage of fire
flames and heat flow. For masonry load bearing elements bricks are superior to
stones from fire resistance point of view. Partition walls should also preferably be
of fire resistant material, e.g. RCC, concrete blocks, bricks, burnt clay tiles or
asbestos cement boards. Cavity wall provides better fire resistance. Steel sections
may be covered with gypsum plasterboards, clay tiles, gypsum tiles, foamed slag
blocks, etc. as shown in Figure 3.1.
Minimum Concrete Cover = 5 cm
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5 cm
5 cm 5 cm
 Fire Protection
in Building

Figure 3.1

3.5.2 Roofs and Floors

These acts as horizontal barriers to fire spread in addition to providing structural
strength. They cut off vertical spread of fire if constructed from fire resistant
materials. Floorings made of concrete, bricks, ceramic and burnt clay tiles,
terrazzo, etc. are fairly good fire resistant. When use of combustible material like
timber, rubber, cork, linoleum becomes necessary from functional and practical
considerations, these should be protected by an insulating cover like terracotta,
ceramic tiles, special plaster, etc. Fire stops and barriers should be provided at
adequate spacing.
3.5.3 Openings
Openings in walls and floors, necessary for free vertical and horizontal movement
of materials and personnel in the building, are very critical elements from the fire
spread point of view. These have greatest potential of spreading of fire and the
resulting fire damage. As a basic precaution these openings must be reduced and
minimized as far as practicable. Great precaution must also be taken to provide
adequate arrangements to protect these openings in case of a fire breakout.
Properly designed, provided and protected, these openings provide excellent exit
for evacuation of the building during any fire accident. Any negligence in above
is dangerous to safety, as openings will provide a potential source of spreading of
fire flames and heat increasing the fire damage many fold. The important 53
Construction Technology-II precautions to be followed in protecting the openings can be listed briefly as
follows :
(a) Doors and window shall preferably be of steel with wire glass panels
for windows and rolling shutters for doors for effectively preventing
the fire spread. Solid timber doors, if used shall have a minimum
thickness of 40 mm. All openings shall preferably have double fire
proof doors.
(b) Windows shall allow to work as secondary fire escapes and allow
access to fire fighting persons in case of fire, though they should not
be designed to act as fire escape route. Any windows exposed to the
roof of other structure shall be protected by fire proof shutters.
Windows carried down to the floors, are to be provided with a
projecting slab beyond the outer wall face to act as horizontal barrier
to fire spreading.
(c) All escape doors are designed to provide free circulation to persons in
corridors, passages, stairs, etc. These should be given special attention
and provided with fittings, which remain uneffected even at high
temperatures. These should open in the direction of traffic flow. All
the fillings shall be maintained in good working order so that these
may be easily opened to allow quick escape. All fire proof doors shall
conform to IS : 1648-961.
(d) All exits shall be so placed that these are always immediately
accessible and able to handle all the evacuating persons in that area.
Alternative escape routes shall be provided in case any one of them
become non-operative or unusable in case of a fire. Escape routes
shall be well lighted and ventilated and are capable of draining out the
smoke or fumes of the fire effecting the crowd of evacuees.
3.5.4 Fire Escape Elements
As per National Building Code and other safety regulations, the buildings shall be
provided with sufficient means to provide free escape in the case of a fire
breakout. This is of critical importance in designing buildings like multistoried
complex, cinema halls, shopping malls, hospitals, airports and other such public
buildings. These safe escape routes also serve as important means of access to the
rescuing personnel. The exit provisions should be such that persons on any storey
which catches fire and of the floors just above and below this storey are able to
get a safe exit of escape in a reasonably quick time. The corridors, passages, stairs
and lifts size and location should be properly designed to meet the safety
requirements. All these fire escape elements are constructed of fire resistant
material and preferably be separated from the main building.
Stairs and lifts shall be located near the exterior walls and accessible easily from
any floor in the direction of flow towards exit. In multistorey complexes, the
number and location of stair cases shall be chosen to provide equitable
distribution of evacuees among all the staircases. NBC dictates that there shall be
a minimum of two emergency staircases provided wherever possible.
Lift shafts and stair ways invariably serves as flues or funnels thus escalating the
fire by increasing the draft similar to the action of chimney. These shall be
surrounded with enclosure walls of fire resistant materials and vented at top to
allow smoke and hot gases to escape. Their design should be such that it prevents
the development of chimney action and thus reduce the possibility of fire spread.
54
The lifts and escalators cannot be considered as fire escape exit. Electrical and/or Fire Protection
in Building
mechanical lifts are reliable under normal conditions, but cannot be relied upon
for escaping in the event of fire. Electric supply to the building is inadvertently
cut off or interrupted during fire. Hence the only reliable mean of fire escape is
through stairways. All external stairs like fire escape stairs, spiral stairs, steep
ladders and ramps shall be treated as additional or supplementary escape routes,
in addition to properly designed and constructed internal stairs as main or primary
escape route. The travel distance of remotest building corner to stairway shall not
be more than 22.50 m for residential educational and institutional buildings
varying to 45.0 m for business buildings. For buildings taller than six storeys, it
has been recommended to provide at least one independent fire tower as the
escape route.

SAQ 1

(a) Define fire process and causes of fire accidents in buildings.

(b) What do you understand by fire prevention and fire protection of a
building?
(c) Briefly state the characteristic requirements of an ideal fire resistance
material, and briefly describe the fire resisting properties of
commonly used building materials.
(d) Describe various methods of fire prevention and fire fighting you will
recommend in view of ensuring fire safety of a multistorey residential
complex.
(e) Write short notes on :
(i) Fire classification
(ii) Fire load
(iii) Fire grading of materials
(iv) Fire proofing of building

3.6 SUMMARY
After going through this unit, you should have understood the basic causes of fire
occurrences, its classifications and hazards and thus have the knowledge of fire
resistant properties of building materials and methods of fire safety, protection,
prevention and fighting.

3.7 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic
listed in the section ‘Further Reading’ given at the end to get the answers of
SAQs.

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