Introduction

‘Man is the only creature that dares to light a fire and live with it. What is the
reason? ‘Because he alone has learnt to put it out’– This is the quote of Henry Jackson Van dyke
Jr. Another such important quote we find in Aesop’s Tails – ‘Fire is a good servant but a bad
master. One example of it we find in Mahabharta. The Pandavas were forced to live in
Lakshagruha that is the building constructed of sealing wax (Lakh), which was set on fire. In
Kautilya’s Arthashatra there were chapters about Fire preventive rules in year 321 B.C. After
2338 years, the incidences of fire are reduced but still considerable in percentage. According to
one report of 2001 out of the Total Deaths in India the percentage was 2%. Later a report
published by National Crime Bureau, stated that, total deaths in India because of Natural and
unnatural deaths was about 6% of total deaths are due to fire accidents. This percentage had
increased to 7% in 2009 but started deceasing from 6.3% in 2010 and 2011, 5.9% in 2012 and
4.3% in 2014. Thus, if we want to avoid these accidents we have to learn the reasons of fire,
measures for controlling fire and the equipment used for controlling fire, along with the fire
resistant materials.

Causes of Fire Hazards:

With the developments and technological advancements in different fields, huge

industrialization has taken place. It is based on fuel consumption and energy utilization. Most of
the industrialisation processes are hazardous, especially fire based involving electrical and fuel
burning processes. Apart from this the residential buildings are also prone to fire because of
different reasons. Following are the causes of fire hazards:-
1) Children playing with match sticks.
2) Burning Rubbish
3) Throwing the piece of cigarettes after Smoking
4) Malicious or intentional burning
5) Short Circuits from Electrical appliances
6) Mishaps of Gas appliances
7) Mishaps Oil appliances
8) Other fuel appliances
9) Acetylene and liquefied gas
10) Causes not specified or unknown

Of the total deaths occurring in fire hazards, in India, the percentage of women dying in
such incidences is more and, mostly between 15 and 34 years of age. The average ratio of
fire-related deaths of young women to young men is about 3:1. The reasons behind this is
domestic violence, suicides, etc.

The highest number of fires is happening in private dwellings which are nearly five times
than fires happening in manufacturing industry or three times than the fires in combined
industries.

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Fire Safety Regulations:
A wide variety of rules and regulations are existent regarding fire safety of
buildings both nationally and internationally. Although all codes and local bye laws in
respect of fire safety are based on the same theme, they differ vastly in their method of
applications. Fire regulations can be broadly divided in three categories:
• Mandatory/obligatory
• Recommendatory
• Empirical
(I) Mandatory regulations are those which are introduced by local administrations like
municipal corporations or by state governments in case local administration has not made
any rules regarding fire security. The Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of
India has been regularly receiving proposals for Environmental Clearance for high rise
buildings from the States of Kerala, Maharashtra, Haryana etc. The relevant issues
related to height of buildings, adequacy of fire fighting facilities and other requirements
have been deliberated upon by the EAC (Expert Appraisal Committee) for the related
sector from time to time before giving its recommendations to this Ministry. The EAC
recommended that the height of the building should be linked with the width of the
road on which the proposed building is to be located and also the distance of Fire
Station from the building so that in case of emergency, the Fire Tender may reach
in the shortest possible time. The EAC also stressed the need for mandatory mock-
up drills and availability of NOC's from the concerned departments before the start
of construction as well as before occupancy. The EAC also recommended that the
provisions and the guidelines, as applicable, of the State Departments and
National/State Disaster Management Authority should be strictly followed. These
recommendations of the EAC have been accepted by the Competent Authority. In light
of above acceptance, the following guidelines are stipulated regarding buildings of
different heights whenever building projects are appraised by the EACs:-
For Buildings more than 15 m, height-
(i) All necessary fire fighting equipments shall be in place before the
occupancy of the building
(ii) Minimum width of the road (right of way):

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 (iii) Location of fire station:
(iv) Mandatory Mock-up drills:
Regular and periodic mock-up drills shall be undertaken by the Fire Department
at least once in a year.
(v) NOC from the Fire Department:
NOC shall be obtained from the local Fire Station at 2 stages (a) Before the
construction (b) Before the occupation of the Building
(vi) NOC shall be obtained from National/State Disaster Management
Authority, wherever applicable.
(vii) Applicable guidelines of Fire Department, National/State Disaster
Management Authority shall be strictly followed by the developer and occupiers/
Cooperative Societies.
The State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authorities (SEIAAs) may
decide to have the provision of more stringent than the above guidelines for projects
within their jurisdiction, if the local circumstances so warrant, after following a
transparent and inclusive process including consultation with their State EACs.

(II) Recommendatory regulations are available in the form of codes and drills
formulated by Bureau of Indian Standards. The most important out of these standards is
the National Building Code 2005, issued by BIS, of which Part IV- ‘Fire & Life Safety’
provides sufficient guidance regarding all active and passive measures to be adopted
during design and construction of buildings. Fire safety of buildings in wider perspective
is deemed to cover the following aspects:
• Fire prevention/protection means
• Fire fighting and extinguishing methods
• Fire salvage operations

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 Fire safety aspects are of two types:
• Passive fire prevention/protection means
• Active fire prevention/protection means
Passive fire prevention/protection are those which are taken care of during designing of
a building structure. They directly affect the architecture and construction value of a
building. Such means envisage the methods of assembling the components of the
building in such a way as to achieve a structure in which spread of fire is limited to the
minimum. (e.g. Thickness of walls, their finishes- Gypsum or regular plaster, layout of
rooms with maximum walls as barrier to fire spread, etc.)

Active Fire Prevention by security and fighting methods are of two types:
• Fixed
• Portable.
and each one of these can be for first-aid fire fighting purpose or for use of fire
brigades. The active fire security methods can be in general divided in following heads:
• Portable fire extinguishers
• Fixed first-aid fire fighting equipment like hose-reels.
• Fire hydrant installations like wet risers and hydrants
• Manual or Automatic fire detection and alarm systems
• Water sprinklers
• CO2 fire fighting systems
• Fire salvage
(III) Empirical Regulations: These are the regulations based on the practical
considerations and experiences.

National Building Code 2005 Part IV is on ‘Fire and Life Safety’ and gives the
general classification of buildings depending on their occupancy, Planning
Consideration of Building for combustibility of the materials and constructions,
Staircase and lobbies planning considerations fire escapes, etc.

Classification of Buildings Based on Occupancy

General Classification
All buildings, whether existing or hereafter erected shall be classified according to the
use or the character of occupancy in one of the following groups:
Group A Residential

A-1 Lodging or rooming houses: These are the buildings not more than 40
persons (beds), on transient or permanent basis, without cooking facilities for
individuals is provided. A lodging or rooming house shall be classified as a
dwelling in sub-division A-2 if no room in any of its private dwelling units is
rented to more than three people.

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 A-2 One or two-family private dwellings: These shall include any private
dwelling which is occupied by members of one or two families and has a total
sleeping accommodation for not more than 20 persons.

A-3 Dormitories: These shall include any building in which group sleeping
accommodation is provided, with or without dining facilities for persons who are
not members of the same family, in one room or a series of closely associated
rooms under joint occupancy and single management.

A-4 Apartment houses (flats): These shall include any building or structure
in which living quarters are provided for three or more families, living
independently of each other and with independent cooking facilities, for example,
apartment houses, mansions and chawls.

A-5 Hotels: These shall include any building or group of buildings under single
management, in which sleeping accommodation is provided, with or without
dining facilities for hotels classified up to 4 Star Category.

A-6 Hotels (Starred): 5 to 7 star Hotels

Group B Educational
Sub-division B-1: Schools up to senior secondary level - This sub-division shall
include any building or a group of buildings under single management which is
used for students not less than 20 in number.
Sub-division B-2: All others/training institutions- This sub-division shall include
any building or a group of buildings under single management, which is used for
students not less than 100 in number.

Group C Institutional
Sub-division C-1 Hospitals and sanatoria: for people suffering physical
limitations because of heath and age
Sub-division C-2 Custodial institutions: children convalescents, orphanages
Sub-division C-3 Penal and mental institutions: used for housing persons under
restraint, or who are detained for penal or corrective purposes, in which the liberty
of the inmates is restricted, for example, jails, prisons, mental hospitals,
reformatories

Group D Assembly: These shall include any building or part of a building, where
number of persons not less than 50 congregate or gather for amusement, recreation,
social, religious, patriotic, civil, travel and similar purposes, for example, theatres,
motion picture houses, assembly halls, auditoria, exhibition halls, museums, skating
rinks, gymnasiums, restaurants, places of worship, dance halls, club rooms, passenger
stations and terminals of air, surface and marine public transportation services,
recreation, etc.

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Group E Business:
Sub-division E-1: Offices, banks, professional establishments, like offices of
architects, engineers, doctors, lawyers and police stations.
Sub-division E-2: Laboratories, research establishments, libraries and test
houses.
Sub-division E-3: Computer installations.
Sub-division E-4: Telephone exchanges.
Sub-division E-5: Broadcasting stations and T.V. stations.

Group F Mercantile:
Sub-division F-1: Shops, stores, departmental stores markets with area up to
500m2.
Sub-division F-2: Shops, stores, departmental stores markets with area more than
500 m2
Sub-division F-3: Underground shopping centres. Storage and service facilities
incidental to the sale of merchandise and located in the same building shall be
included under this group.

Group G Industrial: These shall include any building or part of a building or structure,
in which products or materials of all kinds and properties are fabricated, assembled,
manufactured or processed, for example, assembly plants, industrial laboratories, dry
cleaning plants, power plants, generating units, pumping stations, fumigation chambers,
laundries, buildings or structures in gas plants, refineries, dairies and saw-mills, etc.

Group H Storage: These shall include any building or part of a building used primarily
for the storage or sheltering (including servicing, processing or repairs incidental to
storage) of goods, ware or merchandise (except those that involve highly combustible or
explosive products or materials) vehicles or animals, for example, warehouses, cold,
storage, freight depots, transit sheds, storehouses, truck and marine terminals, garages,
hangers, grain elevators, barns and stables.

Group J Hazardous: These shall include any building or part of a building which is
used for the storage, handling, manufacture or processing of highly combustible or
explosive materials or products which are liable to burn with extreme rapidity and or
which may produce poisonous fumes or explosions for storage, handling, manufacturing
or processing which involve highly corrosive, toxic or noxious alkalis, acids or other
liquids or chemicals producing flame, fumes and explosive, poisonous, irritant or
corrosive gases; and for the storage, handling or processing of any material producing
explosive mixtures of dust which result in the division of matter into fine particles
subject to spontaneous ignition.

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The combustibility of different construction materials and constructions from fire resistivity is
given on the next page:

Any area exceeding 500 m2 shall be divided into compartments by fire resistant walls.

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Staircase/Exit Requirements:
The minimum clear width, minimum tread width and maximum riser of staircases for buildings
shall be as given below:-
Minimum width — the minimum width of staircase shall be as follows:
a) Residential buildings (dwellings) 1.0 m
NOTE— for row housing with 2 storeys, the minimum width shall be 0.75 m.
b) Residential hotel buildings 1.5 m
c) Assembly buildings like 2.0 m auditoria, theatres and cinemas
d) Educational building 1.5 m
(e) Institutional buildings 2.0 m (f) All other buildings 1.5 m

The minimum width of tread without nosing shall be 250 mm for residential buildings.
The minimum width of tread for other buildings shall be 300 mm.
Maximum riser:
The maximum height of riser shall be 190 mm for residential buildings and 150 mm for
other buildings and these shall be limited to 16 per flight.
The minimum head-room in a passage under the landing of a staircase shall be 2.2 m.
The minimum clear head-room in any staircase shall be 2.2 m.
Exit Requirements:
All aspects of exit requirements for corridors, doors, stair cases, ramps, etc. in respect of
widths, travel distance shall be as per NBC 2005, Part 4 ‘Fire and Life Safety’.
Lobbies: As per Table 4 of NBC 2005, the lobbies should not carry more than 30 people
per 100m2.

Provisions for Physically Handicapped: The minimum width of corridors serving

patients bedrooms in buildings shall be 2400 mm.

Requirement of Water: The quantity of water required for fire extinction depends upon the
magnitude of fire and duration taken to extinguish it. The use of non-potable water should be
avoided for the fear of potential cross connections and subsequent health hazards. The size of
main ring, dry riser or wet riser, for fire fighting within a building, is designed keeping in mind
that a distant hydrant will discharge about 1000-litres per minute at 3.5 kg/sq. cm. pressure and
at any given time at least two hydrants are in operation.
Storage of Water: A sufficient quantity of water for the purpose of fire fighting of the building
must be made available in
an underground storage
tank within the premises.
Tank capacity may be
taken 30-minutes water
supply at 1,000 litres per
minute. The water tank and
cover should be designed
to take load of 18 tonnes
vehicular load if flush or

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below ground level. The suction tank of the domestic water supply is connected with fire
fighting storage tank by an overflow arrangement as shown in Fig. 6.1 so that water stored in the
tank does not become stagnant. Special provision for receiving water from fire tender / tankers to
the tank is made by providing four 63- mm diameter instantaneous male inlets and 150-mm
diameter pipe to receive discharge of water to the tank at a rate of maximum - 2250 litres per
minute. The fire fighting storage and pumps requirements as per the Development Control
Regulations of the Bombay Municipal Corporation are as given in Table 6.1 (See Table)

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10
Systems of Fire Fighting:
These systems are classified mainly as external (i.e. provided by local authority) and internal
(i.e. provided in the building) fire fighting system.

External Fire Fighting System:

Fire hydrants are generally located at a distance of about 90 m to 120 m in inhabited areas and
about 300 m in open areas. One fire hydrant is provided for every 4000 to 10,000 sq. m. area.
Hydrants are provided generally at street crossings. Water demand of one litre per head per day
is considered for fire hydrants. Fire hydrants are of two types - pillar or post hydrants and sunk
or flush hydrants.
(i) Pillar or Post Fire Hydrants: These hydrants remain standing above the ground like a post
by about0.9m to 1.20m and connected to a water main underground. It consists of a sluice valve,
a duck foot bend, a 65mm diameter post with one, two or three outlets. These outlets are spaced
around the periphery of the hydrant barrel, so that it can serve more number of fire tenders at a
time. They are painted in red colour, flushed once in every six months and kept in working
condition. (Fig 6.2)

(ii) Flush Hydrants: These hydrants are installed underground in a brick or cast-iron chamber
with its top cover slightly above the street level. Letters 'F.H.' are inscribed on the top of cover
for identification. A flush hydrant consist of the following components - One sluice valve; a
duck-foot bend, a 65mm diameter instantaneous type coupling; Cast-iron cap permanently
secured to the duck-foot bend by means of a chain. Hydrants are connected to underground
distribution main by flanged joints (Fig. 6.3).

Internal Fire Fighting Systems:

The local self - government i.e. Municipal Authorities have been empowered to make by-laws to
protect lives and properties for fire protection systems within their municipal limits. These by-
laws are generally based on the NFPA (National Fire Protection Act) and the rules framed by the
Tariff Advisory Committee. Various methods are employed for fire fighting system in buildings.

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However, buildings may be classified as residential / commercial premises and industrial
premises. The following methods are broadly pressed to extinguish fire within the buildings:

Fire Hose Systems:

This system involves the installation of vertical riser pipes with hose connections at strategic
points throughout the building, The standpipes or risers can be kept filled with water provided
there is no danger from freezing, bursting, or leaks etc. The system to keep risers filled with
water is known as wet riser system otherwise it is known as dry riser system. The main features
of the fire fighting system are as detailed below:-
i) The fire fighting systems include hose and automatic sprinkler system
ii) The courtyard of the building should have at least two fire hydrants
iii) The pumps will have rpm not exceeding 2000
iv) Wet riser-cum-down comer is an arrangement for fire fighting within the buildings by means
of vertical rising mains of not less than 10-cm internal dia. with hydrant and hose reel on each
floor.
v) These hydrants are connected to an overhead / storage tank for fire fighting purpose with a
booster pump, and a non - return valve near the tank and a fire pump, gate and non - return valve
over the underground storage tanks.
vi) A fire service inlet at ground level fitted with non-return valve should also be provided to the
rising main for charging it by a fire service pump in case of failure of static fire pumps over the
ground storage tanks.
vii) The quantities of water mentioned in Table 6.1 should be exclusively reserved for fire
fighting purposes only.
viii) The size of riser in non-residential buildings over 24m high should be 15cm dia. with twin
hydrant outlets and hose reel on each floor.
ix) The facility to boost water pressure in the riser directly from the mobile pump should also be
provided to the wet riser system with suitable fire service inlets. A collecting head with two
63mm dia. inlets for 10cm dia. rising main and four 63mm inlets for 15cm dia rising main with a
non-return valve and a gate valve should be provided.
x) The internal diameter of rubber hose, for the hose reel, should be 19mm dia. A shut off –
branch with a nozzle of 4.8mm size should be provided.

(a) Dry Riser System:

A dry-risers or dry pipe system is made up of complete water distribution system with sprinklers
heads or risers and branches with hydrants throughout the building in which there is no running
water. Water is supplied to the system when need arises.

a) In the sprinkler system the dry pipe system is used partly to protect the interior of the building
against hazards of burst and leaky pipe and to avoid freezing of water in the pipes (in the cold
regions).
b) Water is turned into the water distribution system either automatically or manually on the
outbreak of fire or the sounding of an alarm gong to smother or extinguish fire.
c) When the fuse melts-in due to the heat generated by fire, water gushes in and air exhausted
through the sprinkler head quickly.

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d) In another dry pipe system the distribution pipes on which the sprinklers are placed are
filled with air under pressure of about 0.85 to 1.41 kg/cm 2, when a sprinkler head opens, the
release of air pressure opens the main water-supply valve to admit water to the system.
e) In the 'pre-action' system water is admitted to the system by a valve actuated by a
thermostatically controlled device that functions in advance of the sprinkler system.
f) The distribution system is laid with slope of about 1:200, so that complete water is drained out
of the system.
g) Provision of necessary pressure gauges is made on main water supply, distribution, air tank,
pumps etc.

(b) Wet Risers: The provision of wet

risers whenever made for residential
buildings should have the following
features (Fig. 6.4): -
. i) The wet risers are designed for zonal
distribution of water according to height
of building --
• The first riser up to 60 metres
height should be of 10 cm dia.
• The second riser up to 100 metres
height of 15 cm dia.
• The third riser up to 150 metres
height of 15cm dia.
ii) These risers are connected to fire
pumps separately provided for this
purpose in the building.
iii) A 'Siamese' connection inlet on the
external face of the building or at suitable places directly fronting on the courtyard is provided to
connect the mobile pump to the wet riser with a facility of instantaneous coupling.
iv) The wet risers must be provided near the enclosed staircase.
v) The pipes and fittings should be of approved make and quality by the competent authority.
vi) A 2.5-cm dia drain valve is provided at the lowest point of riser.
vii) Fire Hydrants or Landing Valves outlets are provided at each floor level of mid landing at
the rate of one outlet to each 930 sq. m. area

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(c) Fire Hose/Cabinet:
Standard fire hosepipe is made of rubber-lined cotton 65mm in diameter, capable of standing
routine test pressure of
14 kg/sq.cm. Sometimes
unlined linen or rubber
lined or rubber cotton
hose may be used for this
purpose. The length of
65mm dia hose at one
outlet is maximum 30m
and this length should
cover the extreme part of
the building. (Fig 6.5)
The fire-hose is housed
in a specially made glass
cabinet. The fire hose is
supported on a semi-
automatic or a one-man
hose rack that permits
one man to pull the
nozzle from the rack
towards the fire after he
has turned on the hose
valve. The hose is neatly
folded, so that it can be
withdrawn from the rack
or reel by pulling on the
nozzle. This requires a
special form of folding or
winding. The fire hose
pipes of smaller diameter of 25mm and 40mm are used for small buildings.
(iv) Nozzles:
A nozzle is a converging mouth- piece i.e. a small piece of pipe tapered into a smaller diameter,
which is fitted at the end of the hosepipe for extinguishing fire. Nozzle is also used for fountain,
as it gives a high velocity. Water while issuing from a small orifice under pressure forms a jet.
The rate of discharge from fire hydrants nozzle,
Q = 67 d2 X √ P
Where, Q = Discharge in litres / minute
d= Internal diameter of hydrants nozzle in cm
P= Pressure in kg / sq.cm.

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Automatic Sprinkler Systems:

The flow of water initiates a fire alarm and alerts the local fire service. The same result is
ensured with a fusible link sprinkler where the link melts at the pre-determined temperature. In
either instance, the sprinkler heads are individually activated by heat, so only the sprinklers in
the immediate vicinity of the fire will operate.
Sprinkler systems have an outstanding performance record. Fire statistics from around the world
show that sprinkler systems have successfully suppressed more than 99% of fires in sprinkler
protected premises, with almost 50% of these fires having been controlled by one or two
sprinkler heads.

The installation of sprinkler system requires special planning in new-building design and
usually involves an extensive renovation of an existing building. The sprinkler system may be
installed in the following types of buildings or sections of a building as a first-aid assistance i.e.
apartment houses, club houses, colleges, dormitories, hospitals, hotels, libraries, office buildings
and the basement used as car parks etc. Automatic sprinklers are connected to a water
distribution system. A sprinkler nozzle is closed by a fusible plug that melts at a predetermined
temperature, above normal room temperature, releasing water to fall on the source of the heat.
Fusible plugs are made to melt at a pre-set standard temperature of (l60oF) (71°C). If the metals

in the plug are of varied quality, temperature up to 360°F (l82.20C) can be reached before the
plug melts.

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Sprinklers Classification: An automatic sprinkler head is a fire-extinguishing nozzle, closed in
a state of readiness by a heat sensitive release element. When heated to a predetermined
temperature, the closure is removed and the water emerges out of it, and is distributed over a
definite area. The sprinklers may be classified -

(a) Sprinklers based on working:

• Fusible Element Sprinklers get opened under the influence of heat by the melting of eutectic
metal or chemicals.
• Glass bulb sprinklers are opened under the influence of heat by the destruction of the glass bulb
through pressure of the fluid enclosed therein.
(b) Sprinklers based on Water distribution:
• Conventional Sprinklers - The Conventional sprinklers have a spherical water distribution
directed towards the ground and the ceiling for a definite protection area.
• Umbrella Sprinklers - The Umbrella sprinklers have a parabolic water distribution directed
towards the ground for a definite protection area.
• Flat Umbrella Sprinklers - The flat umbrella sprinklers have a parabolic water distribution
directed towards the ground for a definite protection area with some of water sprays the
ceiling.
• Sidewall Sprinklers - The sidewall sprinkler has a one-sided (half - parabolic) water
distribution directed towards the ground for a definite protection area.

(c) Sprinklers based on Arrangement:

• Universal Sprinklers - This could be upright and pendent.
• Upright Sprinklers - Upright sprinklers are so arranged, that the stream of water is directed
upwards against the distribution plate.
• Pendent Sprinklers - Pendent sprinklers are so arrangement that the stream of water is directed
down-wards against the distribution plate.
• Dry Pendent Sprinklers - Dry pendent sprinklers are kept free of water while in a state of
readiness by a special catch construction in the down - pipe.
• Dry Upright Sprinklers - Dry upright sprinklers are upright sprinklers, which are kept free of
water while in a state of readiness by a special catch construction up into unheated roof
spaces.

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• Ceiling Sprinklers - Ceiling sprinklers, in which part of the body of the sprinkler (other than
the shank) may be mounted above the lower plane of the ceiling.

Sprinkler System Design: The following steps may be taken to arrive at suitable sprinkler
system in any building. (Fig 6.7)
a) Draw an architectural plan and other details indicating the location and size of the water
supplies, connecting pipes, feed mains, risers, gate, check, alarm and dry-pipe valves, as well
as the location, spacing and number of sprinklers etc.
b) The sprinkler system piping is installed parallel to the ceiling, and the maximum distance
being 250- mm from ceiling.
c) Under ceiling, the area per sprinkler is taken is taken as 6 sq.m. to 9 sq.m. and spacing of
sprinklers on line and between is kept to maximum 3 m.
d) The number of sprinklers on each branch is taken to maximum 8.
e) If the numbers increase beyond 8, it is advisable to have 65 mm supply pipe for the same.
f) One or more risers may be provided in each buildings
g) Where the sprinkler system is provided on more than one floor, the following table may be
referred for sizing of pipes.
h) The water discharge rate of standard automatic sprinklers for various pressures at sprinkler
may be worked out by formula.
Q = K X √P
Where Q = Flow in litres per minute,
P = Pressure at sprinkler, kg/sq. cm. and,
k = 57 for 10 mm sprinkler,
80 for 15 mm sprinkler, and,
= 115 for 20 mm sprinkler

Industrial Fire Fighting Systems:

The industrial areas constitute variety of combination of men and material and processes.
Therefore, it is necessary to take some additional measures for the industries. The capacity of the
water storage tank for fire fighting of an industrial building is worked out at a rate of 2.5litres/sq.
m of lettable floor area subject to a minimum of 2,25,000 litres. A Siamese connection of 150-

17
mm dia. is provided to take discharge of 2275 litres per minutes. A set of two pumps must be
installed to discharge 2275 litres per minute at a pressure of 3.5-kg/cm 2 at desired floor level.
Jockey pumps- must be cut-off at 0.35-kg/cm2 under normal conditions and fire pumps at
1-kg/cm2 pressure.

Methods Applied:
The various methods employed in fire protection systems of industrial premises are as discussed
below:
(a) High Velocity Water Sprays Systems: The high velocity water spray system extinguishes
fires involving oils, or similar flammable liquids. The equipment consisting of pipes and nozzles
are permanently fixed around the plant to be protected and is usually automatically controlled for
immediate operation in the event of fire. In the high velocity water spray system, water is
applied in the form of a conical spray consisting of droplets of water travelling at high velocity.
The droplets of water thus bombard the surface of oil. The effect of this emulsion is to convert a
flammable liquid into one that will not burn. The rate of burning of a flammable liquid depends
upon the rate at which vapour is given off from the surface of the liquid, and the supply of air or
oxygen to support combustion. When a flammable liquid burns, the rate of vaporisation depends
upon the intensity of burning of that liquid. When water is applied at high velocity, it cools the
surface and reduces vaporisation. The system is widely used in oil industries, throughout the
world.
(b) Medium Velocity Water Sprayer system: The medium velocity water-spray system
protects plants, structures and machinery against fires which may involve highly inflammable
liquids, gases and solids. Water sprays render them safe by the application of-water in the most
effective manner, if it is applied in the correct quantity and at the right place. When a fire occurs
medium velocity water-spray equipment applies water in finely divided droplets travelling at
medium velocity and gives protection to tanks, structures and factory equipment by cooling, by
controlled burning of inflammable liquids and by the dilution of explosive gases. The medium
velocity water-spray system is widely used throughout the world for highly explosive /
inflammable products / storage / handling materials.
(c) Foam System:

Foam system has earned recognition as an effective extinguishing method. Foam system is
specially suited for fires in oil storages,
flammable liquids such as benzol, petrol,
alcohol and lighter petroleum products. In
this system, fluroprotein foam compound
is applied forcefully to burning
hydrocarbon liquids, which prohibit fire
spread. The rate of application of foam
may be 0.15 Litres/minute/sq.m for 3%
foam and 0.30 litres per minute per sq.m
for 6% foam. The quantity of foam
compound required for protection of a
tank is calculated as per NFPA for
different classes of liquids and different types of tanks. This system is generally operated
manually. (Fig. 6.8)

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(d) Dry Chemical Powder:
Dry Chemical Powder used to combat fires on inflammable liquids, gases and greases (include
such fires when involved with energised electrical equipment) is a
potassium bicarbonate based dry chemical. The chemical powder is
free flowing, water repellent, and non-abrasive and when used as a
fire-extinguishing agent will produce no toxic effects. Because of its
excellent fire fighting effectiveness this product is widely used in
other high risk fire areas. Fire detectors are used in conjunction with
dry chemical powder in piped systems with control valves and
nozzles. Carbon dioxide or Nitrogen is used as an expelling gas.
Fluidity of the powder is the main characteristic of a fixed dry
chemical powder installation. This system can be effectively installed
in restaurants, fuel station etc. (Fig. 6.9)
(e) Carbon Dioxide:
Carbon dioxide has been used for many years to extinguish the
flammable liquid fires and fires involving electrically energised
equipment. Carbon dioxide is about one and half times heavier than
air, a property that accounts
for its ability to replace air above burning surface and
maintain a smothering atmosphere. It is non-combustible
and does not react with most substances. Under normal
conditions, carbon dioxide is gas. It is easily liquefied by
compression and cooling. By further cooling and
expansion it can be even converted to solid. (Fig.6.10).
Carbon dioxide is effective as an extinguishing agent
primarily because it reduces the oxygen content of the
air to a point where it will no longer support combustion.
Under suitable conditions of control and application,
some cooling effect is also realised.
a) Smothering Effect: Carbon dioxide is stored under pressure as liquid, when released; it is
discharged into the fire area principally as a gas. In general, One kg of carbon dioxide in its
liquid state may be considered as producing about half cubic metre of free gas at atmospheric
pressure. When released on burning materials, it covers them and removes the oxygen to a
concentration, which cannot support combustion.
b) Cooling Effect: The rapid expansion of liquid to gas when carbon dioxide is released from a
storage cylinder produces a refrigerating effect that converts part of the carbon dioxide into
snow. This snow, which has a temperature of- 80 deg. C, soon sublimes into gas, absorbing heat
from the burning material and surrounding atmosphere. The amount of heat absorbed by carbon
dioxide is relatively small as compared with water.
c) Carbon Dioxide is not effective as an extinguishing agent on fires involving chemicals
containing their own oxygen supply, such as sodium.

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d) Fires involving reactive metals, such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, titanium, and
zirconium, and fire involving the metals hydrides, cannot be extinguished by carbon dioxide.
The metals and hydrides decompose carbon dioxide.

(f) Portable Fire Extinguishers

(Fig.6.11): Portable extinguishers are
manufactured in a variety of shapes
/sizes. In order to avoid confusion,
extinguishers of the same type installed
in anyone building or single occupancy
should be similar in shape, and
appearance as far as possible, in method
of operation. It is also advisable to
standardise the sizes, if possible.
Although portable fire extinguishers are not permanent fittings in a structure but they form a part
of the whole system of fire protection. While making full-fledged fire fighting provision, both
within and outside the premises, the hand appliances and small hose reels are installed as 'First-
Aid' equipment. These are only meant for attacking small fires in their incipient stages and are
not intended to deal with large out breaks of fires. The various types of hand appliances are
available in the market these days.
(g) Alarm Gong:
The sounding of alarm should occur shortly after the opening of a sprinkler head. An alarm
valve, which is a type of
backpressure valve, should
be fitted on the main supply
pipe immediately above the
main stop valve. The valve is
normally closed when an
installation is quiescent. But
when water is discharged
from an opened sprinkler
head, the pressure above the
valve should fall below that
of the supply and open the
valve to a pipe leading from
a channel or port in the valve
seating to a water turbine
forming part of the alarm
system. The water turbine
should then cause an alarm
gong to be sounded. The alarm gong should be close to the main stop valve, but should be fitted
outside the building in a position where it will readily be audible to the police and other patrols.
In order to avoid false alarm caused by fluctuations in the pressure of supply, a device is

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necessary in most types of alarm systems to permit of such temporary fluctuations without lifting
of the alarm valve. (Fig. 6.12).

(h) Fire Alarm System:

It is an integral part of any fire protection system. It is said that the first five minutes of a fire are
more important than the next five hours. Fire can be extinguished when it is in an incipient stage.
Moreover people can be warned of fire hazard and evacuation of the building becomes easy. The
heat and smoke detectors detect fire and actuate the alarm system.
A Fire Alarm system, manually operated or automatic, functions through heat and smoke
detectors distributed in the premises to be protected. The alarm must be actuated automatically
or upon operating push-button, whenever there is fire. The system helps evacuation of the
premises, and to bring fire-fighting facilities into action as quickly as possible. This prevents
possible loss of life and/ or property by warning the occupants. The Fire Alarm Systems are
provided in the residential buildings with heights above 15-m and industrial and
commercial building with heights above 24-meters. If the building height is above 35-
metres, it is necessary to have the provision of heat/smoke detectors. The following points
should be kept in mind while making the provision of fire alarm system:
• A push-button switch is installed on all floors, in the lift lobby and is housed in a wooden box
with a glass front and duly marked 'Fire Alarm'.
• All electric bells and switches are so connected that all such bells would start functioning if any
of the push button of the fire alarm is operated.
• The call boxes are so arranged to sound one or more sounders so as to ensure that all occupants
of the building are warned whenever any call box is actuated.
• The call boxes are installed at height of l-m from the floor and they are easily noticed from
either direction.
• For buildings above 24-metres in height an additional automatic fire alarm system must be
installed. These may be either heat or smoke detector.
• In buildings above 45-metres in height an additional indicating panel is provided on the ground
floor and connected to the fire alarm switches installed on the upper floors.

(i) Heat Detectors:

It is a fire alarm device designed to respond when the convected thermal energy of a fire
increases the temperature of a heat sensitive element. The thermal mass and conductivity of the
element regulate the rate flow of heat into the element. Heat detectors have two main
classifications of operation, ‘fixed temperature’ and ‘rate-of-rise’.
(i) Fixed temperature heat detectors: This is the most common type of heat detector.
Fixed temperature detectors operate when the heat sensitive eutectic alloy reaches the
eutectic point changing state from a solid to a liquid. The most common fixed temperature
point for electrically connected heat detectors is 136.4°F (58°C). Technological
developments have enabled the perfection of detectors that activate at a temperature of
117°F (47°C), increasing the available reaction time and margin of safety.

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 (ii) Rate-of-rise heat detectors: Rate-of-Rise (ROR) heat detectors operate on a rapid rise
in element temperature of 120° to 150°F (67° to 83°C) increase per minute, irrespective of
the starting temperature. This type of heat detector can operate at a lower temperature fire
condition than would be possible if the threshold were fixed. It has two heat-sensitive
thermocouples/ thermistor. One thermistor monitors heat transferred by convection or
radiation. The other responds to ambient temperature. Detector responds when first’s
temperature increases relative to the other.

(j) Smoke Detector:

It is a device that detects smoke, typically as an indicator of fire. Commercial, industrial, and
mass residential devices issue a signal to a fire alarm system, while household detectors, known
as smoke alarms, generally issue a local audible or visual alarm from the detector itself.

(k) Snorkel Ladder:

It is the Ladder provided on the Fire Brigade Tender. It is folded and kept on the top of the
tender. It is used for fire fighting at higher level floors.

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