GROUND

IMPROVEMENT
TECHNIQUES
 UNIT I – INTRODUCTION

NEED FOR THE GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUE:

When a project encounters difficult foundation conditions, possible alternative

solutions are

 Avoid the particular site

 Design the planned structure (flexible/rigid) accordingly
 Remove and replace unsuitable soils
 Attempt to modify existing ground
 Enable cost effective foundation design
 Reduce the effects of contaminated soils
 Ensure sustainability in construction projects using ground improvement
techniques

These are the STRATEGIES of the foundation construction on difficult

conditions.

If a civil engineer has to deal with the following concerns, he must go with the
ground improvement technique, since every problem which is following will affect
the structure.

 Mechanical properties are not adequate

 Swelling and shrinkage
 Collapsible soils
 Soft soils
 Organic soils and peaty soils
 Sands and gravelly deposits, karst deposits with sinkhole formations
 Foundations on dumps and sanitary landfills
  Handling dredged materials
 Handling hazardous materials in contact with soils
 Use of old mine pits

CLASSIFICATIONS OF GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUE:

The general classification of the ground improvement techniques are listed below.
 Mechanical modification
 Hydraulic modification
 Physical and chemical modification
 Modification by inclusion and confinement
 Combination of the above

Mechanical Modification:

In this method of modification the density of soil is increased by the application of

mechanical force. For example compaction of surface layers by static vibratory such
as compact roller and plate vibrators.

Hydraulic Modification:

In this method the free pore water present in the pores of the soil is forced out of soil
via drains or wells.
In coarse grained soils, it is achieved by lowering the ground water level through
pumping from boreholes, or trenches.
In fine grained soils the long term application of external loads (preloading) or
electrical forces (electrometric stabilization) are followed to strengthen the soil.
Physical and chemical modification:

Physical modification means the mixing of adhesives with surface layers of the soil
or columns of soil. The notable adhesive materials are natural soils, industrial by
products and waste.

Chemical modification means the injection of grouting materials or cement materials

via boreholes under pressure. The injected materials have filled the pores and voids
on the soil and stiffen the soil mass while it’s setting, and makes as one single strong
unit.

Modification by inclusions and confinement:

Reinforcement by fibers, strips bars, meshes and fabrics imparts tensile strength to
a constructed soil mass. In-situ reinforcement is achieved by nails and anchors.
Stable earth retaining structure can also be formed by confining soil with concrete,
steel, or fabric elements.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOOSE OF GROUND IMPROVEMENT

TECHNIQUES.
The choice of a method of ground improvement techniques for a particular object
will depend on the following factors
 Type and degree of improvement required
It’s about what kind of improvement need for the particular site. For example
improving the bearing capacity, reduce the settlement of the soil at particular
site. Permeability enhancement / decrease, long term / short term, liquefaction
resistance.
 Type of soil , geological structure, seepage conditions
 Type of soil whether it is sand or clay and soil’s geological structure are also
plays important role on the choosing of best method. Pore pressure and
seepage also need to be considered while selecting the method.
 Cost
It is about the size and budget of the project. For the low budget project cannot
use the costly equipments for the ground improvement.
 Availability of equipment and materials and the quality of work required
We should choose the method according to the equipment and materials
availability. Also we need to consider the quality of the work needed for the
particular project.
 Construction time available
Also the important factor to be noted is the construction time available. When
choosing the ground improvement technique, we should consider the total
time for the project.
 Possible damage to adjacent structures or pollution of ground water
resources
When doing the ground improvement techniques like blasting, preloading and
tampering the adjacent structures may have a chance to damage due to
excessive loading and pore water dissipation. So need to consider this factor
also.
 Durability of material involved ( as related to the expected life of
structure for a given environmental and stress conditions)
On a sea shore areas and some areas the corrosion of the materials may take
place. So according to the materials quality to resist the corrosion and how
long it will at service also need to be noted.
 Toxicity or severity of corrosion of any chemical additives
 Government regulations may restrict the choice of additives. Using
Vitrification of soils to limit radioactive or hazardous wastes, Ex:
Remediation of chromium-contaminated soil through ex situ vitrification
 Reliability of method of analysis and design
The method and analysis which to be used is need to be good methods of
testing, proven methods of design and analysis should be used and empirical
approaches need to be avoided.
 Feasibility of construction control and performance measurements
Documents of quality control and performance are required in major ground
improvement projects. So every action at construction site regarding
improvement will be measured and documented.

OBJECTIVES OF THE GROUND IMPROVEMENT:

 Increase strength
 Reduce distortion under stress (Increases stress-strain modulus)
 Reduce compressibility (volume decreases due to a reduction in air voids or
water content under loads)

METHODS OF GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES:

From the basic classification of ground improvement techniques there is a wide

range of methods are available for the ground improvement purpose.

Mechanical Modification:

As we discussed early the mechanical modification is means of densify the soil by

compaction and other processes.

For cohesionless soil:

1. Compaction
i. Shallow compaction - Achieved by static pressure and or dynamic
pressure caused by impact or vibration.
(Smooth steel rollers, Sheep foot rollers, Pneumatic tired rollers,
Tamper, Rammers, Plate compacters, Vibrating rollers, Grid rollers and
Impact rollers)
ii. Deep compaction
Pre compression: Pre loaded by means of a surcharge on the surface
in an array of boreholes, causing a ground to consolidate.
Explosion: Explosives are detonated on the surface in an array of
boreholes causing a loose soil structure to collapse.
Heavy tamping: A large mass is dropped in to the ground surface,
causing compaction and possibly long term consolidation.
Vibration: Densification is achieved by a vibratory probe or piles.
Compaction grouting
2. Explosion
Explosion of charges on the ground surface or in deep boreholes causes
shear stresses in the soil which break down the soil structure resulting
in a reorientation of soil particles and subsequent volumetric
compression.
3. Vibro compaction and vibro replacement
  Vibro compaction is successful in loose sand soils typically with
an origin SPT value of 5 to 10 near the surface and not applicable
to clays.
 Relative density of up to 85% can be achieved

For cohesive soil:

1. Pre loading
In order to increase the shear strength of the cohesive soil, the soil mass
has been pre loaded by a big size of stones. From the preloading
technique followings are achieved
 Preload is made up of stones.
 Excess pore water pressure squeezed out.
 Effective stress in the soil increase
Hydraulic Modification:

Hydraulic modification is done by the removal of water presents in the pores of the
soil particles. To remove the water in deeper depths the following methods are used.

1. Well points
2. Deep wells
3. Vacuum dewatering
 4. Electro osmosis

The details of these methods are will be discuss in the 2nd unit.

Physical and chemical modification:

By adding the adhesives and cementing materials or removing the unsuitable soils
are comes under the above method of ground improvement technique. The different
type of methods is as follows

1. Soil Cement grouting

2. Lime Admixtures
3. Fly ash
4. Heating/Freezing
5. Vitrification

Modification by inclusions and confinement:

1. Stone Columns
2. Soil Nails
3. Micro piles
4. Jet Grouting
5. Ground Anchors
6. Geosynthetics
7. Fibers
8. Lime Columns
9. Vibro-Concrete Column
10.Mechanically Stabilized Earth
11.Biotechnical
By includes and inserted the above materials the earth can be improved in the shear
strength.

FORMATION OF SOILS
Soil is defined as a natural aggregate of mineral grains, with or without organic
constituents that can be separated by gentle mechanical means such as agitation in
water. By contrast rock is considered to be a natural aggregate of mineral grains
connected by strong and permanent cohesive forces. The process of weathering of
the rock decreases the cohesive forces binding the mineral grains and leads to the
disintegration of bigger masses to smaller and smaller particles. Soils are formed by
the process of weathering of the parent rock. The weathering of the rocks might be
by mechanical disintegration, and/or chemical decomposition.

Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering of rocks to smaller particles is due to the action of such
agents as the expansive forces of freezing water in fissures, due to sudden changes
of temperature or due to the abrasion of rock by moving water or glaciers.
Temperature changes of sufficient amplitude and frequency bring about changes in
the volume of the rocks in the superficial layers of the earth's crust in terms of
expansion and contraction. Such a volume change sets up tensile and shear stresses
in the rock ultimately leading to the fracture of even large rocks. This type of rock
weathering takes place in a very significant manner in arid climates where free,
extreme atmospheric radiation brings about considerable variation in temperature at
sunrise and sunset. Erosion by wind and rain is a very important factor and a
continuing event. Cracking forces by growing plants and roots in voids and crevasses
of rock can force fragments apart.
Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering (decomposition) can transform hard rock minerals into soft,
easily erodible matter. The principal types of decomposition are hydration,
oxidation, carbonation, desilication and leaching. Oxygen and carbon dioxide
which are always present in the air readily combine with the elements of rock in the
presence of water.

Transportation of Weathering Products

The products of weathering may stay in the same place or may be moved to other
places by ice, water, wind, and gravity. The soils formed by the weathered products
at their place of origin are called residual soils. An important characteristic of
residual soil is the gradation of particle size. Fine grained soil is found at the surface,
and the grain size increases with depth. At greater depths, angular rock fragments
may also be found. The transported soils may be classified into several groups,
depending on their mode of transportation and deposition:
1. Glacial soils—formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers
2. Alluvial soils—transported by running water and deposited along streams
3. Lacustrine soils—formed by deposition in quiet lakes
4. Marine soils—formed by deposition in the seas
5. Aeolian soils—transported and deposited by wind
6. Colluvial soils—formed by movement of soil from its original place by gravity,
such as during landslides
RECLAIMED SOILS:

 The term reclaimed soil means, all the materials which are all deposited on a
site by using various methods for various purposes. These dumped materials
can be called as reclaimed soil when they are used as foundation material (if
over these materials structures are constructed).
 Rapid growth of industries and commercial developments larger areas are
required. But we can’t expect all the area to be a good for foundation, so could
make the area as strong by use of these reclaimed materials.
 The geotechnical problems to be answered (or) the geotechnical problems
which can be solved by this method of reclaimed soil are Control of
Settlement, Increase of bearing capacity and biological stability of fill.
 Generally reclamation followed by ground treatment is preferable and
economical than deep foundations.

TYPES OF RECLAMATION MATERIALS:

The materials which are used in practice for reclamation purposes fall into the
following groups

i. Hydraulic fills
Description:
Commonly used when large reclamation area needed – The soil needed for
this are obtained from adjacent river, lake or ocean – well graded soil
preferable – Sand means need to densify after placing (coz. Initially at loose
condition) – silt and clay means can’t compact so consolidate if time permits.
Demerits:
Low density,
Segregation and
 Turbidity of the area
ii. Sanitary fills
The fill has been made up of sanitary method. This considered as problem of
chemical stability. Miling of waste materials and bailing them before filling
reduces the volume and time required for compaction.
Demerits:
Moisture content, snow melt or reaction between waste materials form
polluted liquid called leachate. This leachate rise the drinking water pollution
and bad odours. Large settlement, material loss and consolidation may occur.
iii. Paper sludge
Paper mill sludge is also use for landfill – This is consists of kaolinite and
organic cellulose fibers – ash content is 32-59% - The density is low and the
shear strength is increased with degree of consolidation and attains good
bearing capacity with time.
iv. Fly ash and slag
Flyash is more stable material with low percentage of solubility – Steel
furnace slag can be used as reclamation material but blast furnace slag can’t
be – all the materials are light weight and highly alkaline.
v. Rubbish and debris
These fill materials represents a most heterogeneous material ranging from
stone, concrete to paper, glass and grass. These are used as bottom portion of
fill and rolled. Top portion may be a structural fill or hydraulic fill. These kind
of fills are highly compressible so load tests are must to evaluate the property.
PROBLEMATIC SOILS:

In the view of geotechnical engineering the following soils are found to be the
problematic soils

 Collapsible soils
 Liquefiable soils
 Waste materials
 Expansive and shrinkage
 Marshy and soft soils
 Karst deposits

In the above categories the soil deposits which are available more in our country is

1. Alluvial soil
2. Lateritic soil
3. Black cotton soils

Alluvial Soils:

This soil deposits are found in our country at Indo – Gangetic, Brahmaputra flood
plains North of Vindya Satpura range and Bengal basins. In all the parts of this
deposits have been found upto100 m below the ground surfaces. And the soil
deposits are generally alternating layers of sandy silt and clay or clayey silt or silty
clay.

Geotechnical problem:
The fine silty sand deposits in this area are loose and prone to liquefaction under
earthquake shocks.

So dewatering techniques will be suitable for this type of soil.

Lateritic soils:

Lateritic soils covers area of about 10000 sq. km and extend over Kerala, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Orissa and West Bengal. Literites are formed by the decomposition of
rock, removal of the bases and silica and formation of oxide of iron and aluminium
at the top of the soil profile. There are two types of laterites namely primary and
secondary laterites. First on found at high altitude hill regions and the later is found
near coastal areas.

Geotechnical problem:
Generally the secondary laterite poses no difficulties to foundation in dry state. But
in case of adding of water the softening process will start and the soil will lose its
strength.

Black cotton soils:

This is the Indian name given to the expansive soil deposits in the central part of the
country. They cover an area of approximately 3, 00,000 sq. km which extends over
the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
and Utter Pradesh. These soils have been formed from basalt or trap and contain the
clay mineral montmorillonite.

Geotechnical problem:
Due to presence of montmorillonite clay this soil deposit under goes excessive
swelling and shrinkage. Lightly loaded structures are most susceptible to damage as
a result of the volume changes in the soil. Under – reamed piles are considered most
suitable as foundation for houses and other light structures. These piles are taken to
depths below the zone of seasonal variation in moisture content.