Stoicism

Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished in

Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.[1] The Stoics believed that the
practice of virtue is enough to achieve eudaimonia: a well-lived
life. The Stoics identified the path to achieving it with a life spent
practicing the four virtues in everyday life—wisdom, courage,
temperance or moderation, and justice—as well as living in
accordance with nature. It was founded in the ancient Agora of
Athens by Zeno of Citium around 300 BCE.

Alongside Aristotle's ethics, the Stoic tradition forms one of the

major founding approaches to virtue ethics.[2] The Stoics are
especially known for teaching that "virtue is the only good" for
human beings, and that external things, such as health, wealth, and
pleasure, are not good or bad in themselves (adiaphora) but have
value as "material for virtue to act upon". Many Stoics—such as
Seneca and Epictetus—emphasized that because "virtue is
sufficient for happiness", a sage would be emotionally resilient to A bust of Zeno of Citium, considered
misfortune. The Stoics also held that certain destructive emotions the founder of Stoicism
resulted from errors of judgment, and they believed people should
aim to maintain a will (called prohairesis) that is "in accordance
with nature". Because of this, the Stoics thought the best indication of an individual's philosophy was not
what a person said but how a person behaved.[3] To live a good life, one had to understand the rules of the
natural order since they believed everything was rooted in nature.

Stoicism flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3rd century CE, and among its
adherents was Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It experienced a decline after Christianity became the
state religion in the 4th century CE. Since then, it has seen revivals, notably in the Renaissance
(Neostoicism) and in the contemporary era (modern Stoicism).[4]

Basic tenets

Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man, otherwise it would be
admitting something that lies beyond its proper subject-matter. For as the material of the
carpenter is wood, and that of statuary bronze, so the subject-matter of the art of living is each
person's own life.

— Epictetus, Discourses 1.15.2, Robin Hard revised translation

The Stoics provided a unified account of the world, constructed from ideals of logic, monistic physics and
naturalistic ethics. Of these, they emphasized ethics as the main focus of human knowledge, though their
logical theories were of more interest for later philosophers.
Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive
emotions; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the
universal reason (logos). Stoicism's primary aspect involves improving the individual's ethical and moral
well-being: "Virtue consists in a will that is in agreement with Nature."[5] This principle also applies to
the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy",[6] and to accept even
slaves as "equals of other men, because all men alike are products of nature".[7]

The Stoic ethic espouses a deterministic perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue, Cleanthes
once opined that the wicked man is "like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to go wherever it goes".[5] A
Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend his will to suit the world and remain, in the words of Epictetus,
"sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and
happy",[6] thus positing a "completely autonomous" individual will, and at the same time a universe that
is "a rigidly deterministic single whole". This viewpoint was later described as "Classical Pantheism"
(and was adopted by Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza).[8]

Philosopher Julian Baggini has characterized what constitutes one being a Stoic:

"To become a stoic is to endorse the truthfulness of its worldview and accept its prescription
for how you ought to live, not just to like how it makes you feel."[9]

Baggini asserts that the endorsement of the truthfulness of the Stoic worldview and the tenets for one's
behavior that follow from it, are central to what it means to be a Stoic.

History
The name Stoicism derives from the Stoa Poikile (Ancient Greek: ἡ ποικίλη στοά), or "painted porch", a
colonnade decorated with mythic and historical battle scenes on the north side of the Agora in Athens
where Zeno of Citium and his followers gathered to discuss their ideas, near the end of the 4th century
BC.[10] Unlike the Epicureans, Zeno chose to teach his philosophy in a public space. Stoicism was
originally known as Zenonism. However, this name was soon dropped, likely because the Stoics did not
consider their founders to be perfectly wise and to avoid the risk of the philosophy becoming a cult of
personality.[11]

Zeno's ideas developed from those of the Cynics (brought to him by Crates of Thebes), whose founding
father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates. Zeno's most influential successor was Chrysippus,
who followed Cleanthes as leader of the school, and was responsible for molding what is now called
Stoicism.[12] Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the
Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire[13] to the point where, in the words of Gilbert Murray, "nearly
all the successors of Alexander [...] professed themselves Stoics".[14] Later Roman Stoics focused on
promoting a life in harmony within the universe within which we are active participants.
Scholars[15] usually divide the history of Stoicism into three phases: the Early Stoa, from Zeno's founding
to Antipater; the Middle Stoa, including Panaetius and Posidonius; and the Late Stoa, including Musonius
Rufus, Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. No complete works survived from the first two phases of
Stoicism. Only Roman texts from the Late Stoa survived.[16]

Philosophical system

Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man, otherwise it would be
admitting something that lies beyond its proper subject-matter. For as the material of the
carpenter is wood, and that of statuary bronze, so the subject-matter of the art of living is each
person's own life.

— Epictetus, Discourses 1.15.2, Robin Hard revised translation

Of all the schools of ancient philosophy, Stoicism made the greatest claim to being utterly systematic.[17]
In the view of the Stoics, philosophy is the practice of virtue, and virtue, the highest form of which is
utility, is generally speaking, constructed from ideals of logic, monistic physics, and naturalistic
ethics.[18] These three ideals constitute virtue which is necessary for 'living a well reasoned life', seeing as
they are all parts of a logos, or philosophical discourse, which includes the mind's rational dialogue with
itself.[19] Of them, the Stoics emphasized ethics as the main focus of human knowledge, though their
logical theories were of more interest for later philosophers.

Stoicism teaches the development of self-control as a means of overcoming destructive emotions; the
philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal
reason (logos). Stoicism's primary aspect involves improving the individual's ethical and moral well-
being: "Virtue consists in a will that is in agreement with Nature".[5] This principle also applies to the
realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy",[6] and to accept even
slaves as "equals of other men, because all men alike are products of nature".[7]

The Stoic ethic espouses a deterministic perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue, Cleanthes
once opined that the wicked man is "like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to go wherever it goes".[5] A
Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend his will to suit the world and remain, in the words of Epictetus,
"sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and
happy",[6] thus positing a "completely autonomous" individual will and at the same time a universe that is
"a rigidly deterministic single whole". This viewpoint was later described as "Classical Pantheism" (and
was adopted by Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza).[20]

Logic
Diodorus Cronus, who was one of Zeno's teachers, is considered the philosopher who first introduced and
developed an approach to logic now known as propositional logic, which is based on statements or
propositions, rather than terms, differing greatly from Aristotle's term logic. Later, Chrysippus developed
a system that became known as Stoic logic and included a deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was
considered a rival to Aristotle's Syllogistic (see Syllogism). New interest in Stoic logic came in the
20th century, when important developments in logic were based
on propositional logic. Susanne Bobzien wrote, "The many close
similarities between Chrysippus's philosophical logic and that of
Gottlob Frege are especially striking".[21]

Bobzien also notes that, "Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on

logic, on virtually any topic logic today concerns itself with,
including speech act theory, sentence analysis, singular and plural
expressions, types of predicates, indexicals, existential
propositions, sentential connectives, negations, disjunctions,
conditionals, logical consequence, valid argument forms, theory of
deduction, propositional logic, modal logic, tense logic, epistemic
logic, logic of suppositions, logic of imperatives, ambiguity and
logical paradoxes".[21]
Chrysippus, the third leader of the
Stoic school, wrote over 300 books
Categories on logic. His works were lost, but an
The Stoics held that all beings (ὄντα)—though not all things outline of his logical system can be
reconstructed from fragments and
(τινά)—are material.[22] Besides the existing beings they admitted
testimony.
four incorporeals (asomata): time, place, void, and sayable.[23]
They were held to be just 'subsisting' while such a status was
denied to universals.[24] Thus, they accepted Anaxagoras's idea (as did Aristotle) that if an object is hot, it
is because some part of a universal heat body had entered the object. But, unlike Aristotle, they extended
the idea to cover all accidents. Thus, if an object is red, it would be because some part of a universal red
body had entered the object.

They held that there were four categories:

1. Substance (ὑποκείμενον): The primary matter, formless substance, (ousia) that things are
made of
2. Quality (ποιόν): The way matter is organized to form an individual object; in Stoic physics,
a physical ingredient (pneuma: air or breath), which informs the matter
3. Somehow disposed (πως ἔχον): Particular characteristics, not present within the object,
such as size, shape, action, and posture
4. Somehow disposed in relation to something (πρός τί πως ἔχον): Characteristics
related to other phenomena, such as the position of an object within time and space relative
to other objects
The Stoics outlined that our own actions, thoughts, and reactions are within our control. The opening
paragraph of the Enchiridion states the categories as: "Some things in the world are up to us, while others
are not. Up to us are our faculties of judgment, motivation, desire, and aversion. In short, whatever is our
own doing."[25] These suggest a space that is up to us or within our power. A simple example of the Stoic
categories in use is provided by Jacques Brunschwig:

I am a certain lump of matter, and thereby a substance, an existent something (and thus far that
is all); I am a man, and this individual man that I am, and thereby qualified by a common
quality and a peculiar one; I am sitting or standing, disposed in a certain way; I am the father of
 my children, the fellow citizen of my fellow citizens, disposed in a certain way in relation to
something else.[26]

Epistemology
The Stoics propounded that knowledge can be attained through the use of reason. Truth can be
distinguished from fallacy—even if, in practice, only an approximation can be made. According to the
Stoics, the senses constantly receive sensations: pulsations that pass from objects through the senses to
the mind, where they leave an impression in the imagination (phantasiai) (an impression arising from the
mind was called a phantasma).[27]

The mind has the ability to judge (συγκατάθεσις, synkatathesis)—approve or reject—an impression,
enabling it to distinguish a true representation of reality from one that is false. Some impressions can be
assented to immediately, but others can achieve only varying degrees of hesitant approval, which can be
labeled belief or opinion (doxa). It is only through reason that we gain clear comprehension and
conviction (katalepsis). Certain and true knowledge (episteme), achievable by the Stoic sage, can be
attained only by verifying the conviction with the expertise of one's peers and the collective judgment of
humankind.

Physics
According to the Stoics, the Universe is a material reasoning substance (logos), which was divided into
two classes: the active and the passive.[28] The passive substance is matter, which "lies sluggish, a
substance ready for any use, but sure to remain unemployed if no one sets it in motion".[29] The active
substance is an intelligent aether or primordial fire, which acts on the passive matter:

The universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul; it is this same world's
guiding principle, operating in mind and reason, together with the common nature of things and
the totality that embraces all existence; then the foreordained might and necessity of the future;
then fire and the principle of aether; then those elements whose natural state is one of flux and
transition, such as water, earth, and air; then the sun, the moon, the stars; and the universal
existence in which all things are contained.

— Chrysippus, in Cicero, De Natura Deorum, i. 39

Everything is subject to the laws of Fate, for the Universe acts according to its own nature, and the nature
of the passive matter it governs. The souls of humans and animals are emanations from this primordial
Fire, and are, likewise, subject to Fate:

Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul; and
observe how all things have reference to one perception, the perception of this one living being;
and how all things act with one movement; and how all things are the cooperating causes of all
things that exist; observe too the continuous spinning of the thread and the structure of the web.

— Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iv. 40

Individual souls are perishable by nature, and can be "transmuted
and diffused, assuming a fiery nature by being received into the
seminal reason ("logos spermatikos") of the Universe".[30] Since
right Reason is the foundation of both humanity and the universe.

Stoic theology is a fatalistic and naturalistic pantheism: God is

never fully transcendent but always immanent, and identified with
Nature. Abrahamic religions personalize God as a world-creating
entity, but Stoicism equates God with the totality of the universe;
according to Stoic cosmology, which is very similar to the Hindu
conception of existence, there is no absolute start to time, as it is
considered infinite and cyclic. Similarly, space and the Universe
have neither start nor end, rather they are cyclical. The current
Universe is a phase in the present cycle, preceded by an infinite
number of Universes, doomed to be destroyed ("ekpyrōsis",
conflagration) and re-created again,[31] and to be followed by
another infinite number of Universes. Stoicism considers all Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic Roman
existence as cyclical, the cosmos as eternally self-creating and emperor
self-destroying (see also Eternal return).

Stoicism does not posit a beginning or end to the Universe.[32] According to the Stoics, the logos was the
active reason or anima mundi pervading and animating the entire Universe. It was conceived as material
and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal reason ("logos
spermatikos"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason
working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos, which is the
primordial Fire and reason that controls and sustains the Universe.[33]

Ethics
The foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the
soul itself, in wisdom and self-control. One must therefore strive
to be free of the passions. For the Stoics, reason meant using logic
and understanding the processes of nature—the logos or universal
reason, inherent in all things.[34] The Greek word pathos was a
wide-ranging term indicating an infliction one suffers.[35] The
Stoics used the word to discuss many common emotions such as
anger, fear and excessive joy.[36] A passion is a disturbing and
misleading force in the mind which occurs because of a failure to
reason correctly.[35]

For the Stoic Chrysippus, the passions are evaluative A bust of Seneca, a Stoic
judgements.[37] A person experiencing such an emotion has philosopher from the Roman empire
incorrectly valued an indifferent thing. [38] A fault of judgement, who served as an adviser to Nero
some false notion of good or evil, lies at the root of each
passion.[39] Incorrect judgement as to a present good gives rise to
delight, while lust is a wrong estimate about the future.[39] Unreal imaginings of evil cause distress about
the present, or fear for the future.[39] The ideal Stoic would instead measure things at their real value,[39]
and see that the passions are not natural.[40] To be free of the passions is to have a happiness which is
self-contained.[40] There would be nothing to fear—for unreason is the only evil; no cause for anger—for
others cannot harm you.[40]

Passions
The Stoics arranged the passions under four headings: distress, pleasure, fear and lust.[41] One report of
the Stoic definitions of these passions appears in the treatise On Passions by Chrysippus (trans. Long &
Sedley, pg. 411, modified):

Distress (lupē): Distress is an irrational contraction, or a fresh opinion that something bad
is present, at which people think it right to be depressed.
Fear (phobos): Fear is an irrational aversion, or avoidance of an expected danger.
Lust (epithumia): Lust is an irrational desire, or pursuit of an expected good but in reality
bad.
Delight (hēdonē): Delight is an irrational swelling, or a fresh opinion that something good is
present, at which people think it right to be elated.
Two of these passions (distress and delight) refer to emotions currently Present Future
present, and two of these (fear and lust) refer to emotions directed at the Good Delight Lust
future.[41] Thus there are just two states directed at the prospect of good and Evil Distress Fear
evil, but subdivided as to whether they are present or future:[42] Numerous
subdivisions of the same class were brought under the head of the separate passions:[43]

Distress: Envy, Rivalry, Jealousy, Compassion, Anxiety, Mourning, Sadness, Troubling,

Grief, Lamenting, Depression, Vexation, Despondency.
Fear: Sluggishness, Shame, Fright, Timidity, Consternation, Pusillanimity, Bewilderment,
and Faintheartedness.
Lust: Anger, Rage, Hatred, Enmity, Wrath, Greed, and Longing.
Delight: Malice, Rapture, and Ostentation.
The wise person (sophos) is someone who is free from the passions (apatheia). Instead the sage
experiences good-feelings (eupatheia) which are clear-headed.[44] These emotional impulses are not
excessive, but nor are they diminished emotions.[45][46] Instead they are the correct rational emotions.[46]
The Stoics listed the good-feelings under the headings of joy (chara), wish (boulesis), and caution
(eulabeia).[38] Thus if something is present which is a genuine good, then the wise person experiences an
uplift in the soul—joy (chara).[47] The Stoics also subdivided the good-feelings:[48]

Joy: Enjoyment, Cheerfulness, Good spirits

Wish: Good intent, Goodwill, Welcoming, Cherishing, Love
Caution: Moral shame, Reverence

Suicide
The Stoics accepted that suicide was permissible for the wise person in circumstances that might prevent
them from living a virtuous life,[49] such as if they fell victim to severe pain or disease,[49] but otherwise
suicide would usually be seen as a rejection of one's social duty.[50] For example, Plutarch reports that
accepting life under tyranny would have compromised Cato's self-consistency (constantia) as a Stoic and
impaired his freedom to make the honorable moral choices.[51]

Social philosophy
A distinctive feature of Stoicism is its cosmopolitanism; according to the Stoics, all people are
manifestations of the one universal spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another.
In the Discourses, Epictetus comments on man's relationship with the world: "Each human being is
primarily a citizen of his own commonwealth; but he is also a member of the great city of gods and men,
whereof the city political is only a copy."[52] This sentiment echoes that of Diogenes of Sinope, who said,
"I am not an Athenian or a Corinthian, but a citizen of the world."[53]

They held that external differences, such as rank and wealth, are of no importance in social relationships.
Instead, they advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings.
Stoicism became the most influential school of the Greco-Roman world, and produced a number of
remarkable writers and personalities, such as Cato the Younger and Epictetus.

In particular, they were noted for their urging of clemency toward slaves. Seneca exhorted, "Kindly
remember that he whom you call your slave sprang from the same stock, is smiled upon by the same
skies, and on equal terms with yourself breathes, lives, and dies."[54]

Legacy

Neoplatonism
Plotinus criticized both Aristotle's Categories and those of the Stoics. His student Porphyry, however,
defended Aristotle's scheme. He justified this by arguing that they be interpreted strictly as expressions,
rather than as metaphysical realities. The approach can be justified, at least in part, by Aristotle's own
words in The Categories. Boethius' acceptance of Porphyry's interpretation led to their being accepted by
Scholastic philosophy.

Christianity
The Fathers of the Church regarded Stoicism as a "pagan philosophy";[55][56] nonetheless, early Christian
writers employed some of the central philosophical concepts of Stoicism. Examples include the terms
"logos", "virtue", "Spirit", and "conscience".[32] But the parallels go well beyond the sharing and
borrowing of terminology. Both Stoicism and Christianity assert an inner freedom in the face of the
external world, a belief in human kinship with Nature or God, a sense of the innate depravity—or
"persistent evil"—of humankind,[32] and the futility and temporary nature of worldly possessions and
attachments. Both encourage Ascesis with respect to the passions and inferior emotions, such as lust, and
envy, so that the higher possibilities of one's humanity can be awakened and developed. Stoic influence
can also be seen in the works of Ambrose of Milan, Marcus Minucius Felix, and Tertullian.[57]

Modern
Modern usage defines a stoic as a "person who represses feelings or endures patiently".[58] The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy 's entry on Stoicism notes, "the sense of the English adjective 'stoical' is not
utterly misleading with regard to its philosophical origins".[59]

The revival of Stoicism in the 20th century can be traced to the publication of Problems in Stoicism[60][61]
by A. A. Long in 1971, and also as part of the late 20th-century surge of interest in virtue ethics.
Contemporary Stoicism draws from the late 20th- and early 21st-century spike in publications of
scholarly works on ancient Stoicism. Beyond that, the current Stoicist movement traces its roots to the
work of Albert Ellis, who developed rational emotive behavior therapy,[62] as well as Aaron T. Beck, who
is regarded by many as the father of early versions of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).

Psychology and psychotherapy

Stoic philosophy was the original philosophical inspiration for modern cognitive psychotherapy,
particularly as mediated by Albert Ellis' Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), the major
precursor of CBT. The original cognitive therapy treatment manual for depression by Aaron T. Beck et al.
states, "The philosophical origins of cognitive therapy can be traced back to the Stoic philosophers".[63] A
well-known quotation from Enchiridion of Epictetus was taught to most clients during the initial session
of traditional REBT by Ellis and his followers: "It's not the events that upset us, but our judgments about
the events."[64]

This subsequently became a common element in the socialization phase of many other approaches to
CBT. The question of Stoicism's influence on modern psychotherapy, particularly REBT and CBT, was
described in detail in The Philosophy of Cognitive–Behavioural Therapy by Donald Robertson.[64]
Several early 20th-century psychotherapists were influenced by Stoicism, most notably the "rational
persuasion" school founded by the Swiss neurologist and psychotherapist Paul Dubois, who drew heavily
on Stoicism in his clinical work and encouraged his clients to study passages from Seneca the Younger as
homework assignments.

Similarities of modern Stoicism and third-wave CBT have been suggested as well, and individual reports
of its potency in treating depression have been published.[65] There has also been interest in applying the
tenets of ancient Stoicism to the human origin story,[66] environmental education,[67] vegetarianism[68]
and the modern challenges of sustainable development, material consumption and
consumerism.[69][70][71]

Seamus Mac Suibhne has described the practices of spiritual exercises as influencing those of reflective
practice.[72] Many parallels between Stoic spiritual exercises and modern cognitive behavioral therapy
have been identified.[64] According to philosopher Pierre Hadot, philosophy for a Stoic is not just a set of
beliefs or ethical claims; it is a way of life involving constant practice and training (or "askēsis"), an
active process of constant practice and self-reminder. Epictetus in his Discourses, distinguished between
three types of act: judgment, desire, and inclination.[73] which Hadot identifies these three acts with logic,
physics and ethics respectively.[74] Hadot writes that in the Meditations, "Each maxim develops either
one of these very characteristic topoi [i.e., acts], or two of them or three of them."[75]

See also
4 Maccabees
Amor fati
A Man in Full

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Further reading

Primary sources
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1945 c. 1927). Cicero : Tusculan Disputations (Loeb Classical
Library, No. 141) 2nd ed. trans. by J. E. King. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard UP.
 Long, A. A., Sedley, D. N. (1987). The Hellenistic Philosophers: vol. 1. translations of the
principal sources with philosophical commentary. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.
Inwood, Brad & Gerson Lloyd P. (eds.) The Stoics Reader: Selected Writings and
Testimonia Indianapolis: Hackett 2008.

Seneca
Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (transl. Robin Campbell), Letters from a Stoic:
Epistulae Morales Ad Lucilium (1969, reprint 2004) ISBN 0140442103

Epictetus
Long, George Enchiridion by Epictetus, Prometheus Books, Reprint ed., January 1955.
Gill C. Epictetus, The Discourses, Everyman 1995.
Harvard University Press Epictetus Discourses Books 1 and 2, Loeb Classical Library Nr.
131, June 1925.
Harvard University Press Epictetus Discourses Books 3 and 4, Loeb Classical Library Nr.
218, June 1928.

Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, translated by Maxwell Staniforth; ISBN 0140441409, or
translated by Gregory Hays; ISBN 0679642609. Also Available on wikisource translated by
various translators

Fragment collections
Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta is a collection by Hans von Arnim of fragments and testimonia of the
earlier Stoics, published in 1903–1905 as part of the Bibliotheca Teubneriana. It includes the fragments
and testimonia of Zeno of Citium, Chrysippus and their immediate followers. At first the work consisted
of three volumes, to which Maximilian Adler in 1924 added a fourth, containing general indices. Teubner
reprinted the whole work in 1964.

Volume 1 (https://archive.org/details/stoicorumveterum01arniuoft) – Fragments of Zeno and

his followers
Volume 2 (https://archive.org/details/stoicorumveterum02arniuoft) – Logical and physical
fragments of Chrysippus
Volume 3 (https://archive.org/details/stoicorumveterum03arniuoft) – Ethical fragments of
Chrysippus and some fragments of his pupils
Volume 4 (https://archive.org/details/stoicorumveterum04arniuoft) – Indices of words, proper
names and sources

Studies
Annas, Julia (1994), Hellenistic Philosophy of Mind, University of California Press,
ISBN 978-0520076594
Bakalis, Nikolaos, Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics. Analysis and
Fragments, Trafford Publishing, 2005, ISBN 1412048435
Becker, Lawrence C., A New Stoicism (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1998)
ISBN 0691016607
Brennan, Tad, The Stoic Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005; paperback 2006)
Brooke, Christopher. Philosophic Pride: Stoicism and Political Thought from Lipsius to
Rousseau (Princeton UP, 2012) excerpts (http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9737.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140429075707/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/973
7.html) 29 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine
Bryant, James Henry (1866), The mutual influence of Christianity and the Stoic school (http
s://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73570)
Capes, William Wolfe (1880), Stoicism, Pott, Young, & Co.
de Harven, Vanessa (2010). Everything is Something: Why the Stoic ontology is principled,
coherent and comprehensive (https://philosophy.berkeley.edu/file/666/Everythingv1.pdf)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230326032013/https://philosophy.berkeley.edu/file/
666/Everythingv1.pdf) 26 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Paper presented to
Department of Philosophy, Berkeley University.
de Harven, Vanessa (2012). The Coherence of Stoic Ontology (https://escholarship.org/cont
ent/qt3wg7m1w0/qt3wg7m1w0.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2023052223131
6/https://escholarship.org/content/qt3wg7m1w0/qt3wg7m1w0.pdf) 22 May 2023 at the
Wayback Machine. PhD dissertation, Department of Philosophy, Berkeley University.
Graver, Margaret (2007), Stoicism and Emotion, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-
0226305578
Hall, Ron, Secundum Naturam (According to Nature) (https://books.google.com/books/abou
t?id=h6AREAAAQBAJ) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230708083245/https://book
s.google.com/books/about?id=h6AREAAAQBAJ) 8 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine.
Stoic Therapy, LLC, 2021.
Inwood, Brad (1999), "Stoic Ethics", in Algra, Keimpe; Barnes, Johnathan; Mansfield, Jaap;
Schofield, Malcolm (eds.), The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, Cambridge
University Press, ISBN 978-0521250283
Inwood, Brad (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to The Stoics (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2003)
Lachs, John, Stoic Pragmatism (Indiana University Press, 2012) ISBN 0253223768
Long, A. A., Stoic Studies (Cambridge University Press, 1996; repr. University of California
Press, 2001) ISBN 0520229746
Menn, Stephen (1999). 'The Stoic Theory of Categories', in Oxford Studies in Ancient
Philosophy, Volume XVII. Oxford University Press ISBN 0198250193, pp. 215–247.
Robertson, Donald, The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Stoicism as Rational
and Cognitive Psychotherapy (London: Karnac, 2010) ISBN 978-1855757561
Robertson, Donald, How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus
Aurelius (https://books.google.com/books?id=xGBbDwAAQBAJ) Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20190804171626/https://books.google.gr/books?id=xGBbDwAAQBAJ) 4 August
2019 at the Wayback Machine. 'New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019.
Sellars, John, Stoicism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006) ISBN 1844650537
Sorabji, Richard (2000), Emotion and Peace of Mind: From Stoic Agitation to Christian
Temptation (https://archive.org/details/emotionpeaceofmi0000sora), Oxford University
Press, ISBN 978-0198250050
Stephens, William O., Stoic Ethics: Epictetus and Happiness as Freedom (London:
Continuum, 2007) ISBN 0826496083
Strange, Steven (ed.), Stoicism: Traditions and Transformations (Cambridge: Cambridge
Univ. Press, 2004) ISBN 0521827094
Zeller, Eduard; Reichel, Oswald J., The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics, Longmans, Green,
and Co., 1892
External links
Baltzly, Dirk. "Stoicism" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stoicism/). In Zalta, Edward N.
(ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
"Stoicism" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/stoicism.htm). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
"Stoic Ethics" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/stoiceth.htm). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
"Stoic Philosophy of Mind" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/stoicmind.htm). Internet Encyclopedia
of Philosophy.
Hicks, Robert Drew (1911). "Stoics" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6
dia_Britannica/Stoics). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).
The Stoic Therapy eLibrary (https://www.stoictherapy.com/elibrary) Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20210228002128/https://www.stoictherapy.com/elibrary) 28 February 2021 at
the Wayback Machine
The Stoic Library (http://www.ibiblio.org/stoicism/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
41225040854/http://www.ibiblio.org/stoicism/) 25 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine
Stoic Logic: The Dialectic from Zeno to Chrysippus (http://www.historyoflogic.com/logic-stoic
s.htm)
Annotated Bibliography on Ancient Stoic Dialectic (http://www.historyoflogic.com/biblio/logic-
stoics-biblio-one.htm)
"A bibliography on Stoicism by the Stoic Foundation" (http://stoicfoundation.host-ed.me/bibli
ography.htm). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121101014307/http://stoicfoundatio
n.host-ed.me/bibliography.htm) from the original on 1 November 2012. Retrieved
14 September 2012.
BBC Radio 4's In Our Time programme on Stoicism (https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/in
ourtime/inourtime_20050303.shtml) (requires Flash)
The Stoic Registry (formerly New Stoa) :Online Stoic Community (http://thestoicregistry.org)
Modern Stoicism (Stoic Week and Stoicon) (https://modernstoicism.com)

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