CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Pepper (Capsicum spp.) is a vital crop in Nigeria, both as a food and cash crop,
valued for its culinary, nutritional, and economic contributions. Despite its
importance, pepper production is constrained by inconsistent seedling quality due
to suboptimal nursery management practices, particularly the use of traditional
growing substrates. Substrates significantly influence seedling performance,
affecting parameters like germination rate, growth vigor, and transplant success
(Kaledzi et al., 2020).
Pepper (Capsicum frutescens L.), an annual herb or shrub with many branches,
belongs to the Solanaceae family. The unripe fruits are green or purple in colour
but turn red, orange, yellow or brown when ripe (Udoh et al., 2015). Pepper is an
important crop species in the world. It is one of the most important vegetables
grown in Nigeria and other parts of the humid and semi-arid tropics (Aliyu, 2020).
It is commonly used as condiments (Alabi, 2016) and the non-pungent species
(Capsicum annum) are eaten raw as salad while the stronger flavoured types
(chilies) are popular in all kinds of cookery as pungent species. It is also used in
seasoning sauces and soup and other dishes. As a medicinal plant, pepper is used in
the prevention and treatment of cold and fever (Udoh et al., 2015). The very hot
varieties of pepper (Chilies) have a high content of the alkaloid capsaicin
(C18H2703) which imparts the pungency or spicy taste. Pepper like other
vegetables crops contributes nutritiously with nutrients that may be lacking in other
food materials hence improve food intake (Grubben, 2017).
According to Iqbal et al. (2021), hot pepper is important because of its economic
value and mostly for its nutritional and medicinal value. Hot Pepper (Capsicum
1
annum) is a vegetable that is widely cultivated in Nigeria during rainy season or
dry season under irrigation. The vegetable is the world’s most highly important
after tomato as it can be used as fresh or dried and usually used for salads and other
meals (Mazourek et al., 2019). According to Weiss (2022), the total land area for
the cultivation of pepper worldwide is estimated to be four million hectares with an
average annual increase of 5%. However in Nigeria, low production of hot pepper
is attributed to poor varieties, poor cultural practices and prevalence of fungal,
bacterial and viral diseases (Fekadu and Dandena, 2016). It can be grown entirely
under irrigation, due to its sensitivity to an abundance of moisture and excessive
temperatures (Almuktar et al., 2015) and can also be grown in a well-drained,
fertile loam soil. However, its maximum growth occurs at a temperature range
between 21o C and 29o C (Nickels, 2022) and is sensitive to high levels of salinity,
requiring salinity conditions below 1280 mg L-1 (FAO, 2023). Peppers normally
grow in light and well-drained soil that is rich in organic matter such as sandy loam
or loams with a pH value between 6.5 and 7.5 (Haifa Chemicals, 2024). The
maturity period is between 60 to 90 days (FAO, 2023) and germinates between 5 to
14 days well in moist and nutrient-rich soil in a warm climate (Almuktar et al.,
2015) with temperature ranging between 18 to 27o C during the day and between
15o C to 18o C at night (Campiglia et al., 2020). Like all other plants, pepper
requires some macro elements (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium and sulphur) and micro elements (boron, potassium, iodine and
chlorine) for its growth and germination. Like every other vegetable, peppers are
very important due to their economic importance in the global world. The
importance of irrigation in agriculture cannot be ruled out because of its enormous
effect in the globalization of food security. Irrigation can ensure adequate and
reliable supply of water which increases yields of most crops by 100% to 400%
2
(Alatise, 2020). Therefore cultivating vegetables such as pepper using irrigation
not only increases yield but also enables planting all year-round.
In Imo State, a predominantly agricultural region, the lack of research-based
recommendations on nursery substrates has limited farmers' productivity.
Investigating the performance of pepper seedlings under different substrates could
provide insights into optimizing nursery management and improving crop yields.
1.2 Statement of Problem
According to Bosland and Votava (2020) pepper production is on the increase and
may be an important source of vitamins for the world population. Salunke et al.
(2021) reported that postharvest losses are very high in the fruit and vegetable
sector as a result of their high moisture level. Farmers produce enough pepper but
as a result of inadequate postharvest technology to extend the shelf life of peppers,
their incomes are reduced when losses are incurred. It is in the light of these that
this research was being carried out to asses the production and postharvest
handling of pepper which will help to extend the shelf life of pepper in general.
The use of topsoil alone or other single-component substrates in nurseries often
leads to poor seedling performance. Imo State farmers face challenges in obtaining
robust and uniform seedlings, which hampers the establishment of pepper plants in
the field. Studies have shown that the physical and chemical properties of
substrates—such as pH, water-holding capacity, and nutrient content—are critical
for seedling development (International Society for Horticultural Science, 2023).
There is a need to identify sustainable and locally available substrate combinations
that enhance seedling growth and support the agro ecological conditions of Imo
State.

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1.3 Objectives of the Study
The objective of the study is to evaluate the growth performance of pepper
seedlings grown in different substrate compositions. To achieve this aim, the
following specific objectives are to be carried out:
1.3.1 Specific Objectives:
i. To determine the effects of substrate composition on germination rates, plant
height, stem thickness, and root development.
ii. To identify cost-effective and sustainable substrates suitable for nurseries in
Imo State.
iii. To provide practical recommendations to farmers for improving seedling
quality and yield.
1.4 Research Questions
1. How do different substrates influence the germination and growth of pepper
seedlings?
2. What substrate combination provides optimal conditions for seedling
performance in Imo State?
3. What are the economic and ecological implications of using different substrates
in nursery management?
1.5 Significance of the Study
The study on the Performance of Pepper Seedlings from Different Substrates in the
Nursery in Imo State holds critical importance for both agricultural research and
practical applications. This research provides insights into the use of locally
available and sustainable substrates, such as compost and agricultural residues,
reducing reliance on expensive commercial growing media. Identifying cost-
effective substrate combinations helps smallholder farmers in Imo State improve
seedling quality without significantly increasing production costs.
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High-quality seedlings are essential for successful crop establishment and yield.
This study evaluates germination rates, growth parameters, and root development,
enabling farmers to adopt best practices for nursery management. Enhanced
seedling vigor leads to better field performance, ultimately boosting pepper yield..
The study focuses on the unique soil and climate conditions of Imo State, ensuring
the recommendations are tailored to the region. This localized approach addresses
specific challenges such as acidic soils and high rainfall, offering practical
solutions for farmers in the region..
Findings from the study can guide agricultural extension services and
policymakers in developing training programs and materials. By disseminating
knowledge on optimal substrate use, the study promotes widespread adoption of
improved nursery practices among farmer.
This study bridges existing knowledge gaps regarding substrate use in tropical
nursery management. It serves as a reference for future research on vegetable
seedling production, offering a foundation for further studies on sustainable
agriculture and nursery innovations.
1.6 Scope of the Study
This study examines the impact of various substrate types on the growth and
performance of pepper seedlings in nursery conditions, focusing on Imo State,
Nigeria. The study is localized to Imo State, a region in southeastern Nigeria with
a tropical climate conducive to pepper cultivation. The findings will address
specific agro-ecological challenges and opportunities in this area..
The study explores different organic, inorganic, and mixed substrates commonly
used for nursery practices. The study evaluates the following performance
indicators of pepper seedlings and also the study incorporates common nursery
practices.
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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Origin and distribution of pepper
Norman (2022) and Tindall (2023) stated that the Capsicum peppers are
indigenous to Central and Tropical America. From this place, various domesticated
forms developed secondary centres with Capsicum annum located in the middle of
America (Mexico), Capsicum Chinese and Capsicum frutescens from Northern
half of South America to parts of Central America and the Caribbean. World book
of Encyclopaedia (2000), reported that early America. Indians used pepper as
seasoning. In the late 1400’s and 1500’s, Europeans explorers brought pepper from
America to Europe and Asia.

Fig 2.1: pepper (Norman 2022)

Walter (1990) added that peppers were unknown in Europe until the sixteenth
century, having been introduced into Spain by Columbus on his return trip in 1548
and to Central Europe by the close of the sixteenth century. The Portuguese carried
6
Capsicum from Brazil to India prior to 1885 and cultivation was reported in China
during the late 1700s. Norman (1992) suggested that hot peppers in West Africa
came from either another part of Africa or from overseas and or from hybridization
of those introduced. It was thought that the Portuguese introduced peppers to West
Africa in the 15th Century, (Norman, 1992) added and today, pepper is grown
throughout the world, both the tropical regions and temperate regions. However,
Walter (1990) indicated that modern taxonomists recognize five major cultivated
species namely Capsicum annum L., Capsicum frutescens L., CapsicumChinese
jacquin, Capsicum pendulum Wildenow, and Capsicum pubescens Ruiz and
Pavon. The five major cultivated species are derived from different ancestral
stocks found in three distinct centers of origin. Mexico is the primary for Capsicum
annuum, with Guatemala a secondary center; Amazonia for C. Chinese and C.
frutescens, and Peru and Bolvia for C. pendulum and C. pubescens.
2.2 Botany of pepper
Norman (2022) reported that Capsicum frutescens is a small perennial shrub which
is characterised by greenish white corolla, more than one pedicel at a node, and not
so large fruits. The hot perennial pepper belongs to this species, he added.
Capsicum annum is an herb or sub-shrub which has white corolla and produces
only one pedicel per node. The fruits are variable in size, shape and pungency. The
annual sweet and hot peppers belong to this species (Norman, 1992). Pepper grows
well on fertile loam soils with high level of organic material and reserves of
essentials elements.

7
Raemakers (2021) indicated that pepper thrive well at an average tolerance to
acidity (pH 5.5- 6.8). Good drainage is important since water logging is likely to
cause leaf shedding (Tindall, 2023). According to Walter (1990), peppers are a
warm weather crop. Pepper flowers fall off when night temperature are below than
16C or above 24C. Plants do not grow when night temperatures are below 13C.
Raemakers (2001) reported that sweet pepper for instance grow best when the day
time temperature lies between 21C and 25C. Sinnadurai (1992) added that bright
sunshine during the growing season causes sunscald in the fruits and this is
common when the crop is grown during dry season.
Tweneboah (2000) reported that an adequate rainfall of 600-1200 mm per annum
is required for pepper if grown as a rain fed crop; just very heavy rains may rot the
leaves and fruits. Additionally, (Tindall, 1983) reported that excessive rainfall
affects flowering and fruit set and may also encourage fruit rot and decay. Water
deficit may also result in bud and flower abscission. Rice et al., (1990) further
8
stated that excessive hot dry weather may produce infertile pollen and therefore
reduce fruit set. Most cultivars are adapted to growing at altitudes up to 2000m
(Rice et al.,. 1990). The optimum altitudes for growth are in range of 400-600m
(Messiaen, 1992). World book (2000) added that in tropical regions, the pepper
plant is a perennial, while in temperate regions it is an annual. The fruit consist of a
thick, fleshy as a vegetable. It can also be dehydrated, pickled, or canned for
eating. Yamaguchi (1993) stated that the flowers of pepper are self-pollinated and
the fruit is a pod-like berry with a cavity between the placenta and fruit wall.
Obeng- Ofori (2007) however reported that sweet pepper is autogamous but the
level of cross-pollination varies from 2-40%, depending on insect activity, Norman
(1992) indicated leaves of capsicum peppers are usually broad oval, shiny and
glabrous but certain forms have tomentose leaves. Usually the smaller fruited types
have narrower leaves. Flowers are small 0.60 to1.3cm across, and are typically
solanaceous. Usually fruit colour when ripe is reddish orange but the most pungent
fruits are often green when small. Hot pepper, Capsicum frutescens bears an erect
branch stems to a height varying 0.3m to1m or more, with slender foliage. Sweet
pepper, however, is an herbaceous annual with erect branching stem and may
attain a height of 0.5m to 0.8m. When grown in deep homogenous soil, Capsicum
develops a root system that may extend to a depth of 0.4m to 0.7m (Obeng- Oforiet
al., 2007).
2.3 Uses of pepper
Pepper “the master spice” is the most used spice. Nutritionally beneficial and
medically positive, pepper offers a unique flavour and a variety of uses. It is the
third most common ingredient behind salt and water. Along with salt pepper is on
nearly every table. Obeng-Ofori et al., (2007) added that the uses of pepper range
from salads, using Capsicum to add flavour, to cook dishes, using green and red
9
chillies to add pungency, to using dried powder spice of paprika and chilli to
sauces using for example Tabasco. Pepper have some insecticidal properties hence
they are used in the formulation of insecticides to control some insects. Hot pepper
especially the Birds eye is used in the preparation of tear gas (Timpo et al., 2010).
Tindall (1983) reported that, pepper could be used for meat stuffing. Dupriez and
De Leener (1989) mentioned that large chillies are more popular as a vegetable.
Some, like the sweet pepper, are eaten raw in salads. They added that the leaves
could also be eaten cooked and also the Bird chillies are used in many sauce
recipes
2.4 Importance of pepper
2.4.1 Nutritional Importance of Pepper
Pepper has a high nutritional value. It supplies vitamins such as vitahmins C, B6,
and E (Timpo et al., 2010). Yamaguchi (1986) indicates that peppers are excellent
source of vitamin A and C and are the second most important crop among the
solanaceous fruits. He further indicated that peppers are by far superior to both
tomatoes and egg plant in vitamin A and C. Mayhew and Penny (1988) also
reported that pepper is very nutritious and extremely good source of vitamin C as
well as containing significant quantities of mineral, notably Iron. Pepper provides
roughage of crude fibre which promotes a digestion and helps prevent constipation.
Pepper provides a good source of energy (Calories) (Timpo et al., 2010)
2.4.2 Medicinal Importance
i. Abdominal pain; heart burn, inadequate stomach juices, indigestion and others
stomach problems.
ii. Stimulates the taste buds which signals the body to produce hydrochloric acid
which helps to break down foods not being digested by stimulating by intestinal

10
pain, constipation, stiffness, cold, diabetes, dysentery, flu, fluid retention and
mental exhaustion;
iii. Provides mild amount of energy, nicotine craving, and obesity by stimulating
the breakdown of fat cells.
iv. Pepper aids so much in the digestive system, hence its use can correct
flatulence and nausea.
v. Pepper is an aromatic stimulant, good for the urinary organs. It pepper is gargled
with; it relaxes the uvula and paralysis the tongue.
2.5 Overview of Pepper Production in Nigeria
Pepper production is a significant agricultural activity in Nigeria, contributing to
food security and the economy. Nigeria is one of the largest producers of peppers
in Africa, with varieties such as bell peppers, cayenne, and habanero being popular
(Almuktar et al., 2015). The country's tropical climate, characterized by warm
temperatures and distinct wet and dry seasons, supports pepper cultivation year-
round, particularly with the use of irrigation systems.
2.5.1 Climatic and Soil Requirements
Peppers thrive in Nigeria's warm weather conditions, with optimal growth
temperatures ranging between 21°C and 27°C. Sandy loam soils with good
drainage and moderate fertility are ideal for pepper production. However, poor soil
management can lead to reduced yields. Practices such as crop rotation and the use
of organic and inorganic fertilizers help sustain soil productivity (Almuktar et al.,
2015)
2.5.2 Cultivation Practices
Pepper farming in Nigeria typically involves nursery establishment, transplanting,
and intensive management practices. Farmers often plant during the early rainy
season (April-May) for optimal growth. Key challenges include pests such as
11
whiteflies and aphids, and diseases like damping-off and blossom-end rot. The use
of resistant varieties and appropriate pest management strategies are essential
(Campiglia et al., 2020).
2.5.3 Economic Importance
The pepper market in Nigeria is growing, driven by domestic consumption and
export demand. Peppers are used in various culinary applications and value-added
products like sauces. With improved management practices and access to export
markets, pepper farming is becoming a profitable venture for many farmers
(Alatise, 2020).
2.5.4 Production Trends
Recent data shows that Nigeria's pepper production has steadily increased due to
advancements in farming techniques and market demand. However, challenges
such as climate change, poor infrastructure, and limited access to quality seeds and
inputs continue to affect production potential (IndexBox, 2023).
This overview highlights the potential for pepper farming in Nigeria to contribute
to food security and economic growth, especially with investments in sustainable
practices and market expansion.
2.6 Importance of Nursery Practices in Vegetable Production
Nursery practices play a pivotal role in the production of healthy and vigorous
vegetable crops. These practices ensure the initial establishment of crops under
controlled conditions before transplanting to the field, significantly influencing
yield, quality, and profitability.
1. Ensures Uniform and Healthy Seedlings
Nurseries provide a controlled environment where seeds can germinate and grow
uniformly. Healthy seedlings with strong root systems and disease resistance are
more likely to survive transplanting and thrive in the field (IndexBox, 2023).
12
2. Optimizes Resource Use
Nurseries minimize the use of inputs like water, fertilizers, and seeds by
concentrating them in a smaller area. This efficiency reduces production costs and
ensures seedlings receive adequate care during their most vulnerable stages (FAO,
2023).
3. Facilitates Early Planting
Seedlings raised in nurseries can be transplanted early, allowing farmers to take
advantage of favorable weather conditions. Early planting often results in better
crop performance and higher yields (IndexBox, 2023).
4. Protects Against Environmental Stress
Nurseries provide a shielded environment, protecting young plants from harsh
weather conditions, pests, and diseases. This is particularly important for tropical
regions where climatic variability can threaten crop establishment (IndexBox,
2023).
5. Improves Field Management
Raising seedlings in nurseries allows farmers to prepare the main field
simultaneously, reducing the time between field preparation and transplanting.
This leads to better weed management and soil preparation before seedlings are
transplanted (IndexBox, 2023).
6. Promotes Sustainability
Nurseries enable the use of integrated pest and disease management techniques,
such as using sterilized soil and biological controls. These practices reduce
chemical use, making vegetable production more sustainable (FAO, 2023).

13
7. Enhances Yield and Profitability
Healthy seedlings establish more quickly in the field, leading to earlier maturity,
reduced crop loss, and higher yields. This directly translates to increased
profitability for farmers (FAO, 2023).
8. Supports Commercial Vegetable Farming
For large-scale production, nurseries facilitate the cultivation of high-value crops
like tomatoes, peppers, and lettuce by providing consistent quality planting
materials. This ensures market standards are met, especially for export-oriented
farming (Alatise, 2020).
2.7 Substrates and their roles in seedling growth
Plant substrate is defined as a substance on or in which plants grow. Thus, even
soil can be viewed as a substrate. The main functions of the substrate are generally:
providing plant anchorage, and delivering water, nutrients and oxygen to the roots.
Moreover, root waste products such as CO2, excreted nutrient surplus, and several
root exudates should not accumulate in the substrate. Therefore, ideally the
substrate for horticultural plants is inert and airy. Although soil can be viewed as a
substrate that provides the plant with its needs it should not be viewed as “dead
material”. The soil contains many living organisms that should be managed with
care as they have a big impact on nutrient retention time, water supply, pathogen
suppression, plant disease resistance and root anchorage strengths.
For roots to grow optimally the substrate should not be too dense. That is, it should
still allow a flow of water, nutrients and oxygen to the roots and provide enough
anchorage if needed. In fully controlled cultivation systems with optimal oxygen,
nutrient and water delivery, roots to shoot ratio can be smaller because there is less
need for the plant to invest in its uptake organs. This is a situation to strive for in
horticulture because this means there is relatively less carbon allocated to root
14
growth and more to the product of economic interest. An ongoing discussion in
horticulture is whether to grow sterile or not. Fact is that the inert substrate in
almost all greenhouses is heavily populated with micro-organisms.
Substrates, also known as growing media, play a crucial role in seedling
development by providing physical support, water, air, and nutrients required for
optimal growth. Different types of substrates vary in their properties, influencing
seedling germination, root development, and overall health.
2.8 Key Roles of Substrates in Seedling Growth
1. Providing Physical Support
Substrates anchor the seedlings, allowing proper root establishment. A good
substrate must have a structure that holds seedlings upright while permitting root
penetration and expansion (Akinrinde et al., 2023).
2. Facilitating Water Retention and Drainage
An ideal substrate balances water retention and drainage, ensuring that seedlings
receive adequate moisture without waterlogging. Organic substrates like peat moss
and coconut coir are particularly effective in holding water (Akinrinde et al.,
2023).
3. Supplying Nutrients
Nutrient-rich substrates supply essential elements (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium) needed for seedling growth. Compost and vermicompost are excellent
sources of organic nutrients that enhance seedling vigor (Mazourek et al., 2019).
4. Enhancing Aeration
Substrates like perlite and sand improve aeration, promoting healthy root
respiration and preventing fungal infections due to poor oxygen availability
(Mazourek et al., 2019).

15
5. Promoting Microbial Activity
Organic substrates encourage beneficial microbial activity, which helps in nutrient
cycling and disease suppression. Compost and manure substrates are known to
foster a healthy soil microbiome (Grubben, 2017).
2.9 Types of Substrates and Their Properties
2.9.1 Organic Substrates
Derived from natural sources, these substrates are widely used due to their ability
to retain water and nutrients.
Compost: Decomposed organic matter that is nutrient-rich and promotes microbial
activity. However, its quality depends on the feedstock and composting process.
Peat Moss: Excellent water retention and moderate nutrient content. Its acidity
(pH ~3.5–4.5) is suitable for acid-loving plants but may require pH adjustment for
general use (Robbins et al., 2024).
Coconut Coir: A by-product of coconut processing with high water retention,
aeration, and sustainability. Often used as a substitute for peat moss (Robbins et
al., 2024)..
Vermicompost: Nutrient-rich organic matter processed by earthworms, promoting
seedling vigor and soil health (Robbins et al., 2024).
Advantages: High nutrient content, eco-friendly.
Disadvantages: Variable quality, potential for contamination without proper
treatment.
2.9.2 Inorganic Substrates
These are mined or manufactured materials that are inert or have minimal organic
content.
Perlite: Lightweight, enhances aeration and drainage but has low water retention
capacity.
16
Sand: Provides excellent drainage but is nutrient-poor and heavy to handle.
Rockwool: A synthetic fiber with high water and air-holding capacity, ideal for
hydroponics.
Vermiculite: Retains moisture and nutrients well, promoting germination and root
development (Robbins et al., 2024).
Advantages: Stable properties, resistant to pathogens.
Disadvantages: Non-biodegradable, some types (e.g., rockwool) may be
environmentally unsustainable.
2.9.3 Mixed Substrates
Combining organic and inorganic materials can optimize properties, e.g., a mix of
compost, sand, and perlite ensures proper nutrient supply, aeration, and water
balance (Grubben, 2017). Combining organic and inorganic materials optimizes
properties such as aeration, nutrient availability, and water retention. For example,
a mix of compost, sand, and perlite provides balanced properties for vegetable
seedlings.
2.10 Impact on Seedling Growth
Studies show that substrates with higher organic matter content, like compost and
vermicompost, improve germination rates, root length, and leaf number (Kaledzi et
al., 2020).In contrast, poorly balanced substrates (e.g., heavy clay) can hinder
water movement and aeration, negatively affecting root development and overall
growth (Kaledzi et al., 2020).
2.11 Effects of Substrate Properties on Seedling Performance
The properties of substrates—physical, chemical, and biological—play a critical
role in determining the growth and development of seedlings. Substrates influence
water availability, nutrient supply, aeration, and root support, all of which are
essential for optimal seedling performance.
17
1. Physical Properties
Water Retention and Drainage
Substrates with high water-holding capacity, such as peat moss and coconut coir,
ensure a consistent water supply for seedlings. However, excessive water retention
may cause waterlogging, leading to root rot and poor growth (Djedidi et al., 2019).
Good drainage, provided by substrates like perlite or sand, prevents waterlogging
and allows roots to access oxygen efficiently.
Porosity and Aeration
Porous substrates improve aeration, promoting healthy root respiration and
reducing the risk of anaerobic conditions that can cause root diseases (Djedidi et
al., 2019). Fine-textured substrates (e.g., clay) may compact easily, reducing
aeration and limiting root expansion.
Texture and Bulk Density
Lightweight substrates such as vermiculite reduce bulk density, making handling
easier and improving root penetration. Heavier substrates can impede root
development (Djedidi et al., 2019).
2. Chemical Properties
pH
The pH of a substrate affects nutrient availability. A slightly acidic to neutral pH
(5.5–7.0) is ideal for most seedlings. Alkaline or highly acidic substrates may limit
nutrient uptake, stunting growth (Choi et al., 2021).
Nutrient Content
Organic substrates like compost or manure provide essential nutrients for early
seedling development. However, nutrient-poor substrates like sand require
supplementation with fertilizers (Choi et al., 2021).

18
Imbalanced nutrient supply (e.g., excessive salts) can cause toxicity, leading to
poor growth and leaf damage.
3. Biological Properties
Microbial Activity
Organic substrates support beneficial microbial activity, which aids in nutrient
cycling and disease suppression. Compost-rich substrates often enhance seedling
vigor through increased nutrient availability and reduced pathogen pressure (Choi
et al., 2021).
Pathogen Load
Poorly sterilized substrates may introduce pathogens like fungi and bacteria,
causing seedling diseases such as damping-off. Sterilization or pasteurization of
substrates can mitigate this risk (Bhat et al., 2019).
2.12 Impacts on Seedling Performance
1. Germination Rates: Substrates with optimal moisture retention and aeration
promote higher germination rates.
2. Root Development: Well-aerated substrates encourage extensive root growth,
essential for nutrient and water uptake.
3. Shoot Growth: Nutrient-rich substrates ensure strong shoot development,
characterized by taller seedlings and more leaves.
4. Stress Tolerance: Seedlings grown in balanced substrates are more resilient to
transplanting shock and environmental stresses (Abdollahi et al., 2017).
2.13 Some substrates used
2.13.1 Biochar
Biochar is charcoal, sometimes modified, that is intended for organic use, as in
soil. It is the lightweight black remnants, consisting of carbon and ashes, remaining
after the pyrolysis of biomass, and is a form of charcoal.[1] Despite its name
19
immediately following production biochar is sterile and only gains biological life
following assisted or incidental exposure to biota.
Biochar is defined by the International Biochar Initiative as the "solid material
obtained from the thermochemical conversion of biomass in an oxygen-
limited environment".

Fig 2.2: Biochar (Gagg, 2024)

Biochar is mainly used in soils to increase soil aeration, reduce soil emissions of
greenhouse gases, reduce nutrient leaching and reduce soil acidity and can increase
soil water content in coarse soils. Biochar application may increase soil
fertility and agricultural productivity. Biochar soil amendments, when applied at
excessive rates or with unsuitable soil type and biochar feedstock combinations,
also have the potential for negative effects, including harming soil biota, reducing
available water content, altering soil pH and increasing salinity.

20
Beyond soil application, biochar can be used for slash-and-char farming, for water
retention in soil, and as an additive for animal fodder. There is an increasing focus
on the potential role of biochar application in global climate change mitigation.
Due to its refractory stability, biochar can stay in soils or other environments for
thousands of years. This has given rise to the concept of Biochar Carbon Removal,
i.e. carbon sequestration in the form of biochar. Carbon removal can be achieved
when high-quality biochar is applied to soils, or added as a substitute material to
construction materials such as concrete and tar.
2.13.2 River Sand
River sand is an essential natural resource, primarily used in construction for
concrete, mortar, and asphalt. However, its extraction has significant
environmental and social implications (Gagg, 2024).

Fig 2.3: River Sand (Gagg, 2024)

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Uses of River Sand
1. Construction: River sand is vital for producing high-quality concrete and other
building materials due to its fine texture and purity. It constitutes about 25% of fine
aggregate in standard concrete mixes.
2. Industrial Applications: Used in manufacturing glass and ceramics, and as a
filler in products like paint and plastics (Facilitator, 2022).
Environmental and Socioeconomic Impacts
1. Ecosystem Damage: Overextraction disrupts aquatic habitats, causes riverbank
erosion, and alters sediment transport, leading to water quality issues and loss of
biodiversity.
2. Community Impacts: Unregulated mining affects local livelihoods, increases
flood risks, and contributes to social conflicts in extraction areas.
3. Sustainability Challenges: Rapid urbanization and infrastructure demands have
led to unsustainable mining rates, particularly in Asia and Africa, exacerbating
environmental degradation (Facilitator, 2022).
2.13.3 Poultry manure
Poultry manure (PM) is a valuable biomass resource with applications in
agriculture and energy production, but its management requires addressing
environmental challenges.

22
Fig 2.4: Poultry manure (Choi et al., 2021)
1. Nutrient Management: Poultry manure is nutrient-rich, particularly in nitrogen
and phosphorus, making it an effective organic fertilizer. However, excessive
application can lead to nitrate leaching and water contamination.
2. Energy Production: Technologies like anaerobic digestion, gasification, and
incineration convert PM into renewable energy while mitigating greenhouse gas
emissions. These methods vary in efficiency and environmental impact (Choi et
al., 2021).
3. Environmental Considerations: Improper management can result in emissions
of ammonia, methane, and nitrous oxide, contributing to air pollution and climate
change. Optimizing treatment technologies is crucial for sustainable utilization
(Choi et al., 2021).

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2.13.4 Dried grasses
Dried grasses and other foliage used as animal feed. Usually the material is cut in
the field while still green and then either dried in the field or mechanically dried by
forced hot air. Typical hay crops are timothy, alfalfa, and clover (Bhat et al.,
2019). Given that the protein content of grasses and legumes decreases and fibre
and lignified tissue increases as growing plants advance in maturity, a good hay
crop must be cut at the proper stage, handled so as to retain the leaves, and cured to
prevent spoilage or discoloration. Hay is usually dried in small piles or stacks in
the field, but a rainy climate may dictate forced-air curing in the barn. Properly
cured hay with 20 percent or less moisture may be stored for months without
danger of spoilage (Bhat et al., 2019).

Fig 2.5: Dry Grass (Bhat et al., 2019)

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