Qualitative Procedures

ualitative procedures demonstrate a different approach

to scholarly inquiry than methods of quantitative research. Qualitative

inquiry employs different philosophical assump- tions; strategies of
inquiry; and methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
Although the processes are similar qualitative proce- dures rely on text
and image data, have unique steps in data analysis, and draw on diverse
strategies of inquiry.

In fact, the strategies of inquiry chosen in a qualitative project have a

dramatic influence on the procedures, which, even within strategies, are
anything but uniform. Looking over the landscape of qualitative proce-
dures shows diverse perspectives ranging from social justice thinking
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2005), to ideological perspectives (Lather, 1991), to
philosophical stances (Schwandt, 2000), to systematic procedural guide-
lines (Creswell, 2007; Corbin & Strauss, 2007). All perspectives vie for
cen- ter stage in this unfolding model of inquiry called qualitative
research.

This chapter attempts to combine many perspectives, provide Ce general

procedures, and use examples liberally to illustrate variations in 8
strategies. This discussion draws on thoughts provided by several authors
writing about qualitative proposal design (e.g., see Berg, 2001; Marshall &
Rossman, 2006; Maxwell, 2005; Rossman & Rallis, 1998). The topics in a
proposal section on procedures are characteristics of qualitative research,
the research strategy, the role of the researcher, steps in data collection
and analysis, strategies for validity, the accuracy of findings, and narrative
structure. Table 9.1 shows a checklist of questions for designing
qualitative procedures.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

For many years, proposal writers had to discuss the characteristics of

qual- itative research and convince faculty and audiences as to their
legitimacy. Now these discussions are less frequently found in the
literature and there is some consensus as to what constitutes qualitative
inquiry. Thus, my sug- gestions about this section of a proposal are as
follows:

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Table 9.1 A Checklist of Questions for Designing a Qualitative Procedure

Are the basic characteristics of qualitative studies mentioned?

the specific type of qualitative strategy of inquiry to be used in the study

mentioned? Is the history of, a definition of, and applications for the
strategy mentioned?

Does the reader gain an understanding of the researcher's role in the

study (past historical, social, cultural experiences, personal connections to
sites and people, steps in gaining entry, and sensitive ethical issues)?

Is the purposeful sampling strategy for sites and individuals identified?

Are the specific forms of data collection mentioned and a rationale given
for their use?

Are the procedures for recording information during the data collection
procedure mentioned (such as protocols)?

Are the data analysis steps identified?

Is there evidence that the researcher has organized the data for analysis?

Has the researcher reviewed the data generally to obtain a sense of the
information?

Has coding been used with the data?

Have the codes been developed to form a description or to identify

themes?

Are the themes interrelated to show a higher level of analysis and

abstraction?

Are the ways that the data will be represented mentioned-such as in

tables, graphs, and figures?

Have the bases for interpreting the analysis been specified (personal
experiences, the literature, questions, action agenda)?

Has the researcher mentioned the outcome of the study (developed a

theory, provided a complex picture of themes)? Have multiple strategies
been cited for validating the findings?

CLOS
Review the needs of potential audiences for the proposal. Decide whether
audience members are knowledgeable enough about the char- acteristics
of qualitative research that this section is not necessary. ⚫ If there is some
question about their knowledge, present the basic char- acteristics of
qualitative research in the proposal and possibly discuss a 80

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recent qualitative research journal article (or study) to use as an example

to illustrate the characteristics.

Several lists of characteristics might be used (e.g., Bogdan & Biklen, 1992;
Eisner, 1991; Hatch, 2002; LeCompte & Schensul, 1999; Marshall &
Rossman, 2006), but I will rely on a composite analysis of several of these
writers that I incorporated into my book on qualitative inquiry (Creswell,
2007). My list captures both traditional perspectives and the newer
advocacy, participatory, and self-reflexive perspectives of qualitative
inquiry. Here are the characteristics of qualitative research, presented in
no specific order of importance:

• Natural setting-Qualitative researchers tend to collect data in the field at

the site where participants experience the issue or problem under study.
They do not bring individuals into a lab (a contrived situation), nor do they
typically send out instruments for individuals to complete. This up close
information gathered by actually talking directly to people and seeing
them behave and act within their context is a major charac- teristic of
qualitative research. In the natural setting, the researchers have face-to-
face interaction over time.

• Researcher as key instrument-Qualitative researchers collect data

themselves through examining documents, observing behavior, or
interviewing participants. They may use a protocol-an instrument for
collecting data-but the researchers are the ones who actually gather the
information. They do not tend to use or rely on question- naires or
instruments developed by other researchers.

Multiple sources of data Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple

forms of data, such as interviews, observations, and docu- ments, rather
than rely on a single data source. Then the researchers review all of the
data, make sense of it, and organize it into categories or themes that cut
across all of the data sources.

• Inductive data analysis-Qualitative researchers build their patterns,

categories, and themes from the bottom up, by organizing the data into
increasingly more abstract units of information. This inductive process
illustrates working back and forth between the themes and the database
until the researchers have established a comprehensive set of themes. It
may also involve collaborating with the participants interactively, so that
participants have a chance to shape the themes or abstractions that
emerge from the process.

• Participants' meanings-In the entire qualitative research process, the

researcher keeps a focus on learning the meaning that the participants
hold about the problem or issue, not the meaning that the researchers
bring to the research or writers express in the literature.

• Emergent design-The research process for qualitative researchers is

emergent. This means that the initial plan for research cannot be

Qualitative Procedures

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Discourse analysis (Cheek, 2004). For the five approaches, researchers

might study individuals (narrative, phenomenology); explore processes,
activities, and events (case study, grounded theory); or learn about broad
culture-sharing behavior of individuals or groups (ethnography).

In writing a procedure for a qualitative proposal, consider the following

research tips:

Identify the specific approach to inquiry that you will be using.

Provide some background information about the strategy, such as its

discipline origin, the applications of it, and a brief definition of it (see
Chapter 1 for the five strategies of inquiry).

Discuss why it is an appropriate strategy to use in the proposed study.

Identify how the use of the strategy will shape the types of questions
asked (see Morse, 1994, for questions that relate to strategies), the form
of data collection, the steps of data analysis, and the final narrative.

THE RESEARCHER’S ROLE

As mentioned in the list of characteristics, qualitative research is interpre-

tative research, with the inquirer typically involved in a sustained and
intensive experience with participants. This introduces a range of
strategic, ethical, and personal issues into the qualitative research process
(Locke et al., 2007). With these concerns in mind, inquirers explicitly
identify reflexively their biases, values, and personal background, such as
gender, history, culture, and socioeconomic status, that may shape their
interpreta- tions formed during a study. In addition, gaining entry to a
research site and the ethical issues that might arise are also elements of
the researcher’s role.

Include statements about past experiences that provide background data

through which the audience can better understand the topic, the setting,
or the participants and the researcher’s interpretation of the phenomenon.

Comment on connections between the researcher and the participants

and on the research sites. “Backyard” research (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992)
involves studying the researcher’s own organization, or friends, or
immedi- ate work setting. This often leads to compromises in the
researcher’s ability to disclose information and raises difficult power
issues. Although data col- lection may be convenient and easy, the
problems of reporting data that are biased, incomplete, or compromised
are legion. If studying the backyard is necessary, employ multiple
strategies of validity (as discussed later) to create reader confidence in
the accuracy of the findings.

⚫ Indicate steps taken to obtain permission from the Institutional Review

Board (see Chapter 4) to protect the rights of human participants. Attach,
as an appendix, the approval letter from the IRB and discuss the process
involved in securing permission.

• Discuss steps taken to gain entry to the setting and to secure permis-
sion to study the participants or situation (Marshall & Rossman, 2006). It is
important to gain access to research or archival sites by seeking the
approval of gatekeepers, individuals at the research site that provide
access to the site and allow or permit the research to be done. A brief
proposal might need to be developed and submitted for review by
gatekeepers. Bogdan and Biklen (1992) advance topics that could be
addressed in such a proposal:
• Why was the site chosen for study?

• What activities will occur at the site during the research study?

• Will the study be disruptive?

• How will the results be reported?

• What will the gatekeeper gain from the study?

• Comment about sensitive ethical issues that may arise (see Chapter 3,
and Berg, 2001). For each issue raised, discuss how the research study
will address it. For example, when studying a sensitive topic, it is
necessary to mask names of people, places, and activities. In this
situation, the process for masking information requires discussion in the
proposal.

Mixed Methods Procedures

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Ith the development and perceived legitimacy of both qual- itative and
quantitative research in the social and human sciences, mixed methods
research, employing the combina- tion of quantitative and qualitative
approaches, has gained popularity. This popularity is because research
methodology continues to evolve and develop, and mixed methods is
another step forward, utilizing the strengths of both qualitative and
quantitative research. Also, the problems addressed by social and health
science researchers are com- plex, and the use of either quantitative or
qualitative approaches by themselves is inadequate to address this
complexity. The interdisciplinary nature of research, as well, contributes to
the formation of research teams with individuals with diverse
methodological interests and approaches. Finally, there is more insight to
be gained from the combi- nation of both qualitative and quantitative
research than either form by itself. Their combined use provides an
expanded understanding of research problems.

This chapter brings together many of the threads introduced in the earlier
chapters: It extends the discussion about the philosophical assumptions of
a pragmatic philosophy, the combined use of qualita- tive and quantitative
modes of inquiry, and the use of multiple methods introduced in Chapter
1. It also extends the discussion about research problems that incorporate
the need both to explore and explain (Chapter 5). It follows a purpose
statement and research questions focused on understanding a problem
using both qualitative and quan- titative methods (Chapters 6 and 7), and
it advances the reasons for using multiple forms of data collection and
analysis (Chapters 8 and 9).

COMPONENTS OF MIXED METHODS PROCEDURES

Mixed methods research has evolved a set of procedures that proposal

devel- opers can use in planning a mixed methods study. In 2003, the
Handbook of D

Mixed Methods in the Social & Behavior Sciences (Tashakkori & Teddlie,
2003) was published, providing the first comprehensive overview of this
strategy of inquiry. Now several journals emphasize mixed methods
research, such as the Journal of Mixed Methods Research, Quality and
Quantity, and Field Methods, while numerous others actively encourage
this form of inquiry (e.g., International Journal of Social Research
Methodology, Qualitative Health Research, Annals of Family Medicine).
Numerous published research studies have incorporated mixed methods
research in the social and human sciences in diverse fields such as
occupational therapy (Lysack & Krefting, 1994), interpersonal com-
munication (Boneva, Kraut, & Frohlich, 2001), AIDS prevention (Janz et al.,
1996), dementia caregiving (Weitzman & Levkoff, 2000), mental health
(Rogers, Day, Randall, & Bentall, 2003), and in middle-school science
(Houtz, 1995). New books arrive each year solely devoted to mixed
methods research (Bryman, 2006; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007; Greene,
2007; Plano Clark & Creswell, 2008; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998).

A checklist of questions for designing a mixed methods study appears in

Table 10.1. These components call for advancing the nature of mixed
methods research and the type of strategy being proposed for the study.
They also include the need for a visual model of this approach, the specific
procedures of data collection and analysis, the researcher's role, and the
go structure for presenting the final report. Following the discussion of
each of these components, an example of a procedures section from a
mixed methods study is presented to show how to apply these ideas.

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THE NATURE OF MIXED METHODS RESEARCH contest query

Because mixed methods research is relatively new in the social and

human sciences as a distinct research approach, it is useful to convey a
basic defi- Brus ces nition and description of the approach in a proposal.
This might include the following:

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Trace a brief history of its evolution. Several sources identify its inception
in psychology and in the multitrait-multimethod matrix of Campbell and
Fiske (1959) to interest in converging or triangulating dif- ferent
quantitative and qualitative data sources (Jick, 1979) and on to the
development of a distinct methodology of inquiry (see Creswell & Plano
Clark, 2007; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998).

Define mixed methods research by incorporating the definition in Chapter

1 that focuses on combining both quantitative and qualitative research
and methods in a research study (see a more expanded view of defining
mixed methods research in Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007).
Highlight the reasons why researchers employ a mixed methods design
(e.g., to broaden understanding by incorporating both qualitative Table
10.1 A Checklist of Questions for Designing a Mixed Methods Procedure

Is a basic definition of mixed methods research provided?

Is a reason given for using both quantitative and qualitative approaches

(or data)?

Does the reader have a sense for the potential use of a mixed methods
design?

Are the criteria Identified for choosing a mixed methods strategy? Is the
strategy identified, and are its criteria for selection given? Is a visual
model presented that illustrates the research strategy? Is the proper
notation used in presenting the visual model?

Are procedures of data collection and analysis mentioned as they relate to

the model?

Are the sampling strategies for both quantitative and qualitative data
collection mentioned? Do they relate to the strategy?

Are specific data analysis procedures indicated? Do they relate to the

strategy?

Are the procedures for validating both the quantitative and qualitative
data discussed?

Is the narrative structure mentioned, and does it relate to the type of

mixed methods strategy being used?

and quantitative research, or to use one approach to better understand,

explain, or build on the results from the other approach). Also note that
the mixing of the two might be within one study or among several studies
in a program of inquiry. Recognize that many different terms are used for
this approach, such as integrating, synthesis, quantitative and qualitative
D methods, multimethod, and mixed methodology, but that recent
writings use the term mixed methods (Bryman, 2006; Tashakkori &
Teddlie, 2003).

Briefly discuss the growth of interest in mixed methods research as

expressed in books, journal articles, diverse disciplines, and funded proj-
ects (see Creswell & Plano Clark. 2007 for a discussion about the many
initiatives that contribute to mixed methods today).

Note the challenges this form of research poses for the inquirer. These
include the need for extensive data collection, the time-intensive nature of
analyzing both text and numeric data, and the requirement for the
researcher to be familiar with both quantitative and qualitative forms of
research.