Bio Midterm Merged

BIOLOGY
LECTURE 6:
BIOLOGICAL
DIVERSITY
Prepared by:
DIVINE GRACE S. BATENGA, MSc., LPT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
Ø Describe the characteristics that enable prokaryotes to reach huge population sizes
and thrive in diverse environments.
Ø Discuss what gave rise to the great diversity of protists.
Ø Explain how the structure and function of fungi relate to their role in ecosystems.
Ø Discuss the major developments in the evolution of plants.
Ø Understand the great number and morphological diversity of invertebrates.
Ø Discuss some key characteristics that have appeared during vertebrate evolution.
lesson
01
Microbial Life:
Prokaryotes and Protists
PROKARYOTES
• The smallest organisms on
Earth (diameter ranging from
1-5 µm).
• They are extraordinarily
diverse.
• Lack of membrane-enclosed
nucleus and other membrane- A colorized scanning electron micrograph
of the point of a pin (purple) covered with
enclosed organelles. numerous bacteria (orange).
Prokaryotes are diverse
and widespread
• The collective biological mass (biomass) of prokaryotes is at least 10
times that of all eukaryotes!
• METAGENOMICS – a powerful new approach used by scientists,
researchers collect samples from a particular environment (soil,
water, human body), and isolate and sequence the DNA they contain.
• MICROBIOME – the collection of genomes of individual species
present in an environment.
• MICROBIOTA – the community of microorganisms (fungi, bacteria,
and viruses) that live in and on our bodies.
Human Microbiome
Environmental Significance
of Prokaryotes
By decomposing dead organisms and other They are indispensable components of the
organic waste material, prokaryotes return chemical cycle that makes nitrogen available
vital chemical elements to the environment. to plants and other organisms.
What will happen if
prokaryotes will disappear?
ØThe chemical cycles that sustain life would
halt, and all forms of eukaryotic life would be
doomed.
ØIn contrast, if eukaryotes ceased to exist,
prokaryotic life would undoubtedly continue
alone on Earth, as it once did for more than a
billion years.
Non-beneficial Prokaryotes
• PATHOGENS – disease-causing agents
Two different kinds
of prokaryotes
üARCHAEA
üBACTERIA
EXTERNAL FEATURES OF
PROKARYOTES
• Some of the diversity of prokaryotes is evident in
their external features:
• Shape
• Cell walls
• Projections (flagella)
• These features are useful in identifying prokaryotes
as well as helping the organisms survive in their
environments.
CELL SHAPE
o COCCI (singular, coccus) – spherical shape
o Streptococci (Greek streptos, twisted) –
cocci that occur in chains
o Staphylococci (Greek staphyle, grapes) –
occur in clusters
o BACILLI (singular, bacillus) – rod-shaped
o Most bacilli occur singly
o Some may occur in pairs or chains of rods
o May also be threadlike, or filamentous
o SPIROCHETE – spiral
o Spirilla – short and rigid
o Spirochetes – with longer and more
flexible cells
o Include some giants by prokaryotic
standards - 0.5 mm long
CELL WALL
o A feature that enables the prokaryotes to live
in a wide range of environments.
o Provides physical protection and prevents the
cell from bursting in a hypotonic environment.
o PEPTIDOGLYCAN – polymer of sugars cross-
linked by short polypeptides; a rigid envelope
surrounding the cytoplasmic membrane of
most bacterial species
o CAPSULE – a sticky layer of polysaccharide or
protein that covers the cell wall of many
prokaryotes
o Enables prokaryotes to adhere to a
surface or to other individuals in a colony
o Can also shield pathogenic prokaryotes
from attacks by their host’s immune
system
o The capsule surrounding the
Streptococcus bacterium enables it
to attach to cells that line the
human respiratory tract – a tonsil
cell.
CELL WALL
o GRAM STAINING – a technique used by
microbiologists to classify bacteria into
two general types
1) Gram-positive bacteria – have
simpler cell walls with a relatively
thick peptidoglycan
2) Gram-negative bacteria – have
complex cell walls with a thin
peptidoglycan
o Gram stains are often used to detect the
presence of bacteria and indicate the type
of antibiotic to prescribe.
o Among disease-causing bacteria, gram-
negative species are more threatening
than gram-positive species.
PROJECTIONS
o External structures that extend beyond the cell
wall.
o FLAGELLA – adaptations that enable them to
move about in response to chemical or
physical signals in their environment
o FIMBRAE – hairlike projections that enable
some prokaryotes to stick to a surface or to
one another
o Allow many pathogenic bacteria to
latch onto the host cells they colonize
Neisseria
gonorrhoeae
• Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which causes STI (sexually transmitted

infection) uses fimbriae to attach to cells in the reproductive
tract.
• During sexual intercourse, N. gonorrhoeae may also attach to
sperm cells and travel to a woman’s oviducts; an infection in
these narrow tubes can impair fertility
PROKARYOTES ADAPT RAPIDLY
IN CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
• A large part of the success of prokaryotes is their potential to

reproduce quickly in a favorable environment.
• A single prokaryotic cell becomes 2 cells, which then become 4, 8,
16, and so on (via binary fission).
• Many prokaryotes produce a new generation within 1-3 hours; some
species can produce a new generation in only 20 minutes under
optimal conditions.
• If unchecked at this rate, a single prokaryote could give rise to a
colony outweighing Earth in only three days!
• Salmonella bacteria
• Causes food poisoning
• Commonly found in raw poultry, but the
bacterial population is often too small to
cause symptoms.
• Refrigeration slows (but does not stop) its
reproduction.
• However, when raw poultry is left in the
warm environment of the kitchen, bacteria
multiply rapidly and can quickly reach a
risky population size
• Be sure to cook poultry thoroughly (an
internal temperature of 165ºF is considered
safe)
• Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria
• Each time DNA is replicated prior to binary
fission, a few spontaneous mutations occur.
• As a result, rapid reproduction generates a
great deal of genetic variation in a
prokaryote population.
• If the environment changes, an individual
that possesses a beneficial allele (gene) can
quickly take advantage of the new
conditions.
Exposure to antibiotics may select for antibiotic resistance in

a bacterial population.
• Bacterial genome
• The amount of DNA in
prokaryotic cells is on average
only about one-thousandth as
much as that in eukaryotic cell.
• The genome of a typical
prokaryotes is one long,
circular chromosome.
• PLASMIDS
• Small, circular DNA molecules that could
replicate independently.
• Some plasmids carry genes that enhance
survival under certain conditions.
• They can provide resistance to antibiotics
or have other “contingency” functions.
• Prokaryotes have the ability to transfer
plasmids within and even between species.
• This provides another rapid means of
adaptation to changes in the environment.
• ENDOSPORES
• Specialized resistant cell.
• Produced inside the original cell, which encloses a
copy of its chromosome in a thick protective coat.
• Endospores can survive all sorts of trauma, and some
can remain dormant for decades, even centuries.
• Not even boiling water kills most of these resistant
cells.
Bacillus anthracis
An island off the coast of Scotland that

was used for the anthrax testing in 1942
was finally declared safe 48 years later,
after tons of formaldehyde were applied
to destroy the anthrax endospores and
huge amounts of topsoil were removed.
The food-canning industry kills

endospores of dangerous bacteria such
as Clostridium botulinum, the source of
the potentially fatal disease botulism, by
heating the food to a temperature of 110-
150ºC (230-300ºF) with high-pressure
steam.
NUTRITIONAL DIVERSITY OF
PROKARYOTES
• Prokaryotes exhibit much more

nutritional diversity than eukaryotes.
Source of Energy Source of Carbon
o PHOTOTROPHS – capture energy o AUTOTROPHS – organisms that
from sunlight make their own organic
o Prokaryotic cells do not have compounds from inorganic
chloroplasts, but some
prokaryotes have thylakoid sources
membranes where o They obtain their carbon
photosynthesis takes place. atoms from carbon dioxide
o CHEMOTROPHS – harnesses the (CO2).
energy stored in chemicals, either o HETEROTROPHS – they obtain
organic molecules or inorganic their carbon atoms from the
chemicals such as hydrogen sulfide organic compounds of other
(H2S), elemental sulfur (S), iron (Fe)- organisms.
containing compounds, or
ammonia (NH3).
Mode of Nutrition
o PHOTOAUTOTROPHS – harnesses sunlight for energy and uses CO2 for
carbon.
o PHOTOHETEROTROPHS – obtain energy from sunlight but get their
carbon atoms from organic sources.
o CHEMOAUTOTROPHS – harvest energy from inorganic chemicals and
use carbon from CO2 to make organic molecules.
o They can thrive in conditions that totally inhospitable to life
(hydrothermal vents)
o CHEMOHETEROTROPHS – acquire both energy and carbon from
organic molecules
o Largest and most diverse group of prokaryotes
NUTRITIONAL DIVERSITY OF
PROKARYOTES
BIOFILMS
• Complex association of microbes.
• Consist of one or several species of
prokaryotes (bacteria, protists, and fungi).
• Can form any support: rocks, soil, organic
material (living tissue), metal, and plastic.
PROPERTIES OF BIOFILMS
q Resistant to antibiotics and
antimicrobial agents.
Ø Some bacteria that are present within
the biofilm protect other species that
are present within the biofilm.
q Highly cooperated when it comes to
nutrients.
Ø Bacteria of different species cooperate
to break down nutrients that any single
species cannot break down by itself.
Ø One species within a biofilm feeds on
metabolic wastes of another.
q Resistant to certain types of host
defense mechanisms.
Ø It is difficult for leukocytes to penetrate
biofilms, and those that do penetrate seem Formation of Biofilms
less efficient at phagocytizing bacteria
within biofilm.
MEDICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF BIOFILMS
They form on:

üBones
üHeart valves
üTissues
üInanimate objects (artificial heart
valves, urinary and intravenous
catheters, and prosthetic implants)
MEDICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF BIOFILMS
Biofilms have been implicated in diseases:

• Ear infections and urinary tract infections
are often the results of biofilm-forming
bacteria.
• Cystic fibrosis patients are vulnerable to
pneumonia caused by bacteria that form
biofilms in their lungs.
ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE OF
BIOFILMS
• A variety of industries spend billions of dollars
every year trying to get rid of the biofilms that
clog and corrode pipes.
• Biofilms in water distribution pipes may survive
chlorination.
• Chlorination – most common method of
ensuring that drinking water does not contain
any harmful microorganisms.
• Ex. Vibrio cholera – capable of withstanding
levels of chlorine 10 – 20 times higher than the
concentrations routinely used to chlorine
drinking water
PROKARYOTES HELP CLEAN
UP THE ENVIRONMENT
• BIOREMEDIATION – the use of organisms to remove

pollutants from soil, air, or water.
• The sludge (solid matter) is added to a culture of anaerobic

prokaryotes and the microbes decompose the organic matter
in the sludge into material that can be placed in a landfill or
used as fertilizer.
• Liquid waste are treated separately from the sludge.
PROKARYOTES HELP CLEAN
UP THE ENVIRONMENT
Trickling filter system –

one type of mechanism for
treating liquid wastes
Biofilms of aerobic bacteria and

fungi growing on the rocks remove
much of the organic material
dissolved in the waste. Outflow
from the rock bed is sterilized and
then released into river or ocean.
BACTERIA AND ARCHAEA ARE TWO MAIN
BRANCHES OF PROKARYOTIC EVOLUTION
ARCHAEA THRIVE IN EXTREME
ENVIRONMENTS
o EXTREME HALOPHILES (”salt lovers”) – thrive in very
salty places, such as the Great Salt Lake, Dead Sea, and
seawater-evaporating ponds used to produce salt.
o EXTREME THERMOPHILES (“heat lovers”) – thrive in
very hot water; some even live near deep-ocean vents,
where temperatures are above 100ºC; others thrive in
acids (acidophiles)
o METHANOGENS – archaeans that live in anaerobic
(oxygen-lacking) environments and give off methane as a
waste
o Great numbers of methanogens inhabit the digestive tracts
and other animals that depend heavily on cellulose for their
nutrition
o Because methane is a greenhouse gas, landfills and livestock
contribute significantly to global warming.
SOME BACTERIA CAUSE DISEASE
qEXOTOXINS – are proteins that

bacterial cells secrete into their
environments
qENDOTOXINS – are lipid
components of the outer membrane
of gram-negative bacteria that are
released when the cell dies or is
digested by a defensive cell.
• Symptoms: fever, aches, a dangerous
drop in blood pressure (septic shock)
PROTISTS
PROTISTS
• Are a diverse collection of mostly
unicellular eukaryotes.
• Constitute multiple kingdoms
within the domain of Eukarya.
• Protist is useful as a convenient
term to refer to eukaryotes that are
not plants, animals, or fungi.
Mode of Nutrition
• AUTOTROPHY – producing their food by photosynthesis; these are called algae

• HETEROTROPHY – depends on other organisms
• Protozoans – eat bacteria and other protists
• Fungus-like – obtain organic molecules by absorption
• Parasitic – derive nutrition from a living host
• MIXOTROPHS – capable of both photosynthesis and heterotrophy, depending on the availability
of light and nutrients; example Euglena
Protist Habitats
• Most protists are aquatic, and
they are found almost anywhere
there is moisture including
terrestrial habitats such as damp
soil and leaf litter.
• Others inhabit the bodies of
various host organisms.
One of the protists that are
endosymbionts in the intestinal tract of
termites. Termite endosymbionts digest
the tough cellulose in the wood eaten
by their host.
Protist Cellular Structures
• Their cells have a membrane-
enclosed nucleus (containing
multiple chromosomes) and
other organelles. –eukaryotic trait
• The flagella and cilia of protistan
cells have 9 + 2 pattern
microtubules. –eukaryotic trait
• Unicellular (justifiably
considered the simplest
eukaryotes)
PROTIST
DIVERSITY IS
ORGNAIZED IN
SUPERGROUPS
SAR SUPERGROUP REPRESENTS THE RANGE
OF PROTIST DIVERSITY
• SAR – recently proposed as a monophyletic
supergroup on the basis of genomic studies
• Stramenopila
S
• Alveolata
A
• Rhizaria
R
Stramenopiles
Ø DIATOMS – unicellular algae that are one of the
most important photosynthetic organisms on
Earth
Diatoms Brown Algae • Have a unique glassy cell wall containing
silica
Ø BROWN ALGAE – are large, complex
stramenopiles; multicellular and most are marine
• Seaweeds – refers to marine algae that
have large multicellular bodies but lack
roots, stems, and leaves; also red and
green algae
Ø WATER MOLDS – heterotrophic unicellular
stramenopiles that decompose dead plants and
animals in freshwater habitats
• Parasitic water molds sometimes grow on
the skin or gills of fish
• Also include plant parasites – Phytophthora
“plant destroyer”
Parasitic water molds
Alveolates
Ø DINOFLAGELLATES – includes unicellular
autotrophs, heterotrophs, and mixotrophs
Dinoflagellates • Very common components of marine and
freshwater plankton
• Blooms (population explosion) of autotrophic
dinoflagellates cause warm coastal waters to
turn pinkish orange (red tide)
Paramecium Ø CILIATES – named for their use of cilia to move and
to sweep food into their oral groove, or cell mouth;
heterotrophs and mixotrophs
• Paramecium – common freshwater ciliates;
swims by beating its cilia in a wavelike motion
• Other ciliates crawl over a surface using cilia
that are arranged in bundles along the length
of the cell
Plasmodium
Ø Another subgroup of alveolates is made up of
parasites, including some that cause diseases in
humans; Plasmodium – causes malaria
Rhizaria
Ø FORAMINIFERANS (forams) – found both in
the ocean and in fresh water; have porous
shells made up of organic material hardened
by calcium carbonate
Ø RADIOLARIANS – produce a mineralized
Amoeba
support structure (an internal skeleton made of
silica); most are marines
Ø Amoebas – referred to as foraminiferans and
radiolarians
• They move and feed by means of
pseudopodia (false feet or temporary
extensions of the cells)
EXCAVATA THE SECOND
SUPERGROUP
• “Excavated” – feeding groove possessed by some
members of the group.
Giardia
• Some excavates have modified mitochondria that lack intestinalis
functional electron transport chains and use anaerobic
pathways (glycolysis) to extract energy.
• PARASITIC EXCAVATES
• Giardia intestinalis – a common waterborne parasite that
causes severe diarrhea; boiling the water first will kill
Giardia
• Trichomonas vaginalis – a common sexually transmitted
parasite that causes an estimated 4 million new infections
each year; the parasite travels through the reproductive
tract by moving its flagella and undulating part of its
membrane
• Trypanosoma – parasites that can be transmitted to
humans by insects (African tsetse fly); causes sleeping
sickness
UNIKONTA SUPERGROUP
• Include protists that are closely related to
fungi and animals.
• AMOEBOZOANS – includes many species of
free-living amoebas
• Plasmodial slime mold – common where
there is moist, decaying organic matter and
are often brightly pigmented
• Cellular slime mold – common on rotting
logs and decaying organic matter; exists as
solitary amoeboid cells
ARCHAEPLASTIDS (red and green
algae, and land plants)
• Almost all members of the supergroup
Archaeplastida are autotrophic.
• RED ALGAE – the red color comes from an
accessory pigment that masks the green
chlorophyll; most species are multicellular; soft-
bodied but some have cell walls encrusted with
hard, chalky deposits
• GREEN ALGAE – named for their grass-green
chloroplasts; includes multicellular seaweeds
• Archaeplastida also includes land plants,
which evolved from a group of green algae. Ulva, sea lettuce
lesson
02
Plant and Fungal
Diversity
PLANTS HAVE ADAPTATIONS FOR LIFE
ON LAND
PLANTS DIVERSITY REFLECTS THE
EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF THE PLANT
KINGDOM
q NONVASCULAR PLANTS (Bryophytes) – are plants
without a vascular system consisting of xylem and
phloem.
liverworts
mosses
hornworts
PLANTS DIVERSITY REFLECTS THE
EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF THE PLANT
KINGDOM
q VASCULAR PLANTS – have supportive
conducting tissues
§ XYLEM – plant vascular tissue that
conveys water and dissolved minerals
from the roots to the rest of the plant
and also provides physical support
§ PHLOEM – plant vascular tissue that
conducts foods made in the leaves
during photosynthesis to all other parts
of the plant
SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS DOMINATED VAST
“COAL FOREST”
q COAL FOREST/ CARBONIFERIOUS FOREST –
forests of seedless vascular plants that existed in
the tropical swamp forests of Europe and North
America provided the organic material that
became coal.
q Photosynthesis in these immense swamp forests
fixed large amounts of carbon from CO2 into
inorganic molecules, reducing CO2 levels in the
atmosphere.
q Photosynthesis generated great quantities of
organic matter.
q Remains of dead plants formed thick organic
deposits called peat.
q Pressure and heat coverts the peat to coal.
POLLEN AND SEEDS ARE KEY ADAPTATIONS FOR
LIFE ON LAND
LIFE ON LAND
• POLLEN – a powdery substance produced by

seed plants
• OVULES – developed from haploid female
reproductive structures; contain the egg-
producing female gametophytes
• POLLINATION – an event that happens if a
pollen grain lands on a compatible female
structure and undergoes mitosis to produce
sperm.
• SEED – consists of an embryo packaged with a
food supply within a protective covering.
LIFE ON LAND
• In seed plants, reproduction does not require moisture; pollen

grains carry the male gametophyte to the female gametophyte.
• The zygote develops into a sporophyte embryo, and the ovule
becomes a seed, with stored food and a protective coat.
THE FLOWER IS THE CENTERPIECE OF
ANGIOSPERM REPRODUCTION
• Flowers house separate male

and female sporangia and
gametophytes, and the
mechanisms of sexual
reproduction.
• Flowers are short stems
bearing modified leaves.
THE FLOWER IS THE CENTERPIECE OF
ANGIOSPERM REPRODUCTION
• Each floral structure is highly specialized for
a different function:
• SEPALS – usually green; enclose the flower
before it opens
• PETALS – attract animal pollinators
• STAMENS – produce pollen
• ANTHER – contains male sporangia and will
eventually release pollen
• CARPELS – female reproductive structure;
produce ovules
• Stigma, style, and ovary (unique angiosperm
adaptation that encloses the ovules)
THE ANGIOSPERM PLANT IS A SPOROPHYTES IN
ITS FLOWERS
• The sporophyte is independent, with tiny,

dependent gametophytes protected
flowers.
• Ovules become seeds, and ovaries
become fruits.
THE ANGIOSPERM PLANT IS A
SPOROPHYTES IN ITS FLOWERS
THE STRUCTURE OF A FRUIT REFLECTS ITS
FUNCTION IN SEED DISPERSAL
• FRUIT – the ripened ovary of a flower, is an adaptation that helps

disperse seeds.
• Some angiosperms depend on wind for seed dispersal.
• Many angiosperms produce fleshy, edible fruits that are attractive
to animals as food.
• While the seeds are developing, these fruits are green and
effectively camouflaged against green foliage.
• When ripe, the fruit turns bright colors, such as red or yellow,
advertising its presence to birds and mammals.
THE STRUCTURE OF A FRUIT REFLECTS ITS
FUNCTION IN SEED DISPERSAL
The dispersal of seeds in fruits is one of the main reasons that angiosperms
are so successful.
POLLINATION BY ANIMALS HAS INFLUENCED
ANGIOSPERM EVOLUTION
• Most of us associate flowers with colorful petals and sweet

fragrances, but not all flowers have these accessories.
Flowers of a red maple, which have many

stamens but no petals (carpels are borne
on separate flowers).
Devotes substantial energy to make

massive amounts of pollen for release
into the wind.
• Flowers attract pollinators by color and scent.
Columbine flower with large and vibrant

color spent an enormous amount of
energy to produce, but investment pays
off when pollinator, attracted by the
flower’s color or scent, carries the plant's
pollen to another flower of the same
species.
• Visiting pollinators are rewarded with nectar and pollen.
The pollen-bearing stamens of a scotch

broom flower arch over bees as it
harvests nectar.
Some of the pollen the bee flower picks

up will rub off onto the stigmas of other
flowers it visits.
DIVERSITY OF
FUNGI
FUNGI ABSORB FOOD AFTER DIGESTING IT
OUTSIDE THEIR BODIES
• Fungi are heterotrophic eukaryotes that

acquire their nutrients by absorption.
• Enzymes that secreted by fungi growing on a
loaf of bread digest the bread’s starch into
glucose molecules, which the fungal cells
absorbs.
• Some fungi produce enzymes that digest
cellulose and lignin, the major structural
components of plants.
• Consequently, fungi are essential
decomposers in most ecosystem.
FUNGI ABSORB FOOD AFTER DIGESTING IT
OUTSIDE THEIR BODIES
• A fungus usually consists of a

mass of threadlike hyphae,
called mycelium.
• Mycelium – mass of hyphae
• Most fungi have cell walls made
of chitin, a strong, flexible
nitrogen-containing
polysaccharide.
FUNGI ARE CLASSIFIED INTO FIVE GROUPS
• Fungi evolved from a protist

ancestor.
• Fungal groups include
chytrids, zygomycetes,
glomeromycetes,
ascomycetes, and
basidiomycetes.
Chytrids
§ The only fungi with flagellated
spores.
§ Common in lakes, ponds, and soil.
§ Some species are decomposers;
others parasitize protists, plants,
or animals.
§ Other chytrids are beneficial
symbionts that help to break
down plant matter in the guts of
animals.
Zygomycetes
§ Characterized by their protective
zygosporangium (where zygotes
produce haploid spores by
meiosis)
§ Includes fast-growing molds, such
as black bread mold and molds
that rot produce such as peaches,
strawberries, and sweet potatoes.
§ Some zygote fungi are parasites
on animals.
Glomeromycetes
§ Latin glomer, ball
§ Form a distinct type of
mycorrhiza in which hyphae
invade plant root cells, where
they branch into tiny treelike
structures.
§ About 80% of all plants have
symbiotic partnerships with
glomeromycetes.
Ascomycetes (sac
fungi)
§ Named for saclike structures called asci
(Greek asco, pouch) that produce spores
in sexual reproduction.
§ They live in a variety of marine,
freshwater, and terrestrial habitats and
range in size from unicellular yeasts to
elaborate morels and cup fungi.
§ Include some of the most devastating
plant pathogens.
§ Other species live with green algae or
cyanobacteria in symbiotic associations
called lichens.
Basidiomycetes
(club fungi)
§ Named for their club-shaped,
spore-producing structure called
a basidium (Latin basidia, little
pedestal”)
§ Many species excel at breaking
down lignin found in wood and
play key roles as decomposers.
§ Also includes two groups of
particularly destructive plant
parasites (the rusts and smuts).
FUNGI HAVE ENORMOUS ECOLOGICAL BENEFITS
• Fungi are essential decomposers

and also participate in mycorrhizae.
• Fungi supply essential nutrients to
plants and important in natural
ecosystems and agriculture.
• Some fungi have the useful ability to
break down toxic pollutants,
including the pesticide DDT and
certain chemicals that cause cancer.
FUNGI HAVE MANY PRACTICAL USES
• Some fungi provide food or antibiotics.
Penicillium chrysogenum
MYCORRHIZAE MAY HAVE HELPED PLANTS
COLONIZE LAND
• The hypothesis that plant-fungus

symbioses facilitated the Microscopic
evolution of land plants is tested examination of
by investigating three lines of ultrathin sections of
evidence: present-day Aglaophyton fossils
revealed fungal
mycorrhizal relationships, fossils hyphae winding
of early land plants, and among the plant’s
molecular homologies. cells.
PARASITIC FUNGI HARM PLANTS AND ANIMALS
• Many fungi are serious agricultural
pests that cause tremendous
economic losses.
• A variety of fungi, including smuts
and rusts, are common on grain
crops.
• Some of the fungi that attack food
crops are toxic to humans.
• The seed heads of many kinds of
grain (rye, wheat, and oats) may be
infected with fungal growths called
ergots.
• Consumption of flour made from
ergot-infested grain can cause
nervous spasms, hallucinations, and
even death.
• Several toxins have been isolated
from ergots.
• Lysergic acid – a raw material from
which the hallucinogenic drug LSD
is made
• About 500 species of fungi are known to be parasitic in
humans and other animals.
Candida auris infects humans across several continents.

Can spread rapidly in critically ill patients, infecting blood,
heart, and brain.
The emergence of Candida auris globally is thought to be

linked to the rise in warmer temperatures due to climate
change, which has allowed the fungus to adapt to infect
humans.
Fungal diseases of the skin include ringworm, so named

because it can appear as circular red areas on the skin.
The ringworm fungus can infect virtually any skin surface,

where it produces intense itching and blisters.
The yeast that causes vaginal infections (Candida albicans)

is an example of an opportunistic fungal pathogen.
Disruption of the body’s microbial community by

antibiotics allows the yeast to grow unchecked.
END OF LECTURE
REFERENCES:
• Taylor, Martha R., Simon, Eric J., Dickey, Jean L., and Hogan, Kelly. (2022). Campbell Biology:
Concepts and Connections, 10th Edition. Pearson Education.
BIOLOGY
LECTURE 7:
BIOLOGICAL
DIVERSITY
Prepared by:
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
Ø Describe the characteristics that enable prokaryotes to reach huge population sizes
and thrive in diverse environments.
Ø Discuss what gave rise to the great diversity of protists.
Ø Explain how the structure and function of fungi relate to their role in ecosystems.
Ø Discuss the major developments in the evolution of plants.
Ø Understand the great number and morphological diversity of invertebrates.
Ø Discuss some key characteristics that have appeared during vertebrate evolution.
WHAT IS AN ANIMAL?
• Animals are multicellular,
heterotrophic eukaryotes that (with
few exceptions) obtain nutrients by
ingestion.
• INGESTION – means eating food
• Animals digest food within their body
after ingesting other organisms, dead
or alive, whole or by the piece.
• Animals also have cells with distinctive
structures and specializations.
OTHER UNIQUE FEATURES ARE SEEN IN ANIMAL
REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
• BLASTULA – an early embryonic stage; a

Major change of
hollow ball of cells
body form (from
larva to adult) • GASTRULA – when one side of the blastula
folds inward
• ECTODERM – an outer cell layer that gives
rise to the outer covering of the animal, and
An immature
individual that looks
different from the
adult animal.
in some phyla, to the central nervous system
• MESODERM – third embryonic layer, which
forms muscles and most internal organs
ANIMAL DIVERSIFICATION BEGAN
MORE THAN HALF BILLION YEARS AGO
• The oldest animal fossils are from the late Ediacaran period
and are about 560 million years old.
• Animal diversification accelerated rapidly during the
Cambrian explosion from 535 to 525 million years ago.
• VERTEBRATE – animals with backbone
• INVERTEBRATE – animals that lack a backbone; 96%
animals
ANIMAL DIVERSIFICATION BEGAN
MORE THAN HALF BILLION YEARS AGO
ANIMALS CAN BE CHARACTERIZED BY
BASIC FEATURES OF THEIR “BODY PLAN”
• Body plans may vary in the number of tissue layers (two or
three), symmetry (radial or bilateral), presence of a body
cavity, and embryonic development (protostome or
deuterostome).
ANIMALS CAN BE CHARACTERIZED BY
BASIC FEATURES OF THEIR “BODY PLAN”
BODY PLANS AND MOLECULAR COMPARISONS OF
ANIMALS CAN BE USED TO BUILD PHYLOGENETIC TREES
• EUMETAZOA (true animals) –

animals with tissues
• BILATERIA – animals with bilateral
symmetry
• LOPHOTROCHOZOA – includes
flatworms, mollusks, annelids
• ECDYSOZOA – includes
nematodes and arthropods, which
have external skeletons that must
be shed for animal to grow
• DEUTEROSTOMIA – include the
echinoderms and chordates
INVERTEBRATE
DIVERSITY
SPONGES HAVE A RELATIVELY SIMPLE,
POROUS BODY
• Members of the phylum Porifera have no true tissues.
• Their flagellated choanocytes filter food from water
passing through pores in the body.
POROUS BODY
• SPONGES (phylum Porifera, “pore-bearer”) – the simplest of all
animals
• Sponges have no nerves or muscles.
• The majority of species are marine, although some are found in
fresh water.
• Some sponges are radially symmetric, but most lack body
symmetry.
• There is variation in the size and internal structure of sponges.
• CHOANOCYTES – flagellated “colar” cells which help to sweep water through
the sponge’s body
• AMOEBOCYTES – produce supportive skeletal fibers composed of a flexible
protein called spongin and mineralized particles called spicules.
POROUS BODY • Sponges are an example
of suspension feeders
• SUSPENSION FEEDERS –
animals that collect food
particles from water
passed through some
type of food-trapping
equipment
• Adult sponges are
sessile, meaning they are
anchored in place – they
cannot escape from
predators
CNIDARIANS ARE RADIAL ANIMALS WITH
TENTACLES AND STINGING CELLS
• Cnidarians are characterized by radial

symmetry and bodies arising from only two
tissue layers.
• Members of the phylum Cnidaria have tissues
and a gastrovascular cavity.
• Their two body forms are polyps (hydras)
and medusae (jellies).
• GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY –
where food is digested
• CNIDOCYTES – stinging cells
that function in defense and in
capturing prey
FLATWORMS ARE THE SIMPLEST BILATERAL
ANIMALS
• Members of the phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms) are

bilateral animals with no body cavity between the digestive
tract and outer body wall.
• A planarian has a gastrovascular cavity and a simple
nervous system.
• Flukes and tapeworms are parasitic flatworms with
complex life cycles.
ANIMALS
• PLANARIANS (free-living flatworms)
• Live on the surfaces of rocks in
freshwater ponds and streams.
• A planarian has a head with a pair of
light-sensitive eyecups and a flap at
each side that detects chemicals.
• Dense clusters of nerve cells form a
simple brain and a pair of nerve
cords.
• The location of the brain, sense
organs, and mouth in the anterior
end is characteristic of bilaterally
symmetric animals.
ANIMALS
• FLUKES
• Live as parasites in other animals.
• Many flukes have suckers that
attach to their host and a tough
protective covering.
• Reproductive organs occupy
nearly the entire interior of these
worms.
ANIMALS
• FLUKES
• Many flukes have complex
life cycles that facilitate
dispersal of offspring to
new hosts.
ANIMALS
• TAPEWORMS
• Adult tapeworms inhabit the digestive
tracts of vertebrates, including humans.
• Most tapeworms have a very long,
ribbonlike body with repeated units.
ANIMALS
• TAPEWORMS
• Tapeworms have a complex life cycle, usually involving more
than one host.
• Most species take advantage of the predator-prey
relationships of their hosts.
Prey species: may

become infected by
eating grass
Larval tapeworms Predator: becomes
contaminated with
develop in these hosts infected when it eats an
tapeworm eggs
infected prey animal
NEMATODES HAVE A BODY CAVITY AND A
COMPLETE DIGESTIVE TRACT
• Nematodes (roundworm) make up the phylum
Nematoda.
• They have bilateral symmetry and an embryo with
three tissue layers.
• Roundworms have a fluid-filled body cavity and a
digestive tract with two openings.
• CUTICLE – several layers of tough, nonliving
material that cover the body and prevent the
nematode from drying out.
• In parasitic species, the cuticle protects the nematode
from the host’s digestive system
• When the worm grows, it sheds its cuticle and secretes
a new, larger one
• Nematodes have a complete digestive
tract, extending as a tube from the
mouth to the anus near the tip of the
tail.
• Other nematodes thrive as parasites in
the moist tissue of plants and in the
body fluids and tissues of animals.
• The largest known nematodes are
parasites of whales and measure more
than 7 meters (23 feet long)
• Humans are host of 50 species of
nematodes, including a number of
disease-causing organisms.
• Trichinella spiralis
• Hookworm
Trichinella spiralis
DIVERSE MOLLUSCS ARE VARIATIONS ON A
COMMON BODY PLAN
• Members of the phylum Mollusca include gastropods (snails

and slugs), bivalves (clams and mussels), and cephalopods
(octopuses and squids).
• All have a muscular foot and a mantle, which encloses the
visceral mass and may and may secrete a shell.
• Many molluscs feed with a rasping radula.
• Molluscs have a circulatory system that pumps blood and
distributes nutrients and oxygen throughout the body.
DIVERSE MOLLUSCS ARE VARIATIONS ON A
COMMON BODY PLAN
• MUSCULAR FOOT –
functions in locomotion
• VISCERAL MASS –
containing most of the
internal organs
• MANTLE – a fold of tissue
that drapes over the visceral
mass and secretes shell in
mollusks such as clams and
snails
• RADULA – a unique rasping
organ used to scrape up
food
THREE MOST DIVERSE GROUPS OF
MOLLUSCS
• GASTROPODS (Greek gaster, belly,
and pod, foot)
• Found in freshwater, saltwater, and
terrestrial environments.
• Most are protected by a single,
spiraled shell into which animals can
retreat when threatened.
• Many gastropods have a distinct head
with eyes at the tips of tentacles (land
snails)
• Terrestrial snails lack gills; instead, the
lining of the mantle cavity functions as The long, colorful projections on
a lung, exchanging gases with the air.
the sea slug function as gills.
MOLLUSCS
• BIVALVES (Greek bi, double, and
valva, leaf of a folding door)
• Include numerous species of clams,
oyster, mussels, and scallops.
• They have shells divided into two halves
that are hinged together.
• Most are suspension feeders.
• Mantle cavity contains gills that are used
for feeding as well as gas exchange.
• Most are sedentary, living in sand or mud.
• Mussels are sessile, secreting strong
threads that attach them to rocks, docks,
and boats.
MOLLUSCS
• CEPHALOPODS (Greek kephale,
head, and pod, foot)
• Differ from gastropods and
bivalves in being adapted to the
lifestyle of fast, agile predators.
• The chambered nautilus is a
descendant of ancient groups with
external shells.
• Squids have small and internal
shell while octopuses are missing
altogether.
MOLLUSCS
• CEPHALOPODS (Greek kephale,
head, and pod, foot)
• All cephalopods have large brains and
sophisticated sense organs that
contribute to their success as mobile
predators.
• Cephalopod eyes are among the most
complex sense organs in the animal
kingdom.
• Each eye contains a lens that focuses light
and a retina on which clear images from.
• Octopuses are considered among the
most intelligent invertebrates and have
shown remarkably learning abilities in
laboratory experiments.
ANNELIDS ARE SEGMENTED WORMS
• SEGMENTATION – the
subdivision of the body
along its length into a
series of repeated parts
(segment).
• A segmented body
allows for greater
flexibility and mobility.
• ERRANTIANS
• Most are marine and many have an
active, mobile lifestyle.
• Some errantians crawl or burrow in the
sediments; others are free-swimming.
• Their heads are well-equipped with
sensory organs for moving in search of
food.
• In many species, the appendages are
richly supplied with blood vessels and
are either associated with the gills or
functions as gills themselves.
• SEDENTARIANS
• Less mobile than Errantia.
• Include earthworms, tube-dwellers,
and leeches.
• Tube-dwellers build tubes by
secreting calcium carbonate.
• Leeches are bloodsuckers but most
species are free-living carnivores that
eat small invertebrates.
• Most leeches inhabit freshwater, but
there are marine species and few
terrestrial species.
ARTHROPODS ARE SEGMENTED ANIMALS WITH
JOINTED APPENDAGES AND AN EXOSKELETON
• The diversity and success of arthropods

are largely related to their
segmentation, their hard exoskeleton,
and their joint appendages, for which
the phylum is named (Greek arthron,
joint, and pod, foot)
• EXOSKELETON – an external skeleton
that covers the arthropods body and
appendages; made up of cuticle
• MOLTING (ecdysis) – a complex
process where arthropods shed its old
exoskeleton and secrete larger one as it
grows The appendages are adapted for
sensory reception, defense,
feeding, walking, and swimming
• CHELICERATES (Greek chele, “living fossil”,

claw, and keras, horn) abundant in
the sea some
• Named for their clawlike feeding 300 million
appendages. years ago
• The bodies consist of a

cephalothorax and an abdomen,
and they lack antennae.
• ARACHNIDS – most living
chelicerates; includes scorpions,
spiders, ticks, and mites)
• MYRIAPODS
• Have similar segments over most of
their body and superficially resemble
annelids; however, their jointed legs
identify them as arthropods.
• They are all terrestrial.
• MILLIPEDES – have two pairs of short
legs per body segment, eat decaying
plant matter
• CENTIPEDES – are carnivores that
possess a pair of poison claws used
in defense and to paralyze prey
• CRUSTACEANS
• Nearly all aquatic.
• Includes lobsters and crayfish,
barnacles, crabs, and shrimps.
INSECTS ARE THE MOST SUCCESSFUL GROUP OF
ANIMALS
• Their development often includes metamorphosis.

• Insects have a three-part body (head, thorax, and
abdomen) and three pairs of legs; most have wings.
• Specialized appendages and protective color patterns,
which frequently result from evolutionary changes in the
timing and location of homeotic gene expression, have
played a major role in this group’s success.
ANIMALS
• COMPLETE
METAMORPHOSIS – develops
from larva to adults; beetles,
flies, bees, and moths and
butterflies
• INCOMPLETE
METAMORPHOSIS – transition
from larva to adult is achieved
through multiple molts, but
without forming a pupa;
grasshoppers and cockroach
ANIMALS
ECHINODERMS HAVE SPINY, AN
ENDOSKELETON, AND A WATER VASCULAR
SYSTEM FOR MOVEMENT
• ECHINODERMATA (Greek echin, spiny,
and derma, skin)
• Refers to the prickly bumps or spines.
• Includes sea stars, sand dollars, and sea
urchins
• ENDOSKELETON – an internal skeleton
made up of hard calcium-containing plates
• WATER VASCULAR SYSTEM – unique to
echinoderms, a network of water-filled
canals that branch into extensions called
tube feet
• TUBE FEET – function in locomotion,
feeding, and gas exchange
ECHINODERMS HAVE SPINY, AN
ENDOSKELETON, AND A WATER VASCULAR
SYSTEM FOR MOVEMENT
• Threadlike tube feet projecting

among the spines of the sea urchin.
• Sea urchins move by pulling with
their tube feet.
• They also have muscles that pivot
their spines, which can aid in
locomotion.
• Sea urchins eat algae.
OUR OWN PHYLUM, CHORDATA, IS
DISTINGUSHED BY FOUR FEATURES
• Vertebrates evolved from invertebrate ancestors and continue

to share the distinctive features that identify members of the
phylum Chordata.
• The embryos, and often the adults, of chordates possess
1) A dorsal, hollow nerve cord;
2) A notochord, a flexible, supportive, longitudinal rod located
between the digestive tract and the nerve cord;
3) Pharyngeal slits located in the pharynx, the region just behind
the mouth
4) A muscular post-anal tail (a tail posterior to the anus)
• LANCELETS
• Small, bladelike chordates that
live in marine sands.
• Lancelets clearly illustrate the
four chordate features.
• TUNICATES
• Are stationary and look more like
small sacs than anything we
usually think of as a chordate.
• Often adhere to rocks and boats,
and they are common on coral
reefs.
• The adult has no trace of a
notochord, nerve cord, or tail, but
it does have prominent
pharyngeal slits that function in
feeding.
lesson
04
Vertebrate Diversity
SHARED DERIVED CHARACTERS DEFINE THE
MAJOR CLADES OF CHORDATES
MANY PRIMATE CHARACTERS ARE
ADAPTATIONS TO LIFE IN THE TREES
• Primates had evolved as small arboreal mammals 65

million years ago.
• Primate characters include limber joints, grasping hands
and feet with flexible digits, a short snout, and forward-
pointing eyes that enhance depth perception.
THE HUMAN STORY BEGINS WITH OUR PRIMATE
HERITAGE
• The three groups of living primates

are the lorises, bush babies, and
lemurs; the tarsiers; and the
anthropoids (monkeys and apes).
• Apes that have larger brains than
other primates include gibbons,
orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees,
and humans.
THE HOMININ BRANCH OF THE PRIMATE TREE
INCLUDES SPECIES THAT COEXISTED
• Paleoanthropologists have found about 20 species of

extinct hominins, species more closely related to humans
than to chimpanzees.
• Some of these species lived at the same time.
AUSTRALOPITHS WERE BIPEDAL AND HAD
SMALL BRAINS
• Present-day humans and
chimpanzees clearly differ in two
major features:
• Humans are bipedal (walk
upright) – bipedalism and other
adaptations came later as hominin
intelligence led to changes in food-
gathering methods, parental care,
and social interactions In chimpanzees and other species that primarily
quadruped, the spinal cord exits toward the rear of
• Have larger brains – hypothesis on the skull. In bipeds, the spinal cord emerges from the
brain size come from hominin fossils floor of the braincase
Not long after Lucy was found, another team of
paleoanthropologists discovered unique
evidence of bipedalism in ancient hominins.
While working in Tanzania in East Africa, they
found a 3.6-million-year-old layer of hardened
volcanic ash crisscrossed with tracks of several
extinct species of mammals including upright-
walking hominins. The feet of two hominins, one
large and one small, walking close together,
made impressions in the ash. –species of
Australopithecus
LARGER BRAINS MARK THE EVOLUTION OF
HOMO
• The genus Homo includes

hominins with larger brains and
evidence of tool use.
• Homo ergaster had a larger brain
than H. habilis.
• H. erectus, with a larger brain
than H. ergaster, was the first
hominin to spread out of Africa.
FROM ORIGINS IN AFRICA, Homo sapiens
SPREAD AROUND THE WORLD
• The ancestors of humans originated in Africa, the oldest

known fossils with definitive characteristics of our own
species, discovered in Ethiopia, are 160,000 and 195,000
years old.
• Evidence from fossils and DNA studies has enabled
scientists to trace early human history.
• DNA studies indicate that Europeans and Asians share more
recent common ancestor and that many African lineages
represent earlier branches on the human tree.
WHAT SPURRED THE RAPID GEOGRAPHIC
EXPANSION OF Homo sapiens?
• Increasing numbers probably caused populations to

gradually expand their range.
• Travel and successful colonization of new regions were
likely to be facilitated by the evolution of human cognition
as our species evolved in Africa.
• Although Neanderthals and other hominins were able to
produce sophisticated tools, they showed little creativity and
not much capability for symbolic thought.
WHAT SPURRED THE RAPID GEOGRAPHIC
EXPANSION OF Homo sapiens?
• Researchers have found evidence

in increasingly sophisticated
thought as H. sapiens evolve.
• As H. sapiens spread around the
globe, populations adapted to the
new environments they
encountered.
• Some differences among people
are attributable to their deep
ancestry.
END OF LECTURE
REFERENCES:
• Taylor, Martha R., Simon, Eric J., Dickey, Jean L., and Hogan, Kelly. (2022). Campbell Biology:
Concepts and Connections, 10th Edition. Pearson Education.
LECTURE 8:
Unifying
Concepts of
Animal
Structure and
Function
BIOLOGY: ANIMAL FORMS AND

FUNCTIONS
PR E PA R E D B Y:
D I V I N E G R A C E S . B AT E N G A , M S C . , L P T
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lesson, the students are expected to:

vDescribe the structural levels of the body’s organization.
vDescribe and explain how the following organ system
works.
vDescribe how animals regulate even in changing or harsh
environments.
ANIMAL FORMS AND FUNCTIONS 2

STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTIONS IN
ANIMAL TISSUES

Structure fits function at all levels of
organization in the animal body
qANATOMY – the study of the form of an organism’s
structures
§ A biologist who is interested in anatomy might focus on the
arrangement of muscles and bones in a giraffe’s neck.
qPHYSIOLOGY – the study of the functions of those
structures
§ A physiologist might study how a giraffe’s muscles function.

Structural hierarchy of an organism
• CELL – basic unit of life

• TISSUE – an integrated group of similar cells that
perform a common function
• ORGAN – made up of two or more types of tissues that
together perform a specific task
• ORGAN SYSTEM – consists of multiple organs that
together perform one or more vital body functions
• ORGANISMS – contains a number of organ system,
each specialized for certain tasks and all functioning
together as an integrated coordinated unit

Tissues are groups of cells with a
common structure and function
vTissue comes from the Latin word meaning “weave”.
v4 main types of tissues:
§ Epithelial
§ Connective
§ Muscle
§ Nervous

Epithelial tissue covers the body and
lines its organs and cavities
vEPITHELIAL TISSUES (singular, epithelium) – sheets of

closely packed cells that cover the body surface and
line internal organs and cavities.
vNearly 80% of all cancers have arisen in epithelial
tissue; they are known as carcinomas.
vEpithelial tissues are named according to the number
of cell layers they have and the shape of the cells on
their apical surface (the side that faces outside of an
organ or the inside of a tube or passageway).

Type and function of epithelial tissue
ØSIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM – thin and leaky and thus suitable for
exchanging materials by diffusion; it lines capillaries and the air sac of the lungs
ØCUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM – facilitates in secretion or absorption of materials;
forms a tube in the kidney and is also found in glands (thyroid and salivary
glands)
ØCOLUMNAR EPITHELIUM – facilitates in secretion or absorption of materials;
lines the intestine, where it secretes digestive juices and absorbs nutrients
§ The apical surface of some columnar cells has tiny densely packed projections called
microvilli that increase surface area for absorption.
§ Other cells have longer motile projections called cilia that move materials along the
epithelial surface.

Type and function of epithelial tissue
ØSTRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM – it has many layers
that make them well suited for lining surfaces that are subject
to abrasion (outer skin and lining of the mouth and esophagus)
§ Regenerates rapidly by division of the cells near the extracellular
matrix.
§ New cells move toward the apical surface as older cells slough off.
§ We shed close to 500 million skin cells per day, adding up to many
pounds of skin cells per year!

Connective tissue binds and supports
other tissues
v CONNECTIVE TISSUE – consists of a sparse population of cells scattered throughout a matrix

§ Collagen – a strong, ropelike protein
§ Elastic fibers – making the tissue resilient and strong
vType of connective tissue:
§ Loose connective tissue
§ Fibrous connective tissue
§ Adipose tissue
§ Cartilage
§ Bone
§ Blood

Types of connective tissue
ØLOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE – the most widespread tissue
in the body because its matrix is a loose weave of fibers in a
watery fluid; serves mainly to bind epithelia to underlying
tissues and hold organs in place
ØFIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE – has a matrix of densely
packed collagen fibers; forms tendons, which attach muscles
to bone, and ligaments, which connect bones at joints

ØADIPOSE TISSUE – stores fat in large, closely packed adipose cells held in a
very sparse matrix of loose fibers and fluid
§ This tissue pads and insulates the body and stores energy.
§ Each adipose cell contains a large fat droplet that swells when fat is stored
and shrinks when fat is used as fuel
ØCARTILAGE – forms a strong but flexible skeletal material, and its matrix
consists of collagen fibers embedded in a rubbery material
§ Commonly surrounds the ends of bones, providing a shock-absorbing
surface.
§ It also supports the ears and nose and forms the cushioning disks between
the vertebrate.
ØBONE – has a matrix of collagen fibers embedded in a hard mineral substance
(calcium, magnesium, and phosphate)
§ The compact regions of bones contain repeating circular units of a matrix,
each with a central canal containing blood vessels and nerves.
§ A bone may not seem “alive”, but it contains living cells, and it can grow as
you grow and mend when broken.
ØBLOOD – transports substances throughout the body and functions differently
from other connective tissues
§ Plasma – consists of water, salts, and dissolved proteins
§ Red blood cells (RBC) – carries oxygen
§ White blood cells (WBC) – function in defense against infection
§ Platelets – aid in blood clotting
Muscle tissue functions in movement
vMUSCLE TISSUE – is the most abundant tissue in nearly all animals.

§ Muscle fiber – the main component of muscle tissue; contains many
molecules of contractile proteins
vTypes of muscle tissue

§ Skeletal muscle
§ Cardiac muscle
§ Smooth muscle

Types of muscle tissue
ØSKELETAL MUSCLE – is attached to bones by tendons and is
responsible for voluntary movements of the animal body (hopping in
kangaroos and flying in birds)
§ The arrangement of the contractile units along the length of skeletal muscle fibers
gives the cells a striped, or striated, appearance.
ØCARDIAC MUSCLE – forms the contractile tissue of the heart (an organ
consisting of mostly muscle); striated
• Cardiac muscle is under involuntary control (consciously uncontrolled contraction)
• Cardiac muscle fibers are branched, interconnecting at the specialized junction
that rapidly relays the signal to contract from cell to cell during a heartbeat.

Types of muscle tissue
ØSMOOTH MUSCLE – gets its name from its lack of striations;
found in the walls of the digestive tract, arteries, and other
internal organs
§ It is responsible for involuntary body activities (movement of food
through the intestines.
§ Smooth muscle cells contract more slowly than skeletal muscle.
§ Smooth muscle can sustain contractions for a longer period of time
than skeletal muscle can.

Nervous tissue forms a
communication network
vNERVOUS TISSUE – senses stimuli and rapidly transmits information
vFound in the brain and spinal cord, as well as in the nerves that transmit
signals throughout the body.
vNeuron – the structural and functional unit of nervous tissue; uniquely
specialized to conduct electrical nerve impulses
§ Cell body – contains the cell’s nucleus and other organelles; receives nerve
impulses from other neurons
§ Dendrites – receive nerve impulses from other neurons
§ Axons – often bundled together into nerves, transmit signals toward other neurons
or to an effector cell (muscle cell) that can respond to stimulus

ORGANS AND
ORGAN SYSTEM

Organs are made up of tissues
• Multiple tissues are arranged into organs
that perform specific functions.
• An organ represents a higher level of
structure than the tissues composing it,
and it performs functions that none of its
component tissues can carry out alone.

Organ systems work together to perform life’s
functions

functions

functions

functions

functions

EXTERNAL
EXCHANGE AND
INTERNAL
REGULATION

Animals regulate their internal
environment
• Conditions of two environments
• EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT – surrounding the
animal
• INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT – where its cells
actually live

environment
• HOMEOSTASIS – means “a steady state”; a
dynamic state, an interplay between outside
forces that tend to change the internal
environment and internal control
mechanisms that oppose such changes
• NEGATIVE FEEDBACK – any control
mechanism that reduces or reverses a
change in the internal environment
• POSITIVE FEEDBACK – occurs when a
change triggers mechanisms that amplify
those changes

environment
Positive Feedback Mechanism

Homeostasis depends on negative
feedback
• Most of the control mechanisms of homeostasis are based on negative
feedback.
• Many of the control centers that maintain homeostasis in animals are
located in the brain.
• HYPOTHALAMUS – regulates activities such as food intake, sleep, heart rate,
hormone levels, and body temperature
• Like a thermostat, the hypothalamus responds to variations from the set point by
switching on and off mechanisms that maintain body temperature.

Thank You
Reference:
• Taylor, Martha R., Simon, Eric J., Dickey, Jean
L., and Hogan, Kelly. (2022). Campbell
Biology: Concepts and Connections, 10th
Edition. Pearson Education.

BIOLOGY
Lecture 9: Digestion
and Gas Exchange
A N I M A L S : F O R M A N D F U N C T I O N
Prepared by:
LEARNING OUTCOMES
§ Identify the parts and functions of the human

digestive system.
§ Explain how animals extract the nutrients they

need for food.
§ Discuss how the structure and function related in

the exchange and circulation of oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
2
DIGESTION
OBTAINING AND
PROCESSING
FOOD
4
Animals obtain and ingest their food in a variety of ways
Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores
Regularly
Dine mainly Mostly eat
consumes
on plants other
plants and
and algae animals
animals
5
FOUR MAJOR TYPES OF
FEEDING MECHANISMS
EVOLVED AMONG
ANIMALS
1. SUSPENSION FEEDERS
§ M os tly a q ua tic a nima ls
§ Anima ls tha t c a ptur e food pa r tic les

fr om the s ur r ound ing med ium.
§ Ex a mp le: inver teb ra tes
§ M a n ta ray f i s h – c ollec ts la r g e
q ua ntities of s hr imp, kr ill, a nd
s ma ll c ra bs
§ S p o n g es – d raw nutr ient-

c onta ining wa ter thr oug h p or es
6
FOUR MAJOR TYPES OF
FEEDING MECHANISMS
EVOLVED AMONG
ANIMALS
2. SUBSTRATE FEEDERS
§ L ive in or on their food s our c e a nd ea t their

Maggots
way thr oug h it
§ Ex a mp le:
§ Lea f mi n er c a terp i l l a r
§ M a g g o ts – b ur r ow into a nima l
c a r c a s s es
§ Ea r thwo rms – ea t their way thr oug h

s oil, dig es t pa r tia lly dec ayed or g a nic
ma ter ia l
Earthworm
7
FOUR MAJOR TYPES OF
FEEDING MECHANISMS
EVOLVED AMONG
ANIMALS
Aphids Hummingbird 3. F LUID F EED ERS
§ S u c k n u t r i e n t- r i c h l i q u i d s f r o m a l i v i n g
host.
§ Example:
§ Aphids – tap into the sugary sap in

plants
§ Mosquitoes (bloodsuckers) – pierce

a n i m a l s w i t h h o l l o w, n e e d l e l i k e
mouthparts; only female mosquitoes
suck blood, males live on plant nectar)
§ Hummingbird – benefit their host by

moving pollen between flowers as they
fluid-feed on nectar
8
FOUR MAJOR TYPES OF
FEEDING MECHANISMS
EVOLVED AMONG
ANIMALS
4. BULK FEEDERS
§ Ing es t la r g e piec es of food
§ Us e tenta c les , pinc er s , c laws ,

p ois onous fa ng s , jaw s , or teeth to kill
its pr ey or to tea r of f piec es of mea t
or veg eta tion
§ Ex a mp les :
§ H u ma n s
§ M o s t a n i ma l s
9
Food processing occurs in four stages
1. ING ESTION – the a c t of ea ting
2. DIGESTION – the br ea kdown of food into molec ules s ma ll

enoug h for the body to a bs or b.
§ M ec h a n i c a l – food is mec ha nic a lly b r ea kd ow n into

s ma ller piec es ( c hewing in a nima ls with teeth) ,
inc r ea s ing the s ur fa c e ava ila ble for c hemic a l pr oc es s es
§ C h emi c a l – b r ea kd ow n of food by s p ec if ic enz y mes ;
nec es s a r y b ec a us e a nima ls c a nnot d ir ec tly us e the
p r oteins , c a r b ohyd ra tes , fa ts a nd nuc leic a c id s in food
3. A B S ORPTION – the c ells lining the dig es tive tra c t ta ke up

( a b s or b ) the p r od uc ts of d ig es tion ( s ma ll molec ules )
4. ELIMINATION – und ig es ted ma ter ia ls p a s s es out of the

d ig es tive s y s tem
10
The four main stages of food processing
11
Digestion occurs in specialized compartments
§How can an animal digest food

without also digesting its own
tissue?
Most animals have a digestive compartment
that is surrounded by, rather than within,
body cells.
12
GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY
§ A compar tment with a single opening

that functions as both the entrance for
food and the exit of undigested waste.
§ Present in animals with relatively

small body plans (cnidarians and
f latworms).
13
ALIMENTARY CANAL (GUT)
§ A dig es tive tube ex tending between two

op ening s : a mout h a t one end a nd a n
anus a t the other
§ Food moves in jus t one dir ec tion;

s pec ia lized r eg ions of the tube c a n
d ig es t a nd a b s or b nutr ients in a s tep w is e
fa s hion.
14
Earthworm
• Muscular pharynx – sucks
food in through the mouth
• Crop – food storage
• Gizzard – for mechanical
digestion; pulverizes food
with the aid of sand and
ALIMENTARY CANAL (GUT) gravel
• Intestine – chemical
digestion
• Anus – undigested material
§ Fo o d e n t e r i n g t h e m o u t h u s u a l l y p a s s e s i n t o
Grasshopper
the pharynx, or throat. Depending on the • Crop – food storage
• Midgut – most digestion
species, the esophagus may channel food to occurs
• Gastric pouches – for
a c r o p, s t o m a c h , o r g i z z a r d . A c r o p i s a digestion and absorption
• Hindgut – reabsorbs water
pouch- like organ in which food is sof tened and compact wastes
and stored. Stomachs and gizzards are
muscular organs that churn and grind food;
t h e y m a y a l s o s t o r e f o o d t e m p o r a r i l y.
Bird
Chemical digestion and nutrient absorption • Crop – food storage
• Stomach and Gizzard –
occur mainly in the intestine. Undigested food is pulverized
• Intestine – chemical
materials are expelled through the anus. digestion and absorption
15
THE HUMAN
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
16
After chewing a bite of food, it takes 5-10
seconds for it to pass from the pharynx
down the esophagus and into your
stomach; 2-6 hours in the stomach; 5-6
hours absorption in the small intestine;
undigested material move in the large
intestine (taking 12-24 hours); feces
stored in the rectum and expelled through
the anus.
Sphincters – regulates the passage of

food into and out of the stomach
17
PROCESS OF DIGESTION
1 ) M O U T H – w h e r e t h e p r o c e s s s t a r t s ; w h e n fo o d i s c h e w e d , m e c h a n i c a l a n d c h e m i c a l
digestion happens
2 ) TO N G U E – p u s h e s t h e fo o d i n t o t h e p h a r y n x
• Bolus – a small rounded mass of a substance, especially of chewed food at the moment of
s wa l l o w i n g
3 ) P H A RY N X – w h e r e t h e b o l u s i s b e i n g s wa l l o w e d
4 ) E S O P H AG U S – r e c e i ve s t h e b o l u s b y p e r i s t a l s i s m o ve m e n t
• Pe r i s t a l s i s – a s e r i e s o f wa ve - l i k e m u s c l e c o n t ra c t i o n s t h a t m o ve f o o d t h r o u g h t h e d i g e s t i ve
t ra c t ; e n a b l e s yo u t o p r o c e s s a n d d i g e s t f o o d e ve n w h i l e l y i n g d o w n
5 ) STO M AC H – b o l u s b e c o m e s a c hy m e
• C hy m e – t h e p u l p y a c i d i c f l u i d w h i c h p a s s e s f r o m t h e s t o m a c h t o t h e s m a l l i n t e s t i n e ,
consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food
18
6) SMALL INTESTINE – absorption of food
7) LARGE INTESTINE – where undigested food goes
8) ANUS – excretion
ACCESSORY ORGANS:
• LIVER – produces bile to emulsify the fats contained in the foods that we eat
• S A L I VA R Y G L A N D S – d e l i v e r s a l i v a t h r o u g h d u c t s t o t h e o r a l c a v i t y ; s t i m u l a t e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f f o o d
• S A L I VA – c o n t a i n s m u c u s ( m i x t u r e o f w a t e r, s a l t s , a n d s l i p p e r y c a r b o h y d r a t e - p r o t e i n c o m p l e x e s ) p r o t e c t s
the soft lining of your mouth and lubricates food for easier swallowing; buffers and neutralize food acids,
antibacterial agents kill many of the bacteria that enter your mouth with food; contains digestive enzyme
amylase (begins the chemical digestion of starch)
• GALL BLADDER – located within the lobes of the liver; stores the bile
• PA N C R E A S – r e g u l a t e s t h e b l o o d s u g a r b y s e c r e t i n g t h e h o r m o n e i n s u l i n a n d g l u c a g o n
19
20
The human swallowing reflex
§ The p ha r y nx op ens tw o p a s s a g eway : the es op ha g us ( p a r t of d ig es tive s y s tem) a nd the

tra c hea ( windpipe, pa r t of the r es pira tor y s y s tem)
§ EPIGLOT TIS – d o o r-l i ke f l a p o f c a r ti l a g e over th e o p en i n g to th e tra c h ea
21
22
23
Blocked pharynx or trachea may prevent air from flowing into the trachea,
causing the person to choke. If breathing is not restored within minutes,
brain damage or death will result.
24
The Heimlich maneuver
can save lives
§ Invented by Dr. Henry Heimlich in the 1970s
§ How to perform:
§ Stand behind the victim and place your arms around
the victimʼs waist.
§ Make a fist with one hand, and place it against the
victimʼs upper abdomen, well below the ribcage.
§ Place the other hand over the fist and press into the
victimʼs abdomen with a quick upward thrust.
§ When done correctly, the diaphragm is forcibly
elevated, pushing air into the trachea.
§ Repeat procedure until the object is forced out of the
victimʼs airway.
25
The small intestine is the major organ of chemical digestion
and nutrient absorption
SMALL INTESTINE
• Length of more than 6 m (20 feet), the longest

organ of the alimentary canal, but it is only about
2.5 cm wide
• Parts of small intestine:
• Duodenum – first 25 cm (10 inches), where

chyme squirted from the stomach mixes with
digestive juices from pancreas, liver,
gallbladder, and gland cells; MOST DIGESTION
IS COMPLETED
• Jejunum
Major sites for nutrient
• Ileum absorption
• Villi – forms the inner wall of small intestine;

fingerlike projections
• Microvilli – microscopic projections in a

surface of a villus
26
The large intestine reclaims water and compact feces
LARGE INTESTINE
• 1.5 m (5 feet) long and 5 cm in diameter
• Pa r t s o f l a r g e i n t e s t i n e
• Cecum – small pouch
• Appendix – small, fingerlike extension of

the cecum; contains a mass of white blood
cells that make a minor contribution to
immunity
• Colon – main portion of the large intestine;

one major function is to complete the
reabsorption of water that was begun in the
small intestine
• Rectum – final por tion of the colon; where

feces are stored until eliminated
• F e c e s – wa s t e s o f t h e d i g e s t i v e s y s t e m
27
THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS
28
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
H EPATITIS
• A c o n ta g i o u s vi ra l i n fec ti o n resu l ts i n a n
i n f l a mma ti o n o f th e l i ver.
• Wea kn ess, fever, a b d o mi n a l p a i n ,

h ea d a c h e, a n d s o meti mes j a u n d i c e.
• B l o o d tes t a n d reg u l a r c o n s u l t wi th a
p hysi c i a n to b e d o n e to l i mi t th e sp rea d o f
i n fec ti o n .
29
CHOLELITHIASIS
• This is a disease of the gall bladder causing

an unusual build-up of cholesterol coming
from the bile substances.
• T h e fo r m a t i o n o f s t o n e s t a ke s p l a c e c a u s i n g
an obstruction in the bile ducts.
• In f l a m m a t i o n o f t h e g a l l b l a d d e r o c c u r s
a c c o m p a n i e d b y s e ve r e a b d o m i n a l p a i n .
• C a u s e : e xc e s s i ve i n t a ke o f f a t t y fo o d s , h i g h
cholesterol diet, and obesity
• Surgery is the only option to treat this

condition.
30
A PPENDIC ITIS
• If th e j u n c ti o n b etween a p p en d i x a n d th e
rest o f th e l a rg e i n tes ti n e b ec o mes
b l o c ked a n d b a c teri a l i n fec ti o n o c c u rs.
• Emerg en c y su rg er y i s u s u a l l y req u i red to

remove th e a p p en d i x a n d p reven t th e
sp rea d o f i n fec ti o n .
31
GAS EXCHANGE
MECHANISMS OF
GAS EXCHANGE
BREATHING
§ A n i nvo l u n t a r y p r o c e s s t h a t o c c u r s
simultaneously with the circulation of the
blood.
§ This action is essential since we are able
t o a c q u i r e o x y g e n f r o m t h e e nv i r o n m e n t ,
w h i c h e ve n t u a l l y i s t ra n s p o r t e d t o t h e
r e s t o f t h e b o d y w i t h t h e i nvo l ve m e n t o f
the blood protein hemoglobin.
§ L i k e w i s e , wa s t e p r o d u c t s s u c h a s c a r b o n
d i o x i d e a r e e xc r e t e d i n t h e p r o c e s s o f
exhalation.
34
Negative pressure breathing ventilates your lungs
§ Breathing is ventilation of the lungs through

alternating inhalation and exhalation.
§ The continual movement of air as you inhale,

and exhale maintains high O2 and low CO2
concentrations at the respiratory surface.
§ N E G AT I V E P R E S S U R E B R E AT H I N G – a
system in which air is pulled into the lungs
§ During inhalation, muscles between the ribs

contract, causing the ribs to move upward and
out, and the diaphragm contracts and moves
downward.
§ Exhalation reverses the pressure gradient.
35
Gas exchange in humans involves breathing, transport of
gases, and exchange with body cells
GAS EXCHANGE
§ The exchange of O2 and CO2 between an organism and its
environment.
§ Enables you to harvest energy from the food molecules

the digestive system provides.
§ 3 phases of gas exchange in humans and animals with

lungs
§ Breathing: O2 diffuses across the cells lining the

lungs and into the surrounding blood vessels as
you inhale; CO2 leaves the body as you exhale
§ Transport of gases by circulatory system: O2

that diffused into the blood attaches to the
hemoglobin in red blood cells; CO2 is transported
in blood, from the tissues back to the lungs,
carried in blue vessels
§ Exchange of gases with body cells: cells take up

O2 from the blood and release CO2 to the blood
36
Animals exchange O 2 and CO 2 across moist body surfaces
§ RESPIRATORY SURFACE – the part of an animalʼs body where gas exchange

with environment occurs
§ Made up of living cells
§ Plasma membranes must be wet to function properly
§ Respiratory surfaces are always moist
§ Gas exchange takes place by diffusion.
§ VENTILATION – the flow of water or air over the respiratory surface.
37
Some animals use their entire outer skin as a gas
exchange organ
§ N o s p ec ia lized g a s exc ha ng e s ur fa c es .
§ Ox yg en d if fus es into a d ens e netw or k of

thin-wa lled c a p illa r ies ly ing jus t b enea th
the s kin.
§ Ea r thw or ms a nd other s kin- b r ea ther s

mus t live in d a mp p la c es or in wa ter
b ec a us e their w hole- b od y s ur fa c e ha s to
s tay mois t.
§ Anima ls tha t br ea the on their s kin a r e

s ma ll, a nd ma ny a r e long a nd thin or
f la ttened .
38
Gills have evolved in most aquatic animals
§ GILLS – ex tens ion, or outfold ing s , of the

b od y s ur fa c e s p ec ia lized for g a s
exc ha ng e
§ Annelids , mollus c s , c r us tec ea ns , a nd

f is h.
§ Res p ira tor y s ur fa c es of a q ua tic a nima ls

ex tend into the s ur r ounding wa ter,
keep ing the s ur fa c e mois t is not a
p r ob lem.
39
Terrestrial animals, the respiratory surface is folded into
the body rather than projecting from it
§ LUNGS – found in mos t ter r es tr ia l

ver tebra tes
§ An inter na l s a c s lined with mois t

epithelium.
§ The inner s ur fa c es of the lung s a r e

ex tens ively s ubdiv ided, for ming a
la r g e r es pira tor y s ur fa c e.
§ Ga s es a r e c a r r ied between the lung s

a nd the b od y c ells by c ir c ula tor y
s y s tem.
40
The tracheal system of insects
provides direct exchange
between the air and body cells
§ There are two big advantages to breathing air:
§ Air contains a much higher concentration of O2
than does water.
§ Air is much lighter and easier to move than
water.
§ A terrestrial animal expends much less energy than
an aquatic animal ventilating its respiratory surface.
§ The main problem facing an air-breathing animal is
the loss of water to the air by evaporation.
§ The tracheal system of insects, with respiratory
surfaces at the tips of tiny branching tubes inside
the body, greatly reduces evaporative water loss.
41
The tracheal system of insects provides direct exchange
§ T R AC H E A E – l a r g e t u b e t h a t c o n n e c t s t o
e x t e r n a l o p e n i n g s p a c e d a l o n g t h e b o d y.
§ At t h e e n d o f e a c h t ra c h e a i s a va l ve
that allows the insect to adjust the
s i z e o f t h e o p e n i n g t o c o n s e r ve
moisture.
§ In dry climates, hairs surrounding the
o p e n i n g a l s o h e l p m i n i m i z e wa t e r l o s s .
§ Tra c h e a e a r e r e i n f o r c e d b y r i n g s o f
chitin, the tough polysaccharide that
a l s o m a k e s u p a n i n s e c t ʼs e xo s k e l e t o n .
§ E n l a r g e d p o r t i o n s o f t ra c h e a e f o r m a i r
sacs near organs that require a large
s upply o f O2.
42
§ For a s ma ll or s low- mov ing ins ec t,

d if fus ion thr oug h the tra c hea e b r ing in
enoug h O 2 to s uppor t c ellula r
r es p ira tion.
§ L a r g er ins ec ts may ventila te their

tra c hea l s y s tems with r hy thmic body
movements tha t c omp r es s a nd ex p a nd
the a ir tubes like bellows .
43
§ An insect in f light has a ver y high

metabolic rate and consumes 10 to
200 times more O 2 than it does at
rest.
§ In many insects, alternating

contraction and relaxation of the f light
muscles rapidly pumps air through the
tracheal system.
44
THE HUMAN
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
In ma mma l s, b ra n c h i n g tu b es c o nvey a i r
to l u n g s l o c a ted i n th e c h est c avi ty
• Your l u n g s a r e loc a ted in your c hes t, or
thora c ic c av ity, a nd a r e pr otec ted by the
s uppor tive r ib c a g e.
46
The human respiratory system
§ DIAPHRAGM – separates thoracic cavity from

abdominal cavity
§ PHARYNX – a common passageway for air and

food; the rest of the time, the air passage in the
pharynx is open for breathing
§ LARYNX (voice box) – upper part of the

respiratory tract; moves upward and tips the
epiglottis over trachea when you swallow food
§ TRACHEA – windpipe
§ B r o n c h i ( s i n g u l a r, b r o n c h u s ) – l a r g e t u b e s
that connect to your trachea (windpipe) and
direct the air you breathe to your right and
left lungs.
§ Bronchioles – finer tubes
§ A l v e o l i ( s i n g u l a r, a l v e o l u s ) – g r a p e l i k e
clusters of air sacs, each of your lungs
contains millions of these tiny sacs
47
§ Each year, you take between 4 million and 10 million
breaths.
§ The volume of air in each breath is about 500 millimeters
(mL) when you breathe quietly.
§ VITAL CAPACITY – the maximum volume of air that can
be inhaled and exhaled with each breath
§ It averages about 3.4 L and 4.8 L for college-age
females and males.
§ The lungs hold more air that the vital capacity.
§ Because the alveoli do not completely collapse, a
residual volume of “dead” air remains in the lungs
even after you blow out as much air as you can.
§ As lungs lose elasticity (springiness) with age or as
the result of disease, less air exits on exhalation
and residual volume increases at the expense of
vital capacity.
48
Breathing is automatically controlled
§ Most of the time breathing is controlled by

i nvo l u n t a r y m e c h a n i s m s .
§ N e u ra l c i r c u i t s i n a p a r t o f t h e b ra i n c a l l e d
the medulla oblongata form a pair of
control centers that establish the breathing
r hy t h m .
§ N e r ve s f r o m t h e m e d u l l a s i g n a l t h e
d i a p h ra g m a n d r i b m u s c l e s t o c o n t ra c t ,
c a u s i n g yo u t o i n h a l e .
§ Between inhalation, the muscles relax,

a n d yo u e x h a l e .
§ W h e n yo u a r e a t r e s t , t h e s e n e r ve s
signals result in about 10 to 14
inhalations per minute.
49
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
50
HOW DO LUNGS WORK?
51
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
§ Exposure to such pollutants can cause continual irritation and inflammation of

the lungs and lead to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
§ 2 main conditions of COPD:
§ CHRONIC BRONCHITIS
§ EMPHYSEMA – the delicate walls of alveoli become permanently damaged,

and the lungs lose the elasticity that helps expel air during exhalation.
§ With COPD, both lung ventilation and gas exchange are severely impaired.
§ Patients experience labored breathing, coughing, and frequent lung infection.
52
TUBERCULOSIS
• Highly contagious disease which could be

transmitted airborne.
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis – the causative agent
• This communicable disease is found in countries

with tropical climates.
• Several organs may be affected such as meninges of

the brain, spine, and small intestines.
• Signs & Symptoms: fever, night sweats, fatigue,

and coughing with blood
• This could be treated by giving the proper

medications with regular check-ups from a
physician.
• Fatal if no treatment is done.
53
PNEUMONIA
• This condition results when the lungs are inflamed

and are associated with fluid blocking the alveolar
passages.
• The person may acquire this if the immune system

is low.
• It could be brought by viruses, bacteria, fungi,

cigarette smoking, or upon exposure to harmful
chemicals.
• The person may acquire this via airborne especially

if the immune system is impaired.
• Symptoms: fever associated with productive cough

and chest pain
• The person may recover having the right

medications given by a physician.
54
BRONCHITIS
• A condition in which bronchioles become

inflamed and constricted, making
breathing difficult.
55
Warning: Cigarette smoking is
hazardous to your health
§ B e f o r e wa r n i n g l a b e l s f i r s t a p p e a r e d o n
c i g a r e t t e p a c k s i n 1 9 6 5 , s m o k i n g wa s w i d e l y
b e l i e ve d t o b e a h a r m l e s s p l e a s u r e .
§ B e f o r e 1 9 0 0 , l u n g c a n c e r wa s a ra r e d i s e a s e ,
r e p r e s e n t i n g l e s s t h a n 1% o f a l l c a n c e r c a s e s .
By 1940, lung cancer had become the second-
leading cause of cancer deaths.
§ Re s e a r c h e r s h a ve e s t a b l i s h e d c o n c l u s i ve l y t h a t
s m o k i n g i s t h e l e a d i n g c a u s e o f p r e ve n t a b l e
disease and death in the United States.
56
The safety of e-cigarettes
needs further investigation
§ E-CIGARET TES – are battery powered devices
t h a t va p o r i z e a l i q u i d c o n t a i n i n g n i c o t i n e
§ Nicotine – the molecule responsible for the
pleasurable effects of smoking
§ Because e-cigarettes eliminate the toxic cloud of
burning tobacco, many smokers have embraced

Are e-cigarettes a solution to the
deadly toll taken by smoking – or them as safer alternative.
do they pose health risks that are
not yet apparent? § Nicotine is highly addictive and may have long-
term effects on the developing brains of

Definitive answers to such
questions may take many teenagers' young adults
years of research.
§ In addition, some of the chemicals used to flavor
e-cigarettes have been linked to respiratory
diseases.
57
End of
lecture…
58
BIOLOGY
Prepared by:
Subject Teacher
LEARNING OUTCOMES
§ Discuss how the structure and function related in the
exchange and circulation of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
§ List the major functions of the heart.
§ Describe the structure and function of arteries,
capillaries, and veins.
§ State the components and function of blood.
§ Differentiate innate and adaptive immunity.
THE CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
THREE COMPONENTS OF
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
vBlood
vHeart
vBlood vessels
• River of life
• Distributes oxygen
and necessary
nutrients needed by
THE BLOOD the body
• Carries substances in
line with the immune
system
HOW MUCH ØBlood represents about 8% of
BLOOD IS IN total body weight and has an
THE HUMAN average volume of 5 Liters in
BODY? women and 5.5 Liters in men.
Ø The hematocrit averages about
42% for women and 45% for
men.
Ø The average volume of plasma
in the blood is about 58% for
women and 55% for men.
<1%
HEMATOCRIT (packed of cell

volume)- essentially represents the
percentage of erythrocytes in the
total blood volume.
BLOOD CONSTITUENTS
§ Erythrocytes
Cellular
§ Leukocytes elements
§ Thrombocytes
§ Plasma – complex liquid
PLASMA WATER
• Plasma, being a liquid,
consists of 91% water.
• Plasma water is a
medium for materials
being carried in the
blood.
• Absorbs and
distributes much of
the heat generated
metabolically within
tissues.
9
IONS
• Inorganic constituents account for about 2% of
plasma weight.
• The most abundant electrolytes (ions) are Na+ and
Cl-, the components of common salt.
• Smaller amounts of HCO3-, K+, Ca2+, and other ions
are present.
• Play a role in membrane excitability, osmotic
distribution of fluid between ECF and cells, buffer
changes in pH.
• Blood pH??? 7.35 to 7.45
10
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES
• Nutrients (glucose, amino acids, lipids,
vitamins)
• Waste products (creatinine, bilirubin, urea)
• Dissolved gases (O2 and CO2)
• Hormones
Most of these substances are merely being
transported by plasma.
11
3 GROUPS OF PLASMA PROTEINS
1.ALBUMINS – the most abundant

plasma proteins
• Transport many substances
• Contribute most to colloid osmotic
pressure by virtue of their numbers
• Constitute 58% of plasma weight
12
2. GLOBULINS
• Alpha (ɑ) and beta (β) globulins –
transport many water-insoluble
substances; including clotting factors
and inactive precursor molecules
• Gamma (𝛄) globulins – antibodies or
immunoglobulins
13
3. FIBRINOGEN
• A key factor in blood clotting
Plasma proteins are synthesized by the

liver, except for antibodies.
14
CELLULAR ELEMENTS
qERYTHROCYTES
qLEUKOCYTES
qTHROMBOCYTES
HEMATOPOIESIS
• Hematopoiesis is the process that produces
formed elements.
• In the fetus, hematopoiesis occurs in several tissues,
including the liver, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes,
and red bone marrow.
• After birth, hematopoiesis is confined primarily to red
bone marrow, but some white blood cells are
produced in lymphatic tissues.
All the formed
elements of blood
are derived from a
single population of
cells called stem
cells, or
hemocytoblasts.
ERYTHROCYTES (RED BLOOD
CELLS)
ØEach milliliter of blood on average contains
about 5 billion erythrocytes, commonly
reported clinically in a red blood cell count as 5
million cells per cubic millimeter (mm3).
ØThe structure of erythrocytes is well suited to
their main function of O2 transport in the
blood.
18
ERYTHROCYTE STRUCTURE
Ø Erythrocytes are flat, disc-shaped
cells indented in the middle on
both sides, like a doughnut with a
flattened center instead of a hole
(that is, they are biconcave
discs).
Ø Flexible membrane.
Ø The most important anatomic
feature that enables RBCs to
transport O2 is the hemoglobin
they contain.
19
ROLE OF HEMOGLOBIN
• Hemoglobin is a pigment (that
is, it is naturally colored)
– Because of its iron content, it
appears reddish when
combined with O2 and bluish
when deoxygenated.
– A fully oxygenated arterial
blood is red, and venous
blood, which has lost some of
its O2 load at the tissue level,
has a bluish cast. 20
ERYTHROCYTES LACK
NUCLEUS AND ORGANELLES
• Red blood cells contain no nucleus or
organelles.
• To maximize its hemoglobin content, a single
erythrocyte is stuffed with more than 250
million hemoglobin molecules, excluding
almost everything else.
• Each RBC can carry more than 1 billion O2
molecules.
21
ERYTHROCYTES’ SHORT LIFE
SPAN
• Each of us has a total of 25 trillion to 30 trillion
RBCs streaming through our blood vessels at any
given time. Yet these vital gas-transport vehicles are
short-lived and must be replaced at the average
rate of 2 million to 3 million cells per second.
• Without DNA, RNA, and ribosomes, red blood cells
cannot synthesize proteins for cell repair, growth,
and division or for renewing enzyme supplies.
22
ERYTHROCYTES’ SHORT LIFE
SPAN
• RBCs survive an average of only 120
days, in contrast to nerve and muscle
cells, which last a person’s entire life.
• During its short life span of 4 months,
each erythrocyte travels about 700 miles.
• Most old RBCs meet their final demise in
the spleen.
23
ERYTHROPOIESIS
ØBecause erythrocytes cannot divide to
replenish their own numbers, the old
ruptured cells must be replaced by new cells
produced in an erythrocyte factory – the bone
marrow.
ØThe marrow normally generates new red blood
cells, a process known as erythropoiesis, at
a rate to keep pace with the demolition of old
cells.
24
Major steps in erythropoiesis
25
ERYTHROPOIESIS
• In children, most bones
are filled with red bone
marrow capable of
blood cell production.
• As a person matures,
fatty yellow bone
marrow incapable of
erythropoiesis gradually
replaces red marrow.
26
Feedback Regulation of
Low O levels do not stimulates
Erythropoiesis 2
erythropoiesis by acting directly on the
red marrow. What stimulates
erythropoiesis?
27
ANEMIA
• A below-normal O2-carrying capacity of

the blood.
• Characterized by a low hematocrit.
• Can be brought about by a decreased
rate of erythropoiesis, excessive losses
of erythrocytes, or a deficiency in the
hemoglobin content of erythrocytes.
28
TYPES OF ANEMIA
NUTRITIONAL ANEMIA PERNICIOUS ANEMIA
• Caused by inability to
• Caused by a dietary absorb enough ingested
deficiency of a factor vitamin B12 from digestive
needed for tract.
erythropoiesis. • Vitamin B12 is essential
for normal RBC
• Iron deficiency anemia production and
occurs when not enough maturation.
• The problem is a
iron is available for deficiency of intrinsic
synthesizing factor, special substance
hemoglobin. secreted by the lining of
the stomach.
29
TYPES OF ANEMIA
APLASTIC ANEMIA RENAL ANEMIA
• Caused by the bone marrow • It may result from kidney
failing to produce enough disease.
RBC, even though all • Erythropoietin from kidneys
ingredients needed for is the primary stimulus for
erythropoiesis are available. promoting erythropoiesis.
• Reduced erythropoietic • Inadequate erythropoietin
capability can be caused by secretion by diseased
the destruction of red kidneys leads to insufficient
marrow by toxic chemicals, RBC production.
heavy exposure to ionizing
radiation, invasion of the
marrow by cancer cells, or
chemotherapy for cancer. 30
TYPES OF ANEMIA
HEMORRHAGIC ANEMIA HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA
• Caused by losing a lot • Caused by rupture of too
many circulating
of blood.
erythrocytes.
• The loss can be either • Hemolysis, the rupture of
acute, such as a RBCs, occurs either
bleeding wound, or because an external factor
chronic, such as brings about rupture of
excessive menstrual normal cells, as invasion of
RBCs by malaria parasites,
flow. or because the cells are
defective, as in sickle cell
disease. 31
Malaria
• Caused by protozoan
parasites introduced into a
victim’s blood by the bite of
a carrier mosquito.
• These parasites selectively
invade RBCs, where they
multiply to the point that the
mass of malarial organisms
ruptures the cells, releasing
hundreds of new active
parasites that quickly invade
other RBCs.
32
Sickle cell disease
• The best-known example
among various hereditary
abnormalities.
• Caused by a genetic mutation
that changes a single amino
acid in the amino acid chain
(valine replaces glutamate).
• This defective type of
hemoglobin joins together to
form rigid chains that make
the RBC stiff and unnaturally
shaped (sickle).
33
POLYCYTEMIA
• Characterized by too many

circulating RBCs and an elevated
hematocrit.
–Primary polycythemia
–Secondary polycythemia
34
PRIMARY POLYCYTHEMIA
• Caused by a tumorlike
condition of the bone marrow
in which erythropoiesis
proceeds at an excessive,
uncontrolled rate instead of being
subject to the normal
erythropoietin regulatory
mechanism.
• RBC count may reach 11 million
cells/mm3 (normal is 5 million
cells/mm3).
• Hematocrit may be as high as
70% to 80% (normal 42% to
45%). 35
Harmful effect…
• The excessive number of red blood cells
increases blood’s viscosity up to five to seven
times normal (makes blood thicker), causing the
blood to flow sluggishly reducing O2 delivery to the
tissues.
• Increased viscosity also increases total
peripheral resistance, which may elevate blood
pressure, increasing the workload of the heart,
unless blood-pressure control mechanisms can
compensate.
36
SECONDARY POLYCYTHEMIA
• Is an appropriate erythropoietin-
induced adaptive mechanism to
improve the blood’s O2-carrying
capacity in response to a prolonged
reduction in O2 delivery to the
tissues.
• It occurs normally in people living
at high altitudes, where less O2 is
available in the air, or in people for
whom O2 delivery to the tissues
is impaired by chronic lung disease
or cardiac failure.
37
SECONDARY POLYCYTHEMIA
• The red cell count in secondary
polycythemia is usually lower than that
in primary polycythemia.
• Typically averaging 6 million to 8 million
cells/mm3.
• The price paid for improved O2 delivery is
an increased viscosity of the blood.
38
RELATIVE POLYCYTHEMIA
• This is not a true polycythemia because the
number of circulating RBCs is not increased.
• An elevated hematocrit can occur when the
body loses fluid but not erythrocytes, as in
dehydration accompanying heavy sweating or
profuse diarrhea.
• A normal number of erythrocytes are simply
concentrated in a smaller plasma volume.
39
Hematocrit under various circumstances
40
BLOOD TYPES
Blood types depend on surface antigens on
erythrocytes.
41
ANTIGEN
• A large, complex molecule that triggers a
specific immune response against itself
when it gains entry to the body.
– Antigens are found on the surface of foreign cells
such as bacterial invaders.
– Certain types of white blood cells recognize
antigens and produce specific antibodies against
them.
42
ANTIBODY
• Binds with the specific antigen against
which it is produced and leads to the antigen’s
destruction by various means.
• The body rejects cells bearing antigens that
do not match its own.
Let’s focus on the special antigen-antibody reaction

that forms the basis of different blood types.
43
ABO BLOOD TYPES
• The surface membranes of human erythrocytes
contain inherited antigens that vary depending on
blood type.
• Antibodies against erythrocyte antigens not present
on the body’s erythrocytes begin to appear in human
plasma after a baby is about 6 months of age.
• High levels of these antibodies are found in plasma of
people who have never been exposed to different type
of blood.
• These were considered naturally occurring
antibodies – that is, produced without any known
exposure to the antigen.
44
ABO BLOOD TYPES
GROUP AB – UNIVERSAL
RECIPIENT
GROUP O – UNIVERSAL
DONOR
45
TRANSFUSION REACTION
• If a person is given blood

of an incompatible type,
two antigen-antibody
interactions take place.
• The more serious
consequences arise from
the effect of the
antibodies in the
recipients’ plasma on
the incoming donor
erythrocytes.
46
Concept check…
A person with an unknown blood group under

ABO system has suffered much blood loss in
an accident and needs an immediate blood
transfusion. What would have been the type of
blood group to be transfused?
a)Type B
b)Type AB Universal Donor
c)Type O
d)Type A
47
Concept check… Universal
Recipient
A person with blood group under AB has

suffered much blood loss in an accident and
needs an immediate blood transfusion. What
would have been the type of blood group to be
transfused?
a)Type B Is this the real
b)Type AB
c)Type O
scenario???
d)Type A
48
Rh BLOOD-GROUP SYSTEM
• An erythrocyte antigen first • O+
observed in Rhesus monkeys, • O-
hence the designation Rh. • A+
• A-
• Rh-Positive – people who have
• B+
Rh factor • B-
• Rh-Negative – lacking the Rh • AB+
factor • AB-
49
Rh BLOOD-GROUP SYSTEM
• In contrast to the ABO system, no naturally
occurring antibodies develop against the Rh
factor.
• Anti-Rh antibodies are produced only by Rh-
negative individuals when such people are first
exposed to the foreign Rh antigen present in
Rh-positive blood.
• Therefore, Rh-negative people should be given
only Rh-negative blood, whereas Rh-positive
people can safely receive either Rh-negative or
Rh-positive.
50
In emergency cases…
O negative is the most • O+

common blood type used for
transfusions when the blood • O-
type is unknown. O negative • A+
is the “universal donor” • A-
• B+
AB positive blood type is
known as the “universal
• B-
recipient”. • AB+
• AB-
51
Medical Importance of Rh Factor
The problem with the

Rh-negative mother
and her Rh-positive
fetus.
52
The problem with Rh- mother and
her Rh+ fetus
Protected by the placenta-

blood barrier, the mother is
not exposed to Rh factor
until the time of childbirth
due to placental tearing.
53
her Rh+ fetus
54
her Rh+ fetus
HDN can be prevented.

-almost all women will have a
blood test to learn their blood
type early in pregnancy.
-if you’re Rh negative and have
not been synthesized, you’ll get a
medicine called Rh
immunoglobulin (RhoGAM).
-this medicine can stop your
bodies from reacting to your
baby’s Rh positive cells.
Born with severe
Anemia
55
CELLULAR ELEMENTS
qERYTHROCYTES
qLEUKOCYTES
qTHROMBOCYTES
LEUKOCYTES
• White blood cells (WBC)
• The mobile units of the body’s immune defense
system.
• IMMUNITY – the body’s ability to resist or
eliminate potentially harmful foreign
materials or abnormal cells.
• Leukocytes and their derivatives, along with a variety of
plasma proteins, make up the immune system.
LEUKOCYTES AS DEFENSE
AGENTS OUTSIDE THE BLOOD
• WBCs largely use a “seek out and attack’
strategy.
• The main reason WBCs are in the blood is for
rapid transport from their site of production or
storage to wherever they are needed.
• Leukocytes are able to exit the blood by
assuming “amoebalike behavior”.
58
LEUKOCYTES VS. ERYTHROCYTES
• Leukocytes lack hemoglobin.
• Red blood cells
– Uniform in structure
– Identical function
– Constant number
• White blood cells
– Vary in structure, function, and number
59
5 TYPES OF LEUKOCYTES
60
TYPES OF LEUKOCYTES
qPOLYMORPHONUCLEAR GRANULOCYTES
§ “many-shaped nucleus” – nuclei are segmented into
several lobes of varying shapes
§ “granule-containing cells” – cytoplasm contains an
abundance of membrane-enclosed granules that contains
preformed, stored chemicals that are released by
exocytosis
qMONONUCLEAR AGRANULOCYTES
§ “single nucleus” – nuclei are single, large, and
nonsegmented
§ “cells lacking granules”
61
FUNCTIONS AND LIFE
SPANS OF
GRANULOCYTES
62
NEUTROPHILS
• Phagocytic specialists (engulf and
destroy)
• Granules contain an arsenal of
antimicrobial proteins (fuse with
invading bacteria)
• Degranulation – releasing of bacteria-
killing chemicals into the ECF by
exocytosis
• Act like “suicide bombers” -
undergoing programmed cell death
(NETosis)
• NETs – neutrophil extracellular traps,
contains antimicrobial proteins 63
NEUTROPHILS
• The first defenders on the
scene of bacterial
invasion.
• An increase in circulating
neutrophils typically
accompanies acute
bacterial infections.
• A differential WBC count
can be used to make an
immediate and accurate
prediction of whether an
infection is of bacterial or
viral origin.
64
EOSINOPHILS
• An increase in circulating
eosinophils is associated with
allergic conditions (asthma and
hay fever) and with internal parasite
infections (worms).
• Eosinophils attach to the worm and
secrete substances that kill it.
• Eosinophils persist in the circulation
for 8–12 hours and can survive in
tissue for an additional 8–12 days
in the absence of stimulation.
65
BASOPHILS
• Dispersed in connective tissue
throughout the body.
• Synthesize and store histamine
and heparin, powerful chemical
substances that can be released
on appropriate stimulation.
o Histamine – important in
allergic reactions
o Heparin – speed up removal
of fat particles from the blood
after a fatty meal and plays a
role in certain immune
response
66
GRANULOCYTE LIFE SPAN
• Once released into the blood from the bone
marrow, a granulocyte usually stays in
transit in the blood for less than a day
before leaving to enter the tissues, where it
survives another 3 to 4 days unless it dies
sooner in the line of duty.
67
FUNCTIONS AND LIFE
SPANS OF
AGRANULOCYTES
68
MONOCYTES
• Become professional phagocytes
like neutrophils.
• Emerge from the bone marrow
while still immature before settling
down in various tissues.
• Monocytes continue to mature at
their new residences and greatly
enlarge, becoming macrophages
(macro means “large”; phage
means “eater”)
• A macrophage’s life span ranges
from months to years unless it dies
sooner while performing
phagocytosis.
69
LYMPHOCYTES
• Provide immune defense against
targets which they are specifically
programmed.
• Lives for about 100 to 300 days.
• 2 types of Lymphocytes
o B lymphocytes – produce antibodies,
which circulate in the blood and are
responsible for antibody-mediated or
humoral immunity
o T lymphocytes – do not produce
antibodies, they directly destroy specific
target cells by releasing chemicals that
punch holes in the victim cell, a process
called cell-mediated immunity 70
LEUKOCYTES PRODUCTION
71
LEUKOCYTES PRODUCTION
Ø Leukocytes are the least numerous of the blood
cells (about 1 white blood cell for every 700 red
blood cells).
Ø Not because fewer are produced but because
they are merely in transit while in the blood.
Ø About two-thirds of the circulating leukocytes
are granulocytes (mostly neutrophils).
Ø One third are agranulocytes (mostly
lymphocytes)
Ø The total number of white cells and the
percentage of each type may vary considerably
to meet changing defense need. 72
ABNORMALITIES IN LEUKOCYTE
PRODUCTION
• Abnormalities in leukocyte production can occur that
are not subject to control – either too few or too many
WBCs can be produced.
• The bone marrow can greatly slow down or even stop
production of white blood cells when it is exposed to
certain toxic chemical agents (benzene, anti-cancer
drugs, or to excessive radiation).
• The most serious consequence is the reduction in
professional phagocytes (neutrophils and
macrophages), which greatly reduces the body’s
defense capabilities against invading microorganisms.
73
LEUKEMIA
• A cancerous condition
that involves uncontrolled
proliferation of WBCs.
• The WBC count may reach
as high as 500,000/mm3
(normal 7000/mm3), but
because of these cells are
abnormal or immature,
they cannot perform their
normal defense function.
74
LEUKEMIA
• Another devastating
consequence of leukemia
is the displacement of the
other blood cell lines in
the bone marrow.
• Overwhelming infections
or hemorrhages are the
most common causes of
death in leukemic patients.
75
CELLULAR ELEMENTS
qERYTHROCYTES
qLEUKOCYTES
qTHROMBOCYTES
PLATELETS
• An average of 250 million platelets are
normally present in each milliliter of blood.
• Platelets range: 150,000 to
350,000/mm3
• Platelets are cell fragments shed from
megakaryocytes.
MEGAKARYOCYTES
• Extraordinarily large bone
marrow-bound cells derived
from the same undifferentiated
stem cells.
• A single megakaryocyte
produces about 1000
platelets.
• Megakaryocytes are derived
from the same undifferentiated
stem cells that give rise to the
erythrocytic and leukocytic
cells.
78
PLATELETS
• Platelets remain functional
for an average of 10 days, at
which time they are removed
from circulation by tissue
macrophages (large
phagocytic cells).
• TROMBOPOIETIN
(hormone) – produced by the
liver; increases the number of
megakaryocytes in the bone
marrow and stimulates each
megakaryocyte to produce
more platelets as needed. 79
BLOOD LOSS
• When blood vessels
are damaged, blood can
leak into other tissues
and disrupt normal
function.
• Blood that is lost must be
replaced by production
of new blood or by a
transfusion.
80
HEMOSTASIS
• The arrest of bleeding from a broken blood
vessels – that is, the stopping of hemorrhage.
• Hemostasis prevents blood loss from damaged small
vessels.
• The first stage of wound healing.
Hemostasis ≠ Homeostasis
HOMEOSTASIS- maintaining balance (homeo means “same”;
stasis means “standing”)
HEMOSTASIS- hemo means “blood”; stasis means “standing”

81
HEMOSTASIS 3 MAJOR STEPS
1) Vascular spasm – temporary constriction of blood vessel
2) Formation of a platelet plug – can seal up small breaks in
blood vessels
3) Blood clotting (coagulation)
82
HEMOPHILIA
• The primary condition that produces excessive
bleeding.
• Hereditary bleeding disorders due to deficiency of
clotting factors.
83
THROMBOCYTOPENIA
• Platelet deficiency
• Causes spontaneous bleeding
from small blood vessels all
over the body.
• Vitamin K deficiency – vitamin
K dependent clotting factors
Thrombocytopenia purpura (the

purple of thrombocyte deficiency)
84
85
§ HEART – regulates the flow of

blood to maintain proper
circulation with the assistance of
the blood vessels
THE HEART, § BLOOD VESSELS

BLOOD VESSELS § Veins – carry blood toward the heart
(except for the pulmonary vein)
AND VALVES § Arteries – carry blood away from the heart
(except for pulmonary arteries)
§ Capillaries – are the thinnest of all the
blood vessels, they are almost one-cell-
thick and this is where the exchange of
materials takes place
§ PULMONARY
CIRCULATION –
where deoxygenated
blood becomes
oxygenated as blood
flows through the lungs
§ SYSTEMATIC
CIRCULATION –
begins when oxygenated
blood is delivered from
aorta to the rest of the
body
DISEASES OF
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
DENGUE HEMORRHAGIC FEVER
§ Viral infection brought about by a

day biting mosquito known as Aedes
aegypti.
§ High grade fever associated with
flu-like symptoms is experienced.
§ Virus invades the bloodstream:

there is a destruction of the platelets
hampering the clotting mechanism.
–Internal Hemorrhage may occur
DISEASES OF
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
DENGUE HEMORRHAGIC FEVER
§ Administration of dextrose
solution plus fluid intake and bed
rest are the supportive measures
commonly dine to treat the person
having this condition.
§ Sometimes, blood transfusion is

also given.
DISEASES OF
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
HYPERTENSION
§ Occurs when there is a sudden increase
in blood pressure.
§ Usually, systolic or diastolic pressure is
elevated.
§ Conditions that lead to this disease:
hereditary, sedentary lifestyle, lack of
exercise, smoking, drinking, unhealthy
eating habits, stress
§ Could be treated by regular check-ups,
awareness about hypertension, exercise
and eating healthy food
§ Untreated: heart attack or stroke
THE
IMMUNE
SYSTEM
INNATE IMMUNITY
ALL ANIMALS HAVE
INNATE IMMUNITY
§ PATHOGENS – bacteria, fungi,
viruses, and other disease-causing
agents; nearly everything in our
environment teems with pathogens
§ IMMUNE SYSTEM – the body’s
system of defenses against agents
that cause disease
§ INNATE IMMUNITY – a set of
defenses that are active
immediately upon infection and
are the same whether or not the
pathogen has been encountered
previously
ALL ANIMALS HAVE INNATE IMMUNITY
INVERTEBRATE INNATE IMMUNITY
§ Invertebrates rely solely on innate immunity.
§ Insects have exoskeleton (tough, dry barrier)
§ Pathogens that breach these external defenses confront
internal defenses (low pH and antimicrobial molecules)
§ Phagocytosis – the cellular ingestion and digestion of

foreign substances
VERTEBRATE INNATE IMMUNITY

§ Innate immunity coexists with adaptive immune response.
§ Innate defenses include:
§ External barriers (skin and mucous membranes)
§ Microbiota residing on the skin and mucous membranes
(“good” species can prevent harmful ones from flourishing)
Review… WBC
• NATURAL KILLER CELLS – recognize cancer
cells and virus-infected cells and release
chemicals that cause the death of these cells
• NEUTHROPHILS – the most abundant type of
white blood cell, circulate in the blood and enter
tissues at sites of infection
• MACROPHAGES (big eaters) – are large
phagocytes; “eating” any bacteria and viruses they
encounter
97
What happens after

an insect bites you?
INFLAMMATION
§ INFLMMATROY RESPONSE – a
major component of our innate
immunity
The inflammatory § Any damages to tissue, whether
response caused by insect bites,
disinfects microorganisms, or physical injury,
damaged tissue triggers this response.
§ Main function is to disinfect and clean
injured tissues.
WBC that
reside in
connective
tissue
§ Natural defense.
§ May be localized or widespread
(systematic).
§ The number of white blood cells
circulating in the blood may increase
severalfold within just few hours.
§ An elevated “white cell count” is one way
INFLAMMATION to diagnose certain infections.
§ Another response to systematic infection
is fever.
§ Toxins may trigger fever.
§ Macrophages may release compounds that
cause the body’s “thermostat” to be set at
high temperature.
§ The persistence of inflammatory
components for abnormally
long periods.
§ Can be harmful.
CHRONIC § Common disorders associated
INFLAMMATION with chronic inflammation:
§ Arthritis
§ Heart disease
§ Alzheimer’s disease
§ Cancers
§ Bacterial infections in blood bring about an
overwhelming systematic inflammatory
response.
§ The response affects capillaries of the whole
body.
§ Leakiness leads to:
SEPTIC SHOCK § Widespread accumulation in tissues
§ Low blood pressure
§ Poor circulation of blood to vital organs
§ Organ failure
§ Local inflammation = healing

§ Widespread inflammation = devastating
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
The adaptive immune response
counters specific invaders
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
§ Second line of defense; amplify certain innate responses
§ Acquired immunity; highly specific
§ A set of defenses, found only in vertebrates.
§ Slower to be activated but the adaptive response provides a
strong defense against pathogen.
§ Activated in response to specific pathogens.
§ Adaptive immunity differs from individual to individual,
depending on which pathogens an individual has previously
been exposed to.
§ ANTIGEN – any molecule that elicits an adaptive
immune response (“antibody-generating”)
§ Nonself molecules that protrude from pathogens or other
particles, such as viruses, bacteria, mold spores, pollen,
house dust, or the cell surfaces of transplanted organs
§ Substances released into the extracellular fluid, such as
toxins secreted by bacteria
ADAPTIVE § ANTIBODY – an immune protein found in blood

IMMUNITY plasma and helps counter its effects
§ the defensive cells and antibodies produced against a
particular antigen are usually specific to that antigen; they
are ineffective against any other foreign substance
§ LYMPHOCYTES – WBC responsible for adaptive

immunity
1) IgG – is mainly present in the circulation which comes
in contact directly with pathogens
2) IgA – mostly exists in bodily secretions such as saliva,

tears and breast milk as well as in the mucosal linings
of the digestive and respiratory tracts; they affix to
antigens so as not to reach to the bloodstream
Five Types of 3) IgM – is also found circulating in the body and known
Antibodies to be the broadest; they are the first to encounter the
pathogens that reach the bloodstream
4) IgE – plays a big role in allergic reactions stimulating

the release of histamines
5) IgD – signifies antigen-antibody type differentiation;

these are attached to the surface of B-cells
§ Has a remarkable “memory”
§ It can “remember” antigens it has encountered before,
sometimes even many decades earlier, and react
against them more quickly and vigorously on
subsequent exposures
§ Example:
ADAPTIVE § The varicella zoster virus causes chicken pox, but a
IMMUNITY person once infected by the virus usually develops a

resistance to future outbreaks
§ The immune system “remembers” certain molecules on
the virus
§ Adaptive immune response, unlike innate immunity,

exposure to a foreign agent enhances future responses
to that same agent.
§ Obtained by natural exposure to
antigens (being infected).
§ Can also be achieved by vaccination,

also known as immunization
§ VACCINE – composed of a harmless

variant or part of a disease-causing
ADAPTIVE microbe, such as inactivated bacterial
IMMUNITY toxin, a dead or weakened virus, or a
piece of virus
§ Once you have been vaccinated, your
immune system will respond quickly it
it is exposed to the actual microbe
§ SUCH PROTECTION MAY LAST FOR
LIFE!
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
§ Whether antigens enter the body

naturally (if you catch flu) or
artificially (if you get flu vaccine),
ACTIVE the resulting immunity is called
IMMUNITY active immunity.
§ A person’s own immune system
actively produces antibodies.
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
§ By receiving premade antibodies.

§ Example:
§ A fetus obtains its mother’s antibodies through the
placenta; after birth, breast milk supplies the baby with
antibodies.
PASSIVE § A poisonous snakebite may be counteracted by injecting

the victim with antivenom, which consists of antibodies
IMMUNITY
extracted from animals previously immunized against the
venom.
§ Temporary because the recipient’s immune system is not

stimulated by antigens.
§ Lasts only as long as the antibodies do; after few weeks or
months, these proteins break down and are recycles by the
body.
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
q Fluid Balance
30 liters (L) of 27 L of fluid Where do the
fluid extra 3 L go?
• Pass from • pass from • ??????

the blood the
capillaries interstitial
into the spaces
interstitial back into
spaces the blood
each day capillaries
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
• 3 L of fluid enters the lymphatic
capillaries
If the extra 3 L of interstitial fluid

remained in the interstitial spaces,
edema would result, causing tissue
damage and eventually death.
• A series of an open structural network that circulates
throughout the body containing a clear fluid called
lymph.
• Function:
• Drains an ample amount of water and proteins
flowing to the entire body and restoring it to the
THE
blood thereby maintaining fluid balance.
LYMPHATIC
SYSTEM
• Sieves out unwanted substances harmful to the
body.
• Drains the fat from the intestinal tissues into the

blood.
• Protects the entire body from pathogens

rendering a life-long immunity.
COMPOSITION OF THE
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
§ LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES – gather
interstitial fluid from body tissues.
These unite to form an immense
amount of vessels called lymphatics.
§ LYMPHATICS – form a cluster of
vessels in order to transport lymph
from the lymphatic capillaries to the
bloodstream via subclavian veins.
§ LYMPH NODES – where the
lymphatic vessels unite and filter
substances reaching the bloodstream.
§ TONSILS – located posterior to the
tongue, which filters out foreign
substances that may be harmful to the
body.
COMPOSITION OF THE
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
§ THYMUS GLAND – present in newborn
babies and manufactures antibodies. This
gland initiates the formation of the immune
system.
§ SPLEEN – about the size of the clenched fist

serves as a filtering organ for blood to be
cleansed every 120 days, replaces old worn-
out red blood cells, and even stores blood;
located at the left upper quadrant of the
abdomen.
§ PEYER’S PATCHES – an aggregate of

lymph nodules in the small intestines
protects the organ from harmful agents by
secreting antibodies.
HUMORAL IMMUNE RESONSE
§ Defends primarily against bacteria and viruses present in body fluids.
ADAPTIVE RESPONSE § In this response, B cells secrete free-floating antibodies into the blood
and lymph.
HUMORAL AND § “body humors” – blood and lymph names long ago
CELL-MEDIATED § Can be passively transferred by injecting antibody-containing plasma

from an immune individual
IMMUNE CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE
RESPONSE § This defensive system results from the action of defensive T cells.
§ Defensive T cells destroy body cells infected with bacteria or viruses.
§ Some types of T cells function indirectly by promoting phagocytosis by
other white blood cells and by stimulating B cells to produce
antibodies.
§ Play a part in both adaptive response.
PRIMARY IMMUNE RESPONSE
§ Occurs the first time a particular antigen enters the body and
selectively activates lymphocytes.
§ Slow response, taking many days to produce effector cells that

secrete antibodies into blood and lymph in a great quantity to
PRIMARY AND overcome the infection.
SECONDARY SECONDARY IMMUNE RESPONSE

RESPONSES § When memory cells produced during the primary response
are activated by a second exposure to the same antigen.
§ May occur soon or long after primary immune response.

§ Faster and stronger response because a large pool of memory
cells is activated.
WIDESPREAD CHILDHOOD IMMUNIZATION BECAME ONE OF THE
GREAT SUCCESS STROIES OF MODERN MEDICINE.
HERD IMMUNITY
§ Prevents the outbreak of
infectious disease.
§ Community protection.
§ The rationale behind state-
mandated vaccinations for
children in public schools.
§ May fail if more than 5% of a
population is unvaccinated.
§ No herd immunity = a
population remains susceptible
to outbreaks of diseases.
§ Flu vaccine is optional for most
people.
Why is herd § The top reason why people choose
immunity so not to be vaccinated: “they didn’t
difficult with need it.”
the flu? § Currently, the flu is responsible for a

lot of deaths, making the top-10 list
of leading causes of death in the US.
DISEASES OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
ACQUIRED IMMUNO DEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS)
• Highly contagious illness brought about by a viral infection
known as the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
• The virus weaken and destroys the immune system
specifically T-helper cells.
• As a result, various infections may result brought about by
opportunistic bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
• No known cure.
HOW IMMUNE SYSTEM WORKS
END OF LECTURE…

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BIOLOGY

• Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which causes STI (sexually transmitted

• A large part of the success of prokaryotes is their potential to

Exposure to antibiotics may select for antibiotic resistance in

An island off the coast of Scotland that

The food-canning industry kills

• Prokaryotes exhibit much more

They form on:

Biofilms have been implicated in diseases:

• BIOREMEDIATION – the use of organisms to remove

• The sludge (solid matter) is added to a culture of anaerobic

Trickling filter system –

Biofilms of aerobic bacteria and

qEXOTOXINS – are proteins that

• AUTOTROPHY – producing their food by photosynthesis; these are called algae

• POLLEN – a powdery substance produced by

• In seed plants, reproduction does not require moisture; pollen

• Flowers house separate male

• The sporophyte is independent, with tiny,

• FRUIT – the ripened ovary of a flower, is an adaptation that helps

• Most of us associate flowers with colorful petals and sweet

Flowers of a red maple, which have many

Devotes substantial energy to make

• Flowers attract pollinators by color and scent.

Columbine flower with large and vibrant

• Visiting pollinators are rewarded with nectar and pollen.

The pollen-bearing stamens of a scotch

Some of the pollen the bee flower picks

• Fungi are heterotrophic eukaryotes that

• A fungus usually consists of a

• Fungi evolved from a protist

• Fungi are essential decomposers

• Some fungi provide food or antibiotics.

• The hypothesis that plant-fungus

Candida auris infects humans across several continents.

The emergence of Candida auris globally is thought to be

Fungal diseases of the skin include ringworm, so named

The ringworm fungus can infect virtually any skin surface,

The yeast that causes vaginal infections (Candida albicans)

Disruption of the body’s microbial community by

• BLASTULA – an early embryonic stage; a

• EUMETAZOA (true animals) –

• Cnidarians are characterized by radial

• Members of the phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms) are

Prey species: may

• Members of the phylum Mollusca include gastropods (snails

• The diversity and success of arthropods

• CHELICERATES (Greek chele, “living fossil”,

• The bodies consist of a

• Their development often includes metamorphosis.

• Threadlike tube feet projecting

• Vertebrates evolved from invertebrate ancestors and continue

• Primates had evolved as small arboreal mammals 65

• The three groups of living primates

• Paleoanthropologists have found about 20 species of

• The genus Homo includes

• The ancestors of humans originated in Africa, the oldest

• Increasing numbers probably caused populations to

• Researchers have found evidence

BIOLOGY: ANIMAL FORMS AND