2. Speech acts

2.
Speech acts: what we do with language
The speech acts theory: performative and constative acts

The speech acts theory was the first pragmatic theory. It became dated pretty soon, Austin
developed it and then his student, Searle, kept on with it. It talks about that we create act
when we are speaking, we do not only speak, we perform. Austin came up with some original
ideas for his time, he thought that words were really powerful, they were more than words
(they convinced, disappointed, insulted, praised…). His theories were published after his death.
Pragmatics related actions with words. We do not only say, we also do things with language.
The theory was a milestone for the development of pragmatics. Austin’s theory of Speech Acts
involves utterances that make statements vs utterances that perform acts. [Constative, explicit
performative (I promise I will…), implicit performative (I will…)]. Illocutionary acts were key in
the development of pragmatics.
How did Austin come up with these ideas? There was some kind of clash between Oxford and
Cambridge universities. Austin and his team changed the paradigm of the study of language
based on a new conception of meaning. In Cambridge, the logical positivists, they thought that
everyday language was deficient and full of ambiguities. They thought that only meaningful
and acceptable statements were the ones that could be empirically proved.
The performative acts were the breaking point for pragmatics. At the beginning, Austin
identified two groups: performative and constative. The performatives change the state of
affairs, actually do something (other than saying something). The constative acts just say
something, they are descriptive. Austin did not defend this distinction later because al
utterances have a descriptive and an effective aspect (Searle: saying smtg = doing smtg).
Explicit performative verbs: describe actions carried out by speakers, are used in 1sr person
singular, simple present, indicative, active. Can be combined with hereby. Common verbs:
certify, promise, name, bet, agree, swear, declare, order, predict, warn, insist, declare, refuse.
apologize. Performative acts grammatical basis: written resignation, group performative,
passive voice, second person singular or plural, present continuous.
Types of explicit performatives:
All of them are self-verifying (truth conditions), self-referential (action speaker is doing), non-
falsifiable (always true). Jenny Thomas found 4 types of performatives:
1. Metalinguistic performatives: most clear and direct, quite common, very explicit verb
about type of actions performed by the speaker. I apologize for being late.
2. Ritual performatives: cultural, most dependent on felicity conditions. I baptise you…
3. Collaborative performatives: collaboration of another person. I bet you 50 dollars.
4. Group performatives: uttered and performed by more than one person and may
overlap with previous categories. (Jury): We find you guilty.
Felicity conditions:
Some type of execution or ceremony that goes perfectly and that has the appropriate result.
Main types of felicities: accepted conventional procedure and conventional effect; appropriate
persons and circumstances for the invocation. All participants must execute the procedure
correctly and completely. Thoughts and feelings must actually conduct themselves
subsequently. Felicities do not help us distinguish performatives / constatives.
Infelicities: misinvoaction (wrong person), misexecution (more than 1 wrong person), abuse
(related to thoughts and feelings).
Explicit and implicit performatives:
Explicit: the speaker is very specific, unambiguous about the act being performed and uses
performative verbs. Four types.
Implicit: the speaker is less specific, uses discourse markers, adverbs, mood, intonation. Leave
the room (imperative). Both explicit and implicit carry out illocutionary form.
Properties of speech acts:

Austin says that there are utterances perform 6 acts simultaneously in orden to understand
verbal communication we need to recognize:
1. Phonetic acts: sounds

2. Phatic acts: words, grammar, intonation
3. Rhetic acts: sense, reference, meaning
4. Locutionary acts: 1 + 2 + 3 previous together. The act of constructing and saying an
utterance or writing something.
5. Illocutionary acts: force, intention of my communication, when we say something, the
real value it takes: invitation, rejection, request, acceptance, compliment… They are
conventional.
6. Perlocutionary acts: effect of my communication. Could be convincing, persuading,
angering, offending, comforting, humiliating… They are not conventional.
Locution: Peter and Susan are communicating -> Let’s take a ride on the rollercoaster / I don’t
like them, sorry.
Illocution: Peter -> invitation; Susan -> rejection.
Perlocution: Peter fails to persuade, Susan angers Peter.
Locution: (bartender) Last call! -> Illocution: information-persuasion, the bar is closing and no
more drinks should be served -> Perlocution: some will ask for a last drink, some will leave.
Do form and function coincide in utterances?
The grammatical form of clauses should reflect the communicative functions of the mayor
types of illocution, but it does not always match (locution =/ illocution =/ perlocution). In
imperative, we usually find in illocution recommendation, request or order, it should produce
some effect on the listener (perlocution). The subjunctive usually brings hope, wish or prayer.
The indicative may carry assertions, questions, exclamations…
The indicative is not going to help us distinguish performative and constative. Form and
function, therefore, do not always coincide. The indirect relationship between literal meaning
and illocutionary force (the hearer infers the illocutionary force). The correspondence between
form and function can be possible but it depends on the context.
Types of speech acts by Searle
Searle’s Propositional act is like Austin’s locutionary acts.
We perform different types of acts according to constitutive rules, examination of felicity

conditions. His taxonomy of speech acts (his categories may overlap):
1. Representative assertive: we make the words fit the world, beliefs -> the cat is on the
mat, I make the best cake in the world. Some verbs: assert, conclude, boast, complain.
2. Directives: make the world fit our words (we want something) -> please, pass the salt;
could you close the windows? Some verbs: ask, order, command, request, beg, forbid,
instruct, urge, warn, plead, pray, invite, permit, advise, dare, defy, challenge.
3. Commissives: make the world fit the words (we intend something) -> I am going to
Lisbon next month. Some verbs: promise, threaten, offer, guarantee, pledge, vow,
undertake, warrant, swear, volunteer.
4. Expressives: no directional fit, feelings -> I am sorry that I lied to you. Some verbs:
thank, congratulate, deplore, apologize, condole, detest, welcome, appreciate, regret.
5. Declarations: words change the world, we cause something -> I now pronounce
husband and bride; you are fired. Some verbs: appoint, nominate, declare, christen,
sentence, pronounce, resign.
Indirect speech acts
Very frequent in normal everyday life, especially in requests. Primary speech acts vs secondary
speech acts.
The primary one is an indirect request -> could you open the door
The secondary is the direct utterance, a statement -> Henry, open!
The indirectness is universal, it has 4 variables:
Post Searle: it inspired the communicative or functional-notional approach to language

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2.

Speech acts: what we do with language

The speech acts theory: performative and constative acts

Types of explicit performatives:

Explicit and implicit performatives:

Properties of speech acts:

1. Phonetic acts: sounds

Illocution: Peter -> invitation; Susan -> rejection.

Perlocution: Peter fails to persuade, Susan angers Peter.

Do form and function coincide in utterances?

We perform different types of acts according to constitutive rules, examination of felicity

Indirect speech acts

The secondary is the direct utterance, a statement -> Henry, open!

The indirectness is universal, it has 4 variables:

Post Searle: it inspired the communicative or functional-notional approach to language

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