The Skeletal System

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

What are the Functions
of the Skeletal System? 1. Support. The skeleton serves
as the structural
framework for the body
by supporting soft tissues
Muscle attached to and providing
bones!! attachment
points for the tendons of
most skeletal
muscles.

2. Assistance in movement.
Most skeletal muscles
attach to bones; when
they contract, they pull
on bones to produce
movement.
What are the
Functions of the 3. Protection. The skeleton
protects the most
Skeletal System? important internal
organs from injury.

4. Blood cell formation.

A connective tissue
called red bone
marrow produces red
blood cells, white
blood cells, and
platelets, a process
called
hematopoiesis.
What are the
Functions of the 5. Storage: Bones store
minerals, such as
Skeletal System? calcium and
phosphorus, for
use by the
body
6. Triglyceride storage.
Yellow bone
marrow
consists mainly of
adipose cells, which
store triglycerides. The
stored triglycerides
are a potential
chemical energy
reserve.
The Skeletal System

 Parts of the skeletal system

 Bones (skeleton)
 Joints
 Cartilages
 Ligaments
 Tendons
 Two subdivisions of the skeleton
1. Axial skeleton
2. Appendicular skeleton
 Bones of the Human
Body
The skeleton has 206 bones
 Two basic types of bone tissue
 Compact bone
 Dense and looks smooth
 Homogeneous
 Spongy bone
 Small needle-like
pieces of bone
 Many open
spaces
Figure 5.1 Flat bones consist of a layer of spongy bone sandwiched between two thin layers of compact
bone.

Spongy
bone

Compact
bone
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Classification of Bones on the
Basis of Shape
 Classification of Bones
► Long bones
 Typically longer than they
are wide
 Shaft with heads situated
at both ends
 Contain mostly compact
bone
 Long bones, especially
the femur and tibia, are
subjected to most of the
load during daily activities
and they are crucial for
skeletal mobility.
 Classification of Bones
► Short bones
 Generally cube-shaped or
they are as wide as they
are long
 Contain mostly spongy
bone
 Includes bones of the
wrist and ankle
 Sesamoid bones are a type
of short bone which form
within tendons (patella)
 Primary function is to
provide support and
stability with little to no
movement.
 Classification of Bones
► Flat bones
 Thin, flattened, and
usually curved or are
expanded into broad.
 Two thin layers of
compact bone surround a
layer of spongy bone
 principal function is either
extensive protection or the
provision of broad surfaces
for muscular attachment.
 Classification of Bones
► Irregular bones
 Irregular shape
 Do not fit into other
bone classification
categories
 Classification of Bones
► Sesamoid bones
 shaped like a sesame seed
 develop in certain tendons or a small nodular
bone most often present embedded in tendons
where there is considerable friction, tension,
and physical stress, such as the palms and
soles.
Classification of Bones
How Strong are  The structure
Bones? of bones
make it both
strong and
light weight.
 20 % of an
adults body
weight is bone.
 Bone is made up
of 2 minerals:
► Calcium
► Phosphorus
 Articular
Anatomy of a Long Bone cartilage

 Diaphysis (shaft)
Proximal
 Makes up most epiphysis
Spongy bone
of bone’s length Epiphyseal
line
 Composed of compact Periosteum
bone Compact bone
Medullary
cavity (lined
 Epiphysis (ends) by endosteum)

Diaphysis
 Composed mostly of
spongy bone enclosed
by thin layer of compact
bone

Distal
epiphysis
Anatomy of a Long Bone
 Articular cartilage
 Covers the external
surface of the epiphyses
 Made of hyaline
cartilage
 Decreases friction at
joint surfaces

 Periosteum
 Outside covering of the
diaphysis
 Fibrous connective tissue
membrane
 Perforating (Sharpey’s)
fibers secure periosteum
to underlying bone
Anatomy of a Long Bone Articular
cartilage

Proximal
 Epiphyseal line epiphysis
Spongy bone
 Remnant of the Epiphyseal
line
epiphyseal plate Periosteum
 Seen in adult Compact bone
bones Medullary
cavity (lined
by endosteum)
 Epiphyseal plate
Diaphysis
 Flat plate of hyaline
cartilage seen in
young, growing bone
 Causes lengthwise
growth of a long
bone
Distal
epiphysis
 Anatomy of a Long Bone

 Endosteum
 Lines the inner surface of
the shaft
 Made of connective tissue

 Medullary cavity
 Cavity inside the shaft
 Contains yellow marrow
(mostly fat) in adults
 Contains red marrow for
blood cell formation in infants
until age 6 or 7

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Structure of Bone

 Bone markings
 Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and
ligaments
 Passages for nerves and blood vessels
 Categories of bone markings
 Projections or processes—grow out from the
bone surface
 Depressions or cavities—indentations

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 5.1 Bone Markings (1 of 3)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Structure of Bone

 Microscopic anatomy of spongy bone

 Composed of small, needlelike pieces of bone called
trabeculae and open spaces
 Open spaces are filled by marrow, blood vessels,
and nerves

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.4a Microscopic structure of bone.

Trabeculae of
spongy bone
Osteon
(Haversian Perforating
system) (Volkmann’s)
canal
Blood vessel continues
into medullary cavity
containing marrow
Blood vessel
Lamellae Compact bone

Central (Haversian) canal

Perforating (Sharpey’s)
fibers

Periosteum

Periosteal
blood vessel
(a)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Structure of Bone

 Microscopic anatomy
of compact bone
 Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells
situated in bone
matrix
 Lacunae
 Cavities in bone
matrix that house
osteocytes
 Lamellae
 Concentric circles of lacunae situated around the
central (Haversian) canal
Structure of Bone
 Central (Haversian)
canal
 Opening in the
center of an osteon
(Haversian system)
 Runs lengthwise
through bone
 Carries blood
vessels and nerves

 Osteon (Haversian
system)
 A unit of bone
containing central
canal and matrix
 Structure of Bone

 Canaliculi
 Tiny canals
 Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
 Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a
nutrient supply

 Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal

 Canal perpendicular to the central canal
 Carries blood vessels and nerves

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Structure of Bone

 Bone is relatively lightweight and resists tension

and other forces
 Organic parts (collagen fibers) of the bone make
bone flexible and have great tensile strength
 Calcium salts deposited in the bone make bone
hard to resist compression

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

  As an infant, most of
How Do Bones your skeleton is
cartilage.
Develop?  Cartilage is a
strong flexible
tissue.

 Over time the cartilage

is replaced by solid
bone, usually complete
by the time you stop
growing.

 Not all cartilage is

replaced in adults.
Many joints contain
cartilage, protecting the
ends of bones (ears and
Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling
 Bone formation and growth
 Ossification is the process of bone formation
 Occurs on hyaline cartilage models or fibrous
membranes
 Long bone growth involves two major phases

 Two major phases of ossification in long

bones
1. Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) cover hyaline
cartilage model with bone matrix
2. In a fetus, the enclosed cartilage is digested
away, opening up a medullary cavity
 Types of Bone Cells

 Osteogenic cell or osteoprogenitor cells, are mitotically active stem

cells found in the membranous periosteum and endosteum.
 Osteocytes—mature bone cells; monitor and maintain the bone matrix
 Osteoblasts—bone-forming cells
 Osteoclasts—giant bone-destroying cells
 Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium in
response to parathyroid hormone
 Bone remodeling is performed by both osteoblasts and
Figure 5.5 Stages of long-bone formation in an embryo, fetus, and young
child.

Articular
cartilage
Hyaline Spongy
cartilage bone
New center of
bone growth New bone
Epiphyseal forming
plate
cartilage Growth
Medullary in bone
cavity width
Bone starting Invading
to replace Growth blood
cartilage in bone vessels
length
New bone
Bone collar forming
Hyaline Epiphyseal
cartilage plate cartilage
model
In an embryo In a fetus In a child

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.6 Growth and remodeling of long bones. Slide 4

Bone growth
Bone grows in
length because:

1 Cartilage Articular cartilage

grows here.
Epiphyseal plate
2Cartilage
is replaced
by bone here.

3Cartilag
e grows
here.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 By birth, most cartilage is converted to

bone except for two regions in a long bone
1. Articular cartilages
2. Epiphyseal plates
 New cartilage is formed continuously on
external face of these two cartilages
 Old cartilage is broken down and replaced by
bony matrix

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling
 Appositional growth (growth from outside)
 Bones grow in width
 Osteoblasts in the periosteum add bone matrix to
the outside of the diaphysis
 Osteoclasts in the endosteum remove bone from the
inner surface of the diaphysis
 Interstitial growth (growth from within)
 Bones expands
 Lacunae bound chondrocytes divide and secrete new
matrix

 Bone growth is controlled by hormones, such

as growth hormone and sex hormones
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.6 Growth and remodeling of long bones. Slide 8

Bone remodeling
Growing shaft is
remodeled as:

Articular cartilage

Epiphyseal plate
1Bone is
resorbed by
osteoclasts here.

2Bone is added
(appositional growth)
by osteoblasts here.
3Bone is
resorbed by
osteoclasts here.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 Bones are remodeled throughout life in response

to two factors
1. Calcium ion level in the blood determines when bone
matrix is to be broken down or formed
2. Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton
determines where bone matrix is to be broken
down or formed

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 Calcium ion regulation

 Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
 Released when calcium ion levels in blood are low
 Activates osteoclasts (bone-destroying cells)
 Osteoclasts break down bone and release calcium ions
into the blood
 Hypercalcemia (high blood calcium levels) prompts
calcium storage to bones by osteoblasts

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Bone Fractures

 Fracture: break in a bone

 Types of bone fractures
 Closed (simple) fracture is a break that does
not penetrate the skin
 Open (compound) fracture is a broken bone
that penetrates through the skin

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Bone Fractures

 Bone fractures are treated by reduction and

immobilization
 Closed reduction: bones are manually coaxed into
position by physician’s hands
 Open reduction: bones are secured with pins or wires
during surgery
 Healing time is 6–8 weeks

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Bone Fractures

 Repair of bone fractures involves four major

events
 Hematoma (blood-filled swelling, or bruise) is
formed
 Fibrocartilage callus forms
 Cartilage matrix, bony matrix, collagen fibers splint the
broken bone
 Bony callus replaces the fibrocartilage callus
 Osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate in
 Bone remodeling occurs in response to mechanical
stresses

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.7 Stages in the healing of a bone fracture.

Hematoma
External Bony
callus callus of
spongy
bone
New
Internal blood
callus vessels Healed
(fibrous fracture
tissue and Spongy
cartilage) bone
trabecula

1 Hematoma 2 Fibrocartilage 3 Bony callus 4 Bone remodeling

forms. callus forms. forms. occurs.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 5.2 Common Types of Fractures

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Axial Skeleton

 Forms the longitudinal axis of the

body
 Divided into three parts
1. Skull
2. Vertebral column
3. Bony thorax

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Cranium Cranium
Skull Facial bones Bones of
pectoral
Clavicle Clavicle girdle
Thoracic cage Scapula Scapula
(ribs and Sternum Upper
sternum) Sternum
Rib Rib limb
Humerus Humerus
Vertebra Vertebra
Vertebral
Radius Radius Bones of
column
Ulna Ulna pelvic
Sacrum
Carpal Carpals girdle
s

Phalanges Phalanges
Metacarpals
Metacarpals
Femur
Femur
Patella
Lower
Tibia Tibia limb
Fibula
Fibula

Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
(a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view
 Skull

 Two sets of bones form the skull

1. Cranium bones enclose the brain
2. Facial bones
 Hold eyes in anterior position
 Allow facial muscles to express
feelings
 Bones are joined by sutures
 Only the mandible is attached by a
freely movable joint

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Skull

 8 cranial bones protect the

brain
1 Frontal bone
2 Occipital bone
3 Ethmoid bone
4 Sphenoid bone
5, 6 Parietal bones
(pair)
7, 8 Temporal bones
(pair)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Skull

 14 facial bones
1, 2 Maxillae (pair)
3, 4 Palatine bones (pair)
5, 6 Lacrimal bones (pair)
7, 8 Zygomatic bones (pair)
9, 10 Nasal bones (pair)
11 Vomer bone
12, 13 Inferior nasal conchae
(pair)
14 Mandible
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Figure 5.32a The fetal skull.

Anterior
fontanel
Frontal bone

Parietal
bone

Posterior fontanel
Occipital
(a) bone

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 5.32b The fetal skull.
Anterior fontanel
Sphenoidal
Parietal bone fontanel
Frontal
Posterior bone
fontanel

Occipital
bone
Mastoid
fontanel
Temporal bone
(b)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Fetal skull
 Fontanels are fibrous membranes connecting the
cranial bones
 Known as ―soft spots‖
 Allow skull compression during birth
 Allow the brain to grow during later pregnancy
and infancy
 Usually ossify by 2 years of age

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Growth of cranium after birth is related to

brain growth
 Increase in size of the facial skeleton follows
tooth development and enlargement of the
respiratory passageways

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Size of cranium in relationship to body

 2 years old—skull is three-fourths the size of
adult skull
 8 or 9 years old—skull is near adult in size
and proportion
 Between ages 6 and 11, the face grows out from
the skull

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Skeletal changes
 At birth, the head and trunk are proportionately
much longer than the lower limbs
 During puberty:
 Female pelvis broadens
 Entire male skeleton becomes more robust
 By the end of adolescence:
 Epiphyseal plates become fully ossified

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 5.33a Differences in the growth rates for
some parts of the body compared to others
determine body proportions.

Human newborn Human adult

(a)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.9 Human skull, lateral view.

Coronal suture Frontal bone

Parietal bone
Sphenoid bone

Temporal bone Ethmoid bone

Lambdoid Lacrimal bone

suture

Squamous suture
Nasal bone
Occipital bone

Zygomatic process Zygomatic bone

Maxilla
External acoustic meatus
Mastoid process
Alveolar processes
Styloid process
Mandible (body)
Mental foramen
Mandibular ramus

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.10 Human skull, superior view (top of cranium removed).

Frontal bone

Cribriform plate
Ethmoid
Crista galli bone
Sphenoid
bone Optic canal

Sella turcica
Foramen ovale

Temporal bone

Jugular foramen

Internal
acoustic meatus

Parietal bone

Occipital bone

Foramen
magnum
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.11 Human skull, inferior view (mandible removed).

Maxilla
Hard (palatine process) Incisive fossa
palate
Palatine bone
Maxilla

Zygomatic bone
Sphenoid bone
Temporal bone (greater wing)
(zygomatic process)
Foramen ovale
Vomer

Mandibular fossa
Carotid canal
Styloid process

Mastoid process Jugular foramen

Temporal bone Occipital condyle

Parietal bone
Foramen magnum
Occipital bone

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.12 Human skull, anterior and posterior views.

Coronal suture
Frontal bone
Parietal bone

Nasal bone
Superior orbital fissure
Sphenoid bone

Optic canal
Ethmoid bone
Temporal bone
Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Infraorbital foramen Middle nasal concha
of ethmoid bone
Maxilla Inferior nasal
concha

Mandible Vomer

Alveolar processes
Mental foramen Sagittal suture

Anterior view
Parietal bone

Lambdoid suture
Occipital bone

Mastoid process
of temporal bone
P
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. o
 The Skull
 Paranasal sinuses
 Hollow portions of
bones surrounding
the nasal cavity

 Functions of
paranasal sinuses
 Lighten the skull
 Amplify sounds
made as we speak
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Skull

 Hyoid bone
 Closely related to
mandible and temporal
bones
 The only bone that does
not articulate with
another bone
 Serves as a movable
base for the tongue
 Aids in swallowing and
speech

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Vertebral Column (Spine)

 Vertebral column provides axial support

 Extends from skull to the pelvis
 26 vertebral bones are separated by
intervertebral discs
 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck
 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest
region
 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with
the lower back
 Sacrum (formed by fusion of 5
vertebrae)
 Coccyx (formed by fusion of 3–5
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.15 The vertebral column.
Anterior Posterior
1st cervical
vertebra (atlas) Cervical curvature
2nd cervical (concave) 7 vertebrae,
vertebra (axis) C1 – C7

1st thoracic
vertebra
Transverse
process
Spinous Thoracic curvature
process (convex) 12 vertebrae,
T1 – T12
Intervertebral
disc
Intervertebral
foramen
1st lumbar
vertebra Lumbar curvature
(concave) 5 vertebrae,
L1–L5

Sacral curvature
(convex) 5 fused
vertebrae
Coccyx 4 fused
vertebrae
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Vertebral Column (Spine)

 Primary curvatures
 Spinal curvatures of
the thoracic and sacral
regions
 Present from birth
 Form a C-shaped
curvature in newborns

 Secondary curvatures
 Spinal curvatures of
the cervical and
lumbar regions
 Develop after birth
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Vertebral Column (Spine)

 Parts of a
typical vertebra
 Body (centrum)
 Vertebral arch
 Pedicle
 Lamina
 Vertebral
foramen
 Transverse
processes
 Spinous
process
 Superior and inferior
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.18a Regional characteristics of vertebrae.

(a) ATLAS AND AXIS

Transverse Posterior
process arch

Anterior
arch
Superior view of atlas (C1)

Spinous
Transverse process
process Facet on
superior
articular
process
Dens
Body
Superior view of axis (C2)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.18b Regional characteristics of vertebrae.

(b) TYPICAL CERVICAL

VERTEBRAE
Facet on superior Spinous
articular process process
Vertebral
foramen

Transverse
Transverse process
foramen Superior view
Superior
articular Body
process
Spinous
process
Transverse
process
Facet on inferior
articular process
Right lateral view

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.18c Regional characteristics of vertebrae.

(c) THORACIC VERTEBRAE

Spinous process

Transverse Vertebral
process foramen

Facet Facet on
for rib superior
articular
process

Body
Superior view
Facet on Body
superior
articular
process

Facet on
transverse
process Costal facet
Spinous for rib
process

Right lateral view

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.18d Regional characteristics of vertebrae.

(d) LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

Spinous process

Vertebral
foramen
Transverse
process

Facet on
superior
Body articular
process
Superior view

Superior Body
articular
process

Spinous Facet on inferior

process articular process
Right lateral view
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.19 Sacrum and coccyx, posterior view.

Superior Auricular
Sacral articular surface
Ala process
canal

Body

Median
Sacrum sacral
crest

Posterior
sacral
foramina
Sacral
Coccyx hiatus

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Thoracic Cage

 Bony thorax, or thoracic cage, protects organs of

the thoracic cavity
 Consists of three parts
1. Sternum
2. Ribs
 True ribs (pairs 1–7)
 False ribs (pairs 8–12)
 Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)
3. Thoracic vertebrae

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

re 5.20a The bony thorax (thoracic cage).

T1 vertebra
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch

Manubrium
Sternal angle
Body
Xiphisternal Sternum
True joint
ribs Xiphoid
(1–7) process

False
ribs
(8–12)
Intercostal
spaces
L1
Floating vertebra Costal cartilage
ribs (11, 12)
(a)
018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Appendicular Skeleton Skull
Cranium
Facial bones

Clavicle
Thoracic cage Scapula
 Composed of 126 (ribs and Sternum
sternum) Rib
bones Humerus
Vertebra
 Limbs Vertebral
Radius
column
(appendages) Sacrum
Ulna
Carpal
 Pectoral girdle s

 Pelvic girdle Phalanges

Metacarpals
Femur
Patella

Tibia
Fibula

Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. (a) Anterior view
 Bones of the Shoulder Girdle

 Also called pectoral Acromio-

girdle clavicular
joint
Clavicle

 Composed of two bones

that attach the upper
limb to the axial skeletal
1. Clavicle
2. Scapula
 Light, poorly reinforced Scapula
girdle
 Allows the upper limb
a exceptional flexibility
(a) Articulated right shoulder (pectoral)
girdle showing the relationship to
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. bones of the thorax and sternum
Figure 5.21c Bones of the shoulder girdle.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.21d Bones of the shoulder girdle.

Acromion
Suprascapular notch
Superior border
Coracoid
process Superior
angle
Glenoid
cavity
Lateral
angle

Lateral
(axillary) Medial
border (vertebral)
border

Inferior angle
(d) Right scapula, anterior aspect
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Bones of the Upper Limbs

 Humerus
 Forms the arm
 Single bone
 Proximal end articulation
 Head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula
 Distal end articulation
 Trochlea and capitulum articulate with the bones of the
forearm

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bones of the right arm and forearm.

Head of Head of
Greater
humerus humerus
tubercle
Lesser
tubercle Anatomical Anatomical
Surgical
neck neck neck
Intertubercular
sulcus

Radial
groove
Deltoid Deltoid
tuberosity tuberosity

Radial
fossa Medial Medial
epicondyle Olecranon
epicondyle fossa
Coronoid
fossa
Lateral
Capitulum Trochlea Trochlea epicondyle
(a) (b)
 Trochlear
Bones of the Upper Limbs notch
Olecranon
Head Coronoid
process
Neck

 The forearm has two bones Radial

tuberosity
Proximal
radioulnar
joint
1. Ulna—medial bone in Radius
anatomical position
 Proximal end Ulna
articulation
 Coronoid process and olecranon Inter-
osseous
articulate with the membrane
humerus
2. Radius—lateral bone in
anatomical position
 Proximal end
articulation Radial
Ulnar
styloid
 Head articulates with the styloid
process
Distal
radioulnar process
capitulum of joint
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bones of the Upper Limbs

 Hand
 Carpals—wrist bones
 8 bones arranged in two
rows of 4 bones in each
hand
 Metacarpals—palm
bones
 5 per hand
 Phalanges—fingers and
thumb
 14 phalanges in each
hand
 In each finger, there are 3
bones
 In the thumb, there are
only 2 bones
 Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
 Formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones
 Composed of three pairs of fused bones
1. Ilium
2. Ischium
3. Pubis
 Pelvic girdle = two coxal bones, sacrum
 Pelvis = two coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx
 The total weight of the upper body rests on
the pelvis
 Pelvis protects several organs
 Reproductive organs
 Urinary bladder
 Part of the large intestine
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.24a The bony pelvis.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.24b The bony pelvis.

Ilium
Ala
Iliac crest
Posterior
superior
iIiac Anterior superior
spine iliac spine
Posterior
inferior Anterior inferior
iIiac spine iliac spine

Greater sciatic
notch Acetabulum
Ischial body
Body of pubis
Ischial spine
Pubis
Ischial
tuberosity Inferior pubic
ramus
Ischium
Obturator
Ischial ramus foramen
(b)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

 The female’s pelvis

 Inlet is larger and more circular
 Shallower, on the whole, and the
bones are lighter and thinner
 Ilia flare more laterally
 Sacrum is shorter and less d
curve
 Ischial spines are shorter and
farther apart; thus, the outlet
is larger
 Pubic arch is more rounded
because the angle of the
pubic arch is greater
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Bones of the Lower Limbs

 Femur—thigh bone
 The heaviest, strongest bone in the body
 Proximal end articulation
 Head articulates with the acetabulum of the coxal
(hip) bone
 Distal end articulation
 Lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia in
the lower leg

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bones of the right thigh and leg.

Surgical
Greater
neck Head trochanter
Head
Inter-
Inter- trochanteric
trochanteric Lesser trochanter
Lesser trochanter crest
line
Gluteal tuberosity

Intercondylar
fossa
Medial
Lateral Lateral
condyle condyle
epicondyle
Medial
epicondyle
Patellar
surface
(a) (b)
 Bones of the Lower Limbs
 The lower leg has two bones
1. Tibia—shinbone; larger and
medially oriented
 Proximal end articulation
 Medial and lateral condyles
articulate with the femur to
form the knee joint
 Distal end articulation
 Medial malleolus forms the
inner part of the ankle
2. Fibula—thin and sticklike;
lateral to the tibia
 Has no role in forming the
knee joint
 Distal end articulation
 Lateral malleolus forms the
outer part of the ankle
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Bones of the Lower Limbs
 Foot
 Tarsals—7 bones
 Two largest
tarsals are the:
 Calcaneus
(heel bone)
 Talus
 Metatarsals—5
bones form the sole
of the foot
 Phalanges—14
bones form the toes

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Bones of the Lower Limbs

 Arches of the feet

 Bones of the foot are arranged to form three
strong arches
 Two longitudinal
 One transverse

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Joints

 Joints are articulations

 Occur where two or more bones meet
 Functions of joints
 Hold bones together securely
 Allow for mobility
 Two ways joints are classified
 Functionally
 Structurally

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Joints

 Functional joint classifications

 Synarthroses
 Immovable joints
 Amphiarthroses
 Slightly movable joints
 Diarthroses
 Freely movable joints

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Joints

 Structural joint classifications

 Fibrous joints
 Generally immovable
 Cartilaginous joints
 Immovable or slightly movable
 Synovial joints
 Freely movable

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Joints

 Fibrous joints
 Bones are united by fibrous tissue
 Types
 Sutures
 Immobile
 Syndesmoses
 Allow more movement than sutures but still
immobile
 Found on the distal ends of tibia and fibula
 Gomphoses
 Immobile
 Found
where
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
the teeth
 Fibrous joints Fibrous joints

Fibrous
connective
tissue
(a) Suture

Tibia

Fibula
Fibrous
connective
tissue
(b) Syndesmosis
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Joints

 Cartilaginous joints
 Bones are connected by fibrocartilage
 Types
 Synchrondrosis
 Immobile
 Found in epiphyseal plates of growing long bones
 Symphysis
 Slightly movable
 Found in the pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Joints

 Synovial joints
 Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
 Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
 Four distinguishing features of synovial joints
1. Articular cartilage
2. Articular capsule
3. Joint cavity
4. Reinforcing ligaments

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.28f Types of joints.

Synovial joints

Scapula
Articular
capsule

Articular
(hyaline)
cartilage
Humeru
s

(f) Multiaxial joint

(shoulder joint)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.28g Types of joints.

Synovial joints

Humerus

Articular
(hyaline)
cartilage
Articular
capsule
Radius

Ulna
(g) Uniaxial joint
(elbow joint)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.28h Types of joints.

Synovial joints

Ulna
Radius
Articular
capsule
Carpals

(h) Biaxial joint

(intercarpal joints of hand)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Joints
 Synovial joints
(continued)
 Bursae—
flattened fibrous
sacs
 Lined with
synovial
membranes
 Filled with
synovial fluid
 Not actually
part of the
joint

 Tendon sheath
 Elongated
bursa
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. that
 Joints

 Types of synovial joints based on shape

 Plane joint
 Hinge joint
 Pivot joint
 Condylar joint
 Saddle joint
 Ball-and-socket joint

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.30a Types of synovial joints.

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial
(f)

(a) Plane joint

(b)

(c)

(a)
(e)
(d)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.30b Types of synovial joints.

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial
(f)

(b)

Humerus
(c)
Ulna

(a)
(e) (b) Hinge joint
(d)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.30c Types of synovial joints.

Nonaxial
Uniaxial Ulna
Biaxial Radius
Multiaxial
(f)

(c) Pivot joint

(b)

(c)

(a)
(e)
(d)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.30d Types of synovial joints.

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial
(f)

Metacarpal
(b)
Phalanx

(c)
(d) Condylar joint

(a)
(e)
(d)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.30e Types of synovial joints.

Nonaxial Carpal
Uniaxial Metacarpal #1
Biaxial
Multiaxial
(f)

(e) Saddle joint

(b)

(c)

(a)
(e)
(d)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.30f Types of synovial joints.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.