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 A Dictionary of

Geology and
Earth Sciences
FOURTH EDITION

Edited by MICHAEL ALLABY

1
3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
# Oxford University Press 2013
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First published as A Dictionary of Earth Sciences 1990
First issued as an Oxford University Press paperback 1991
Second edition 1999
Reissued with new covers and corrections 2003
Third edition 2008
Fourth edition published as A Dictionary of Geology and Earth Sciences 2013
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Data available
ISBN 978–0–19–965306–5
Printed in Great Britain by
Clays Ltd, St Ives plc
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 From the Preface to the
First Edition

Setting intellectual boundaries that would serve to define ‘geology’ has never been simple.
As long ago as 1830, in his Principles of Geology, Charles Lyell expressed the view that
geologists should be well versed in chemistry, natural philosophy, mineralogy, zoology,
comparative anatomy, and botany. For at least a century and a half those who would study
the structure and composition of the Earth have had to familiarize themselves with a wide
range of scientific disciplines.
Strictly speaking, the word ‘geology’ describes all studies of the Earth. Traditionally,
however, ‘geology’ has come to mean the study of rocks.
T. C. Chamberlin used the name ‘Earth sciences’ to embrace astronomy, cosmogony, and
cosmology as well as the traditional disciplines, and Alfred Wegener (originally a meteorol-
ogist) also used it, but it was not until the 1960s that it began to gain a wider currency. Within
ten years it was widely accepted, used sometimes in the singular, nowadays commonly in the
plural. When, in the late summer of 1985, our friends at the Oxford University Press invited us
to compile a dictionary of terms used in the topics directly related to studies of the Earth, it
was clear that it should be a dictionary of ‘Earth sciences’.
We had to begin by defining the term for our own purpose. We examined the way it
was used by other authors, assembled a kind of consensus, and determined that our dictionary
should include terms from climatology, meteorology, economic geology, engineering
geology, geochemistry, geochronology, geomorphology, geophysics, hydrology, mineralogy,
oceanography, palaeoclimatology, palaeoecology, palaeogeography, palaeontology, pedolo-
gy, petrology, the philosophy and history of the Earth sciences including brief biographical
notes of important figures, planetary geology, sedimentology, stratigraphy, structural geology,
tectonics, and volcanology.
The task of a dictionary is descriptive, not prescriptive. It records words and expressions
that are in current use and explains the meanings attached to them, but it does not impose
those meanings or seek to dictate what a correct usage should be. As recorders, we express
no opinions.
We would emphasize that the book is meant to be used as a dictionary. In no sense is
it intended to be a textbook in its own right.
 Preface to the Second Edition

Work on the first edition of The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Earth Sciences was completed in
the summer of 1988, and the book was published in 1990. Many changes and advances have
occurred during the years that have passed since the initial compilation and we are glad to
have been given the opportunity to take account of them in a second edition.
The revision has been extremely thorough. Every entry from the first edition has been
scrutinized and many have been amended to bring them up to date. A few entries have been
removed as no longer relevant, but many new definitions have been added.
It is in the nature of dictionaries to grow longer with each revision and we do not apologize
for the fact that ours conforms to this rule. Such growth is unavoidable, because the language
itself is growing. The introduction of a new word or expression does not mean an earlier term
has been discarded, as it were to make room for it. Old words survive and while they remain
in use we are bound to define them.
Most of the additions have been generated by advances in planetary exploration and
the search to identify new reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Planetary exploration
has discovered many new satellites and smaller bodies within the solar system and has
revealed previously unknown details about the more familiar planetary satellites. This has
required us to augment the number of entries devoted to the solar system. Simply listing
satellites and explaining the meaning of ‘asteroid’ and ‘comet’ is no longer adequate.
Satellites have qualities that may now be summarized, and at least some of the minor bodies
have names and known dimensions. In pursuing this exploration, new space vehicles have
carried new instruments. We have provided some details about the more important space
missions, including some that are still in the planning stage, and have defined some of the
devices and techniques used.
Space exploration has an immediate influence on the Earth sciences through the use of
satellites for observation. We have listed some of the more important satellites and remote-
sensing techniques.
Advances in the methods used in petroleum exploration have led to rapid developments in
the relatively new discipline of sequence stratigraphy, which has acquired a vocabulary of its
own. It has also focused considerable attention on the study of trace fossils and the branch of
taxonomy devoted to them. We have defined the terms most widely used in both sequence
stratigraphy and ichnology.
Those may have been the main source areas for new terms requiring definition, but they
are not the only ones. The discovery of communities of living organisms that thrive in
extreme environments, such as those adjacent to hydrothermal vents, has led to important
revisions in the scientific classification of organisms in general, with implications for evolu-
tionary science that have influenced palaeontological ideas. These, too, we have aimed to
accommodate.
We have retained the system of cross-referencing used in the first edition, but have made
two innovations. We have consigned to appendices material that is best displayed in tables,
such as time-scales. This makes the information they contain easier to find and use than it
was when they appeared in the main body of the text. We have also added a small number of
illustrations. Generally, a dictionary is about words and their uses and should use words to
explain the meaning of words. There are occasions, however, when a simple diagram can
usefully illustrate essentially visual ideas.
vii Preface to the Second Edition

The first edition was compiled with the help of many contributors and advisers. The value
of their hard work endures, and we fully acknowledge it, for without it there would have been
no dictionary to revise. In preparing the first edition we were greatly helped by Professor
Hubert Lamb. His contribution remains, but sadly he died in 1997. He was always friendly
and unstinting in the trouble he took on our behalf. He is much missed.
In preparing the new edition we have been assisted by Dr Robin Allaby. His contribution
has greatly strengthened the revision and we are very grateful for his help.
We also wish to thank Professor D. H. Tarling and Dr C. D. Gribble. They each scrutinized a
long list of entries, revising them where necessary.
Finally, we thank Nigel May, the science librarian at the library of the University of
Plymouth, for allowing us to make use of the library facilities.
Ailsa Allaby
Michael Allaby
 Preface to the Fourth Edition

In preparing this new edition of our Dictionary of Geology and Earth Sciences I have changed
the emphasis very slightly by increasing the number of entries for terms that are directly
geological. The new title reflects this minor revision. At the same time, however, I have found
it necessary to add more entries describing satellite missions and planetary discoveries.
I have also added a new Appendix, listing web addresses for all the satellite missions
described in dictionary entries.
Inevitably, the dictionary has grown a little longer. That is the way of dictionaries. New
terms emerge, but old ones take a long time to die and disappear from the vocabulary.
As with the third edition, I have worked alone. I have scrutinized every entry and made
many small changes where I thought I could improve the clarity of definitions. If, inadver-
tently, I have introduced any errors, or failed to spot and remove earlier errors, I have no one
to blame but myself. If you find a mistake I will be grateful if you draw it to my attention. You
can contact me through my website.
If you are meeting the dictionary for the first time, I hope you find it helpful.

Michael Allaby
Tighnabruaich, Argyll
www.michaelallaby.com
 Preface to the Third Edition

The second edition of Oxford’s Dictionary of Earth Sciences was published eight years ago,
in 1999, and although the dictionary was reprinted with corrections in 2003, it was possible
then to make only minor changes. This edition is entirely new. Every entry has been
scrutinized and brought up to date where necessary. New entries have been added and the
number of diagrams has increased.
The new entries added in the second edition related predominantly to the expansion of
planetary exploration and satellite technology. Those entries have been updated. Many of the
new entries in this edition serve to expand the dictionary’s coverage of geomorphological
terms.
It is in the nature of dictionaries to grow longer with each revision, and I make no apology
for the fact that this one conforms to that rule. Such growth is unavoidable, because the
language itself is always growing, but when new terms are introduced it does not mean that
older terms are discarded. Even terms that do become obsolete do so gradually, surviving for
many years in established and much loved texts.
The first edition was compiled with the help of many contributors and advisers, and a
smaller number of contributors assisted in preparing the second edition. The value of their
hard work endures, and I gladly and fully acknowledge it, for without it there would have
been no dictionary to revise. I have worked alone in preparing this third edition, however, so
if any new errors have crept in they are mine alone.

Michael Allaby
Tighnabruaich, Argyll
www.michaelallaby.com
 Contents

Contributors and Advisers xii

A Dictionary of Geology and Earth Sciences 1
Appendices
Appendix A: Stratigraphic Units 645
Appendix B: Time-Scales 647
Appendix C: Wind Strength 652
Appendix D: SI Units, Conversions, and Multiples 654
Appendix E: List of useful websites 656
Appendix F: Satellite Missions 658
 A
aa See lava. ablation 1. Removal of snow and ice by melt-
ing and by direct alteration from the solid to
AABW See antarctic bottom water. the gaseous phase (sublimation). The rate of
loss is controlled chiefly by air temperature,
AAC See antarctic convergence. wind velocity, *humidity, rainfall, and *solar ra-
diation. Ablation on snowfields is also influ-
Aalenian A *stage in the European Middle enced by aspect, depth of snow, and the nature
*Jurassic (175.6–171.6 Ma, Int. Commission on of the underlying surface. Ablation *till is the
Stratigraphy, 2004). See also dogger. glacial debris that may be released. The ablation
zone of a glacier is that area in which losses,
AAV See aggregate tests. including *calving, exceed additions. 2. Removal
of *rock material, especially by wind action.
Ab See alkali feldspar.
ablation till See ablation 1; till.
abandoned channel A former stream chan-
nel through which water no longer flows (e.g. ablation zone See ablation.
a *cut-off).
aboral Away from the mouth; on the opposite
abandonment facies association A *fa- side of the body from the mouth.
cies association formed under conditions of
abrasion (corrasion) The erosive (see ero-
rising sea level, when *clastic deposition has
sion) action that occurs when *rock particles
ceased and sediment is deposited very slowly.
of varying size are dragged over or hurled
against a surface. Some common agents of abra-
abapical A directional term meaning away
sion are the *bed load of streams, rock debris
from the shell *apex.
embedded in the bases of *glaciers, and *sand
abaptation The process by which an organism and *shingle transported by wind or waves.
is fitted to its environment as a consequence abrasion ramp A gentle, seaward slope,
of the characters it inherits, which have been with a gradient of approximately 1 , in an inter-
filtered by *natural selection in previous environ- tidal *shore platform that is caused by wave
ments. Because present environments seldom *abrasion. The removal of material by wave ac-
differ greatly from recent past environments, tion leaves the base of the cliff exposed, leading
adaptive fitness can resemble *adaptation. In to further cliff retreat. Abrasion ramps usually
this sense, however, adaptation appears to imply terminate on the seaward side where the sea
advance planning, or design, which is misleading. depth reaches about 10 m.
Abbé refractometer See refractometer. absarokite An *alkaline *basalt that contains
*olivine, *augite, *labradorite, and sanidine (see
abiogenesis Development of living organ- alkali feldspars) in approximately equal
isms from non-living matter; as in the supposed proportions, together with *accessory minerals
origin of life on Earth, or in the concept of *biotite, *apatite, and opaque oxides (see opa-
spontaneous generation, which was once held que minerals). Absarokite is abundant in the
to account for the origin of life but which mod- Absaroka Range of mountains in Yellowstone
ern understanding of evolutionary processes National Park, USA.
(see evolution) has rendered outdated.
absolute age (true age) The age of a
abiotic Non-living; devoid of life. Compare geologic phenomenon measured in present
biotic. Earth years, rather than its age relative to other
 absolute humidity 2

geologic phenomena (compare relative age). for *rocks range from 0.25 to 0.75 dB per wave-
a The term ‘absolute age’ has been considered length.
rather misleading, as the means for measuring
ages (*radiometric dating, *dendrochronology, abstraction (extraction) The artificial re-
*varve analysis) are subject to experimental moval of water from a well, *reservoir, or river.
error and the dates obtained are not precise.
The alternative term ‘apparent age’ has been
Abukama-type metamorphism The *re-
crystallization of *rocks under a high *geother-
suggested. See also dating methods; geochro-
mal gradient so that at any given temperature
nology.
the pressure is relatively low. The term original-
absolute humidity See humidity. ly referred to a belt of *metamorphic rocks
stretching south-westwards from the Abukama
absolute plate motion The motion of Plateau in Japan, and characterized by the de-
a lithospheric *plate (see lithosphere) with velopment of *andalusite and *sillimanite in
respect to a fixed frame of reference. Various rocks that were originally *shales (*pelites).
frames of reference have been used, including This belt lies parallel to, and on the continental
those defined by *hot spots, no net torque of side of, a high-pressure metamorphic belt.
all the plates, and palaeomagnetic (see palaeo-
magnetism) Euler poles (see pole of rotation). abundance zone See acme zone.
absolute pollen frequency (APF) *Pollen ABW See arctic bottom water.
data from sediments, expressed in terms of
the absolute numbers for each *species, abyssal hills Relatively small topographic
*genus, or *family, per unit volume of sediment features of a dominantly flat, deep-ocean floor,
and, where deposition rates are known, per unit commonly 50–250 m in height and a few kilo-
time. In certain circumstances this approach metres in width. They are most typical of the
gives clearer information than does the tradi- *Pacific Ocean floor at depths of 3000–6000 m.
tional way of expressing pollen data as *relative
pollen frequencies (RPFs). APFs are particularly abyssal plain Smooth, almost level area
useful in site comparisons in which one or more of the deep-ocean floor in which the gradient
high pollen producers vary. For example, when is likely to be as low as 1:10 000. The covering
trees first appear in the regional pollen rain their sediments are usually thin deposits of a *pelagic
prolific pollen may, in an RPF method, give the ooze or *distal *turbidite.
impression of declining herbaceous species, abyssal storm (benthic storm) A large
whereas examination by an APF method will pulse of energy, possibly transferred from the
show constant values for herb species. surface, that accelerates *contour currents on
absolute porosity See porosity. the ocean floor to about 40 cm/s, raising large
amounts of fine sediment.
absolute temperature Temperature mea-
sured using the *Kelvin scale. abyssal zone Zone of greatest ocean depth,
i.e. below a depth of 2000 m. This zone lies
absolute vorticity See vorticity. seaward of, and deeper than, the *bathyal
zone, and covers approximately 75% of the
absolute zero See kelvin scale. total ocean floor. It is the most extensive Earth
absorptance The ability of a material to environment, cold, dark, with slow-moving cur-
absorb *electromagnetic radiation of a specified rents (less than a few centimetres per second),
wavelength. See also absorptance band. supporting *fauna that typically are black or
grey, delicately structured, and not streamlined.
absorptance band The range of wave-
lengths of *electromagnetic radiation which are Acadian orogeny A phase of mountain
absorbed by a material. See also absorptance. building affecting an area from the northern
Appalachians in what is now New York State
absorption The amount of seismic energy to the Bay of Fundy in maritime Canada (the
lost during transmission, by conversion to name refers to the colony of Acadie in that
heat. The absorption coefficient is the fractional region of French Canada). It occurred in the
loss of energy over a distance of one *wave- *Devonian about 390 Ma ago, although the pre-
length; hence higher-*frequency signals are at- cise date and duration are uncertain, and was
tenuated more readily than those of lower most intense east of the Taconic area (see taco-
frequencies over the same path. Typical values nic orogeny). It was caused by the westward
3 accretion

movement of the Avalon *terrane. See appala- accessory cloud A small cloud that is seen
chian orogenic belt. to be associated with a much larger cloud be- a
longing to one of the ten cloud genera (see
Acado-Baltic Province See atlantic cloud classification). *Pileus, *tuba, and
province. *velum are accessory clouds.
acanthite An *opaque mineral, Ag2S; density accessory mineral A *mineral *phase within
7.2–7.4 g/cm3; *hardness 2–2.5; *monoclinic; a rock whose presence does not affect the
lead grey or black; lead grey *streak; metallic *lus- root name of the rock. For instance, the root
tre; crystals pseudo-cubic, pseudo-octahedral, or name ‘granite’ is defined by the presence of
monoclinic; no *cleavage; fracture sub-conchoi- *quartz, *alkali feldspar, and *mica. These are
dal; widely distributed in silver deposits and the ‘*essential minerals’. The presence of the
zones of *secondary enrichment. It is the low- mineral *sphene does not affect the root name
temperature modification of silver sulphide, and and hence would be an example of an accessory
all natural silver sulphide at room temperature mineral. *Apatite and *zircon are also common
is acanthite. accessory minerals.
acanthodians See acanthodii. accessory plate (sensitive tint) In optical
microscopy, a plate used to determine the opti-
Acanthodii (acanthodians) Class of primi-
cal properties of *minerals. *Quartz, *mica, and
tive, fossil fish, characterized by the presence
*gypsum are the common minerals used to de-
of a true bony skeleton (see bone), a *heterocer-
termine the slow and fast *vibration directions
cal tail *fin, a persistent *notochord, *ganoid
that relate to the two *refractive indices of an
scales, and stout spines in front of the fins.
*anisotropic mineral. The terms ‘length-fast’
The acanthodians lived from the *Silurian to
and ‘length-slow’ may then be assigned to
the *Permian Period and may be related to an-
a given mineral for identification purposes.
cestors of the more modern bony fish.
A wedge of quartz (quartz wedge) is used to
Acanthograptidae See dendroidea. determine the order of *interference colour ex-
hibited by a mineral.
Acanthostega See ichthyostega.
accidental lithic See lithic fragment.
acceleration 1. An increase in speed or ve-
locity. accommodation space The space in which
2. *Evolution that occurs by increasing the sediment may accumulate.
rate of ontogenetic (see ontogeny) develop-
accommodation zone A region of inter-
ment, so that further stages can be added before
meshed *normal faults, with very complex ge-
growth is completed. This form of *hetero-
ometry, that lies between the boundary faults of
chrony was proposed by E. H. Haeckel as one
a series of interlinked half-grabens (see graben)
of the principal modes of evolution.
in an area of crustal extension.
acceleration, gravitational See gravita-
accordion fold See chevron fold.
tional acceleration.
accretion 1. Process by which an inorganic
accelerograph (earthquake seismometer)
body grows in size by the addition of new par-
An instrument used to measure *earthquake
ticles to its exterior. It is the mechanism by
movements that are too strong for more sensi-
which primitive planetary bodies are believed
tive *seismometers to register accurately. An
to form as a result of the accumulation of mi-
accelerograph contains three *accelerometer
nute, cold, homogeneous particles (homoge-
heads aligned to measure movement in three
neous accretion). An alternative hypothesis
directions. The accelerograph is often con-
is that iron-rich cores accumulated first and
nected directly to the Internet.
were later surrounded by silicate material (het-
accelerometer A device whose output is di- erogeneous accretion). Homogeneous accretion
rectly proportional to acceleration. Accelerome- yields a planet that initially has the same com-
ters are used in the measurement of the motion position from centre to surface; heterogeneous
of a ship, helicopter, or aircraft during *gravity accretion yields a planet that has a layered
surveys. A *seismometer or moving-coil *geo- structure from the start.
phone can also function as an accelerometer. 2. The accumulation of sediments from any
cause, representing an excess of deposition over
accessory, lithic See lithic fragment. *erosion.
 accretional heating 4

3. The addition of continental material to a sediment are added to the wedge by *under-
a pre-existing continent, usually at its edge. The thrusting and the trench migrates seaward,
use of ‘accretion’ in this sense has evolved from the continuation of this process producing an
theories of *nucleation to newer theories of the *inversion.
horizontal addition of *allochthonous *terranes
of initially coherent bodies of continental *rock, accumulated temperature Surplus or
usually more than 100 km2 in area, which can deficit of temperature with respect to a defined
collide, rotate, and fragment as they become mean value and expressed as an accumulation
sutured to a continent. over a given period, e.g. a month, season,
or year. For example, a datum value of 6  C is
accretional heating The heating of bodies used as a critical temperature for sustained
orbiting a star due to bombardment by smaller vegetation growth, against which accumulated
objects, the kinetic energy of the impacting surpluses or deficits may be measured.
body (½ mv2, where m is mass and v velocity)
being released mainly as heat. accumulation zone That part of a *glacier
where the mean annual gain of *ice, *firn, and
accretionary basin A small basin, much snow is greater than the mean annual loss. The
smaller than a *fore-arc basin, that develops zone consists of stratified firn and snow together
on the top of an *accretionary wedge and fills with ice from frozen meltwater. Its lower
with *debris-flow material, *turbidites, and vol- boundary is the *equilibrium line.
canic rocks.
ACD See aragonite compensation depth.
accretionary lapilli Pellets of *ash, ranging
in size from 2 mm to 64 mm, which commonly ACF See acf diagram; autocorrelation.
exhibit a concentric (‘onion skin’) internal
ACF diagram A three-component, triangular
structure. The *lapilli are formed by the accre-
graph used to show how metamorphic *miner-
tion of very fine ash around condensing water
al assemblages vary as a function of *rock com-
droplets or solid particles, particularly in steam-
position within one *metamorphic facies.
rich eruptive columns (see eruption). Once
Besides SiO2, the five most abundant oxides
formed they can be transported and deposited
found in *metamorphic rocks are Al2O3, CaO,
by *pyroclastic fall, *surge, or flow processes.
FeO, MgO, and K2O. The three components
accretionary levée See lava levée. plotted on ACF diagrams are A (Al2O3), C
(CaO), and F (FeO + MgO), making the dia-
accretionary prism See accretionarywedge. grams particularly useful for showing assem-
blage variations in metamorphosed, *basic,
accretionary wedge (accretionary prism) *igneous rocks, and impure *limestones. How-
A tectonically thickened wedge of *sediment ever, each of these components has to be mod-
found on the landward side of some *trenches. ified slightly to account for the presence of
The accretionary wedge consists of oceanic sed- other, minor components in the rock. Such
iment scraped off the subducting *plate (see modification leads to: A (Al2O3  Na2O 
subduction), plus sediment derived from K2O); C (CaO  [(10/3)P2O5]  CO2); and F
landward and deposited in the trench. Slices of (FeO + MgO  Fe2O3  TiO2). The minerals

passive ocean accretionary fore-arc volcanic

margin wedge arc

oceanic
lithosphere
Accretionary wedge
5 acritarchs

*quartz and *albite are assumed to be present in acid soil *Soil having a *pH less than 7.0.
the rocks and are not shown on the diagram. Degrees of soil acidity are recognized. Soil is a
*Tielines connect minerals which coexist in regarded as ‘very acid’ when the reaction is
equilibrium and can thus define triangular less than pH 5.0. The *USDA lists five standard
areas in which three minerals are in equilibrium ranges of soil acidity (less than pH 4.5, extreme-
in the rock, lines on which two minerals are in ly acid; 4.5–5.0, very strongly acid; 5.1–5.5,
equilibrium in the rock, and points at which one strongly acid; 5.6–6.0, medium acid; and 6.1–
mineral is in equilibrium in the rock (in addition 6.5, slightly acid). Surface *soil horizons of acid
to the ubiquitous quartz and albite). See afm *brown earths have a reaction of pH 5.0 or less.
diagram. See also a’kf diagram.
aclinic line See magnetic equator.
achnelith See pelé’s hair.
acme zone (peak zone, flood zone, epi-
achondrite Rare stony *meteorite lacking bole, abundance zone) An *informal term
*chondrules and with low nickel-iron content. for a body of *strata containing the maximum
It is more coarsely crystalline than a *chondrite. abundance of a particular *taxon occurring
Basaltic achondrites resemble terrestrial *lavas. within the stratigraphic range of that taxon,
and after which the *zone is named.
achromatic line In the three-dimensional
graph which plots quantities of the three acoustic basement The region of the Earth
*additive primary colours contributing to *pixels lying below the limit that can be imaged by
against each other, the line which runs at 45 to *seismic surveys.
the axes. Pixels which plot close to this line will
not be strongly coloured and may be subject to acoustic impedance (Z) The product of
*decorrelation stretching. density (r) and the acoustic velocity (v) for
a given rock mass; Z = rv. The *reflection coef-
acicular Pointed or needle-shaped. ficient for an interface is governed by the con-
trast in the acoustic impedances of the two
acid According to the Brønsted–Lowry theory, adjacent *rock masses.
a substance that in solution liberates hydrogen
*ions or protons. The Lewis theory states that an acquired characteristics Characteristics
acid is a substance that acts as an electron-pair that are acquired in the lifetime of an organism.
acceptor. An acid reacts with a *base to give a The evolutionary theorist *Lamarck suggested
salt and water (neutralization), and has a *pH of that traits acquired in one generation in re-
less than 7.0. The theory was proposed in 1923 sponse to environmental stimuli would be in-
by the Danish physical chemist Johannes herited by the next generation. Thus over
Nicolaus Brønsted (1879–1947) and the British several generations a particular type of organ-
chemist Thomas Martin Lowry (1874–1936), ism would become better adapted (see adapta-
and independently by the American theoretical tion) to its environment. The kinds
chemist Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875–1946). of acquisition envisaged by Lamarck and their
heritability are now discredited, although there
acidophile An *extremophile (domain *Ar- has been a recent revival of some aspects of
chaea) that thrives in environments where the Lamarckism in modified form.
*pH is below 5.0.
ACRIMSAT See active cavity radiometer
acid rain Precipitation with a *pH of less than irradiance monitor satellite.
about 5.0, which is the value produced when
naturally occurring carbon dioxide, sulphate, Acrisols A reference soil group in the *World
nitrogen oxides, and formic acid dissolve Reference Base for Soil Resources classification
into cloud droplets. The effects of increased scheme used by the *FAO. Acrisols are *acid
acidity on surface waters, soils, and vegetation soils with an argic B horizon (see argic hori-
are complex. zon) having a *cation-exchange capacity of less
than 24 cmolc/kg.
acid rock *Igneous rock containing more than
about 60% *silica (SiO2) by weight, most of acritarchs Hollow fossil structures, 5–240mm in
the silica being in the form of silicate minerals, diameter, inside which dinoflagellates and single-
but with the excess of about 10% as free *quartz. celled algae survived dry periods. They range
Typical acid rocks are *granites, *granodiorites, from *Precambrian to *Recent times. They
and *rhyolites. Compare basic rock; interme- are found in marine strata, although some non-
diate rock. See also alkaline rock. marine examples are reported from Recent beds.
 Acrothoracica 6

Acritarchs are used in *correlation and to distin- irradiance. It is the third ACRIM experiment
a guish onshore from offshore *sediments. and extends the database that began with
ACRIM 1 in 1980.
Acrothoracica See cirripedia.
acrozone See range zone.
A
 A NASA mission launched in 1978 to
actinides (actinoids) The 15 metallic ele- monitor total solar irradiance.
ments with *atomic numbers 89–103. Actinium active geophysical methods Geophysi-
(89Ac) is the first and gives its name to the cal exploration methods which require an
group. The others are: thorium (90Th), proacti- artificial signal to be generated. For example,
nium (91Pa), uranium (92U), neptunium (93Np), exploration seismology, some *electromagnetic
plutonium (94Pu), americium (95Am), curium techniques, *electrical resistivity, *remote sens-
(96Cm), berkelium (97Bk), californium (98Cf), ing, and *induced polarization are said to be
einsteinium (99Es), fermium (100Fm), mendele- active geophysical methods. The term is con-
vium (101Md), nobelium (102No), and lawrenci- trasted with *passive geophysical methods.
um (103Lr). All the actinides are radioactive,
highly electropositive, tarnish when exposed to active layer A seasonally thawed surface
air, and react with water, releasing hydrogen. layer between a few centimetres and about
3 m thick, lying above the permanently frozen
actinium series See decay series. ground in a periglacial environment. It may be
actinoids See actinides. subject to considerable expansion on freezing,
especially if silt-sized particles dominate, with
actinolite A member of the *amphiboles, important engineering implications. See also
Ca2(Mg,Fe)5(Si4O11)2(OH,F)2, with the ratio Fe/ mollisols; permafrost.
Fe + Mg = 0.9 to 0.5, belonging to the *tremolite–
*ferroactinolite series of Ca-rich amphiboles; sp. active margin (seismic margin) The margin
gr. 3.0–3.4; *hardness 5–6; *monoclinic; light of a continent that is also a *plate margin. The
greenish-grey to dark green; white *streak; *vit- alternative term, ‘Pacific-type margin’, indicates
reous *lustre; habit *acicular, often fibrous and the range of features (e.g. *earthquakes, andes-
felted; *cleavage *prismatic, good {110}; occurs itic (see andesite) volcanic chains, offshore
widely in low- to medium-grade *schists and oceanic *trenches, and young fold mountains)
some *igneous rocks. The asbestiform variety which may be associated with active margins.
is called *nephrite and such felted forms were Some authors distinguish an ‘Andino-type mar-
used in the past for insulation and fire-resistant gin’, involving an oceanic and a continental
materials, but the development of asbestosis in plate, from a ‘Japan-type margin’, involving an
workers has severely restricted their use. oceanic plate and an *island arc. The term
‘Mediterranean-type margin’ is also in use, al-
Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) A subclass though to a lesser extent, to signify the coinci-
of the *Osteichthyes (bony fish, see bone), com- dence of continental edges and plate margins in
prising the ray-finned fish, which include the a *collision zone.
majority of living bony fish of sea and fresh
water. The *fins are composed of a membra- active methods See active geophysical
nous web of skin supported by a varying num- methods.
ber of spines and soft rays. They appeared first
during the *Devonian. active pool The part of a *biogeochemical
cycle in which the nutrient element under
activation analysis See neutron activa- consideration exchanges rapidly between the
tion analysis. biotic and abiotic components. Usually the ac-
tive pool is smaller than the *reservoir pool, and
activation energy (energy of activation) it is sometimes referred to as the ‘exchange’ or
The energy that must be delivered to a system ‘cycling’ pool.
in order to increase the incidence within it of
reactive molecules, thus initiating a reaction. active remote sensing *Remote sensing
which is based on the illumination of a scene
Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance by use of artificial radiation. An example is
Monitor Satellite (ACRIMSAT) A NASA *radar. Compare passive remote sensing.
satellite instrument that was launched on 20
December 1999 and became operational on activity A broadly used term which refers to
5 April 2000. ACRIMSAT measures total solar the rate or extent of a change associated with
7 adaptive radiation

some substance or system. For example, it may adamellite A rock of granitic composition
be the tendency of a metal high in the electro- (see granite) characterized by the presence a
motive series to replace another metal lower in of *quartz, *plagioclase feldspar, and potassic
the series, e.g. magnesium displacing copper feldspar (see alkali feldspar) accompanied
from most of its compounds. It may also be by *biotite and/or *hornblende. The two feld-
used to describe the rate of decay of atoms by spar types occur in approximately equal pro-
radioactivity. portions, the plagioclase composition lying
within the oligoclase range. The name is derived
activity coefficient (g) The ratio of chem- from the type locality of Adamello in the Tyrol,
ical activity (i.e. the effective concentration, (a) Austria, where granites of this type were origi-
of a component in a solution, to the actual mole nally defined. In Britain the best-known exam-
fraction (X) present in solution: (g = a/X). ple occurs at Shap Fell in Cumbria.
Values for activities are determined experimen-
tally in a number of ways, including measuring
the ratio of the *vapour pressure (p) of a known Adams–Williamson equation Equation
concentration of the substance in solution to the describing a fundamental relationship between
vapour pressure (p*) of the pure substance: seismic velocities (vp and vo), the *gravitational
a = p/p*. In an ideal solution the activity coeffi- acceleration (g), and the adiabatic change
cient = 1, and the activity of the component is in density (dr) within the *Earth (assuming
equal to its mole fraction. In general, the greater only hydrostatic pressure) as a function of
the amount of dissolved material, the lower the radium (dr):
activity coefficients of each of the species pre-
sent. dr ¼ gr=ðdrv2r  ð4=3Þv2o

Actonian A *stage of the *Ordovician (453– This equation is directly applicable to the
454 Ma ago) in the Upper *Caradoc, underlain lower *mantle and outer *core, but is invalid
by the *Marshbrookian and overlain by the *On- where the composition is variable, the pressure
nian. is not hydrostatic, or the increase in pressure is
not adiabatic.
actual evapotranspiration (AE) The
amount of water that evaporates from the sur-
face and is transpired by plants if the total adapical A directional term meaning towards
amount of water is limited. Compare potential the shell *apex.
evapotranspiration.

actualism The theory that present-day pro- adaptation 1. Generally, the adjustments
cesses provide a sufficient explanation for past that occur in animals in respect of their envi-
geomorphological phenomena, although the ronments. The adjustments may occur by
rate of activity of these processes may have *natural selection, as individuals with favour-
varied. The theory was first clearly expressed able genetic traits breed more prolifically than
in 1749 by G. L. L. *Buffon (1707–88), and was those lacking these traits (genotypic adapta-
the essential principle of *uniformitarianism as tion), or they may involve non-genetic changes
presented in 1830 by C. *Lyell (1797–1875). in individuals, such as physiological modifica-
tion (e.g. acclimatization) or behavioural
acuity The ability of a human to discern spa- changes (phenotypic adaptation). Compare
tial variation in a scene. abaptation. 2. In an evolutionary sense, that
which fits an organism both generally and spe-
ACV See aggregate tests. cifically to exploit a given environmental zone.
Adam The postulated male ancestor for all
modern humans, who lived in Africa between adaptive radiation 1. A burst of evolution,
about 100 000 and 200 000 years ago. ‘Adam’ is with rapid divergence from a single ancestral
based on a change in the human Y chromosome form, resulting in the exploitation of an array
that occurred at that time in one descendant of habitats. The term is applied at many *taxo-
of Adam and is now present in all human nomic levels, e.g. the radiation of the mammals
males, except for some Africans. See also mito- at the base of the *Cenozoic refers to *orders,
chondrial eve. whereas the radiation of ‘Darwin’s finches’ in
the Galápagos Islands resulted in a proliferation
adamantine Of mineral *lustre, brilliant, like of *species. 2. Term used synonymously with
a polished diamond. ‘*cladogenesis’ by some authors.
 adaptive zone 8

adaptive zone The adaptive specialization(s) adit Horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel
a that fit the *taxon to its environment, e.g. feeding from the surface into a mine, for entry, drainage,
habits. or exploration.

addition rule (Weiss zone law) With refer- admission The substitution of a *trace ele-
ence to crystallographic notation, the rule stat- ment for a major element with a similar *ionic
ing that the indices (see miller indexes) of two radius but a higher *valency during the crystal-
*crystal faces in the same *zone always add up lization of a *magma, e.g. the substitution of Li+
to the indices of a face bevelling the edge lying for Mg2+ in the *pyroxenes, *amphiboles, and
between them. The rule may be used to index *micas.
faces on a *stereogram, or faces at the intersec-
tion of two zones. adobe A silty *clay, often calcareous, found in
dry, desert-lake basins. This fine-grained *sedi-
additive primary colours The spectral ment is usually deposited by desert floods
colours red, green, and blue, which, when which have eroded wind-blown *loess deposits.
mixed together by projection through filters, The term is of Spanish origin (‘adobe’ means
can be used to produce all other colours. None sun-dried brick).
of the primary colours can be produced by
combinations of the other two. See also sub- adoral On the same side of the body as the
tractive primary colours. mouth.

adductor muscles See muscle scar. Adrastea (Jupiter XV) A jovian satellite
(a *moom) that orbits within the main ring of
Adelaidean A *stage (542–1300 Ma ago) Jupiter; it and *Metis may be the source of the
of the Upper *Proterozoic of south-eastern material comprising the ring. Both are consid-
Australia, underlain by the *Carpentarian and ered too small to suffer tidal disruption, but
overlain by the Early *Cambrian. eventually their orbits will decay. Adrastea is
one of the smallest satellites in the solar system.
Adelaidean orogeny A late *Proterozoic
It was discovered in 1979 by David Jewitt. Its
and *Ordovician phase of mountain building,
diameter is 20 km (20) (23  20  15 km);
affecting what is now southern Australia, in
mass 1.91  106 kg; mean distance from Jupiter
which *sedimentary rocks of the Adelaidean
129 000 km.
System were raised by severe thrusting and
overfolding, first in the south and later along adsorption The attachment of an ion, mole-
the northern margin of the system. cule, or compound to the charged surface of a
ADEOS II See advanced earth observing particle, usually of *clay or *humus, from where
satellite 2. it may be subsequently replaced or exchanged.
Ions carrying positive charges (e.g. those of cal-
adhesion ripples See adhesion warts. cium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium) be-
come attached to, or adsorbed by, negatively
adhesion warts (adhesion ripples) A *sed- charged surfaces (e.g. those of clay or humus).
imentary structure consisting of an irregular,
wart-like or blistered, *sand surface, formed by adsorption complex Various materials of
the wind blowing dry sand over a moist surface. the soil, mainly *clay and *humus and to a lesser
The warts tend to be slightly asymmetrical, with degree other particles, capable of adsorbing
steeper sides in the up-wind direction. ions and molecules.

adiabat The rate at which a *parcel of air cools adularia See alkali feldspar.
as it rises and warms as it descends, as indicated
by two lines (dry adiabat and wet adiabat) on a Advanced Earth Observing Satellite 2
*tephigram. (ADEOS II) A satellite launched from Japan on
14 December 2002 as a collaboration between
adiabatic Applied to the changes in temper- the National Space Development Agency
ature, pressure, and volume in a *parcel of air or (NASDA) of Japan, NASA, and the Centre Na-
liquid that occur as a consequence of the verti- tional d’Études Spatiales (CNES) of France.
cal movement of the fluid, and without any Its aim was to monitor the water and energy
exchange of energy with the surrounding fluid. cycles and their influence on the climate sys-
See also dry adiabatic lapse rate; saturated tem, estimate global biomass as part of the
adiabatic lapse rate. *carbon cycle, and detect long-term climatic
9 aeromagnetic survey

changes. The solar panels failed, ending the aeolian ripple (eolian ripple) A ripple on
mission in October 2003. the surface of a sedimentary rock that is caused a
A
 A joint CNES, JAXA, NASA, and NASDA
by saltating grains. Aeolian ripples have a wave-
length approximately equal to the *saltation
path of the grains, and they usually have no
mission to study the Earth’s environment. internal *cross-lamination.
advection The horizontal transfer of heat by Aeolis Quadrangle A region of Mars
means of a moving gas (usually air). formed in the Late *Noachian or Early *Hespe-
adventive cone See parasitic cone. rian Epoch, containing both extensional and
compressional land-forms and *valles, some of
adventurine See aventurine. which may be outflow channels, but some of
which may be tectonic rift features.
AE See actual evapotranspiration.
aerial photograph A photograph taken
aedifichnia A category of *trace fossils that from an aircraft. In hydrology, false-colour in-
comprises structures in full relief that were frared photographs are used to determine the
constructed by organisms from raw materials, wetness and temperature of soils and to detect
e.g. mud nests of wasps, caddis fly cases, spi- *springs.
ders’ larders consisting of concentrations of
insects, insect remains, and spiders. aerial photography The taking of aerial
photographs of rock exposures and of the
aegirine *Pyroxene mineral, NaFe3+Si2O6; sp. ground surface for purposes of geologic inter-
gr. 3.5; *hardness 6; *monoclinic; greenish-black pretation. The photographs may be taken verti-
or brown; occurs as fairly short, *prismatic crys- cally, or at a high-oblique or low-oblique angle,
tals in *igneous and *metamorphic rocks. A va- and may be assembled like a mosaic to provide
riety intermediate in composition between a picture of a large area. Stereoscopic cameras
aegirine and augite is called ‘aegirine–augite’. (two cameras within a single body) may be used
See also augite; clinopyroxene. to produce pairs of pictures that provide three-
dimensional pictures when observed through a
Aegyptopithecus zeuxis A genus and spe- stereoscopic viewer. See photogeology.
cies of early *catarrhine primates, known from
abundant remains, including several nearly aerobic 1. Of an environment: one in which
complete skulls, from the early *Oligocene of air (oxygen) is present. In the case of a deposi-
the Jebelal-Qatrani Formation, Fayum, Egypt. tional environment, one with more than 1 ml
The size of a small, living monkey, it had a of dissolved oxygen per litre of water. Compare
long tail and could jump from branch to branch. anaerobic; dysaerobic. 2. Of an organism: one
It possessed the dental and some of the cranial requiring the presence of oxygen for growth, i.e.
characteristics of living catarrhines, but lacked an aerobe. 3. Of a process: one that occurs only
many of the other cranial and most of the post- in the presence of oxygen.
cranial diagnostic features, and so represents a
time when catarrhines had separated from aerodynamic roughness Surface irregu-
other primates, but remained more primitive larities that impede the passage of air, causing
than living hominoids (*Hominoidea) or Old uneven flow. The surface over which the flow
World monkeys and it could have been ances- takes place may be solid, liquid (e.g. large ocean
tral to living catarrhines. waves), or of air of different density.

aeolian abrasion The erosion of a surface aerological diagram Diagram to demon-

that is caused by bombardment with loose par- strate variations with height of the physical
ticles carried by the wind. characteristics of the atmosphere, particularly
its temperature, pressure, and *humidity.
aeolianite General term for the sedimentary
products of wind (aeolian) deposition. aeromagnetic survey Survey of the Earth’s
magnetic field, based on data from *magnetom-
aeolian processes (eolian processes) The eters towed behind aircraft or suspended below
erosion, transport, and deposition of material helicopters. These instruments measure the
due to the action of the wind at or near the total intensity of the *geomagnetic field or, oc-
Earth’s surface. Aeolian processes are at their casionally, components of this field. The result-
most effective when the vegetation cover is dis- ing measurements can then be compared with
continuous or absent. theoretical models for the value of the field and
 Aeronian 10

the differences (*magnetic anomalies) can be FeO, and MgO, and are ideal for showing min-
a interpreted in terms of changes in the magnetic eral assemblage variations as a function of the
properties of the rocks below the survey line or composition of *pelites. Mineral and rock com-
grid. The magnetometers are usually flown positions plotting within this diagram are pro-
with other instrumentation, e.g. *radiometric jected on to the Al2O3FeOMgO face from
and electromagnetic, at the lowest practicable either the *muscovite or K-feldspar point on
constant height above the ground. Usually the the Al2O3FeO edge. The components of the
magnetometer is housed in a ‘bird’ towed be- diagram are thus A (Al2O3), F (FeO), and
hind the aircraft, or in a wing-tip pod, or in a M (MgO), with the projection geometry being
‘stinger’ in the tail. In cases where the magne- accommodated on specially scaled axes. Each of
tometer is on board, in-board coil systems com- these components has to be modified slightly to
pensate for the aircraft’s own magnetic field. account for the presence of other, minor
components in the rock, leading to: A (Al2O3 
Aeronian A *stage (436–439 Ma ago) of 3K2O); F (FeO  TiO2  Fe2O3); and M (MgO).
the Lower *Silurian (*Llandovery Period) under- The minerals *quartz and *albite are assumed to
lain by the *Rhuddanian and overlain by the be present in the rocks and are not shown on
*Telychian. the diagram. As in *ACF diagrams, *tielines con-
nect minerals which coexist in equilibrium.
aerosol Colloidal substance, either natural or
man-made, that is suspended in the air because
AFMAG EM system Audio-Frequency Mag-
the small size (0.01–10 mm) of its particles
netic ElectroMagnetic method, which uses nat-
makes them fall slowly. Aerosols in the *tropo-
ural electromagnetic (EM) fields (*sferics) in the
sphere are usually removed by *precipitation
audio-frequency range (1–1 000 Hz) generated
and their *residence time is measured in days
by thunderstorms to investigate lateral changes
or weeks. Aerosols that are carried into the
in the *resistivity of the Earth’s surface.
*stratosphere usually remain there much lon-
ger. Tropospheric aerosols may act as *Aitken
nuclei but the general effect of aerosols is to African Plate One of the present-day major
absorb, reflect, or scatter radiation. Stratospher- lithospheric *plates, consisting of the continen-
ic aerosols, mainly sulphate particles resulting tal mass of Africa surrounded, except to the
from volcanic *eruptions, may reduce *insola- north, by *oceanic crust and oceanic *ridges.
tion significantly. About 30% of tropospheric To the north, a complex picture of collision
dust particles are the result of human activities. and *subduction zones and *transform faults
See atmospheric structure; mie scattering; has been postulated for the boundary with the
rayleigh scattering; volcanic dust. *Eurasian Plate and various minor plates, e.g.
the Aegean Plate. The northern part of the Afri-
Aëtosauria Mainly *Triassic group of primi- can Plate also contains remnants of the oceanic
tive thecodontian (‘tooth-in-socket’) reptiles crust of *Tethys. To the north-east the Red Sea is
(see thecodontia). They resembled heavily ar- interpreted as an actively forming ocean, at
moured crocodiles, and appear to have been the young stage of the *Wilson cycle, while the
specialized herbivores or possibly omnivores. E. African *rifts, partially defining what is called
They grew up to 3 m long, and their armour by some the ‘Somali Plate’ to the east, may be at
plating comprised rows of bony *plates. the embryonic stage of ocean development, or
possibly a stillborn ocean.
AFC See assimilation-fractional crystalli-
zation. Afternoon Constellation See a-train.
AF demagnetization See alternating
magnetic field demagnetization. aftershock A seismic event that occurs after
an *earthquake, usually within days or weeks.
AFM diagram A three-component, triangu- Although often of small *magnitude, aftershocks
lar graph used to show how metamorphic *min- can be more destructive as buildings and struc-
eral assemblages vary as a function of *rock tures have already been weakened.
composition within one *metamorphic *facies.
Besides SiO2, the five most abundant oxides afterslip (post-seismic slip) Movement that
found in *metamorphic rocks are Al2O3, CaO, continues for a year or longer in the aftermath of
FeO, MgO, and K2O. The three components a major *earthquake. Afterslip occurs in discrete
plotted on AFM diagrams are derived from a pulses of up to 10 mm, these becoming less
tetragonal diagram, with species Al2O3, K2O, frequent over time.
11 aggregate tests

Aftonian The earliest (2.6–0.117 Ma) of four into lunar soils. Their abundance in a lunar
*interglacial *stages in N. America, following the soil is an index of exposure to micrometeorite a
*Nebraskan glacial episode, and approximately bombardment, and hence to soil maturity. The
equivalent to the *Donau/Günzinterglacial of average size of agglutinates in mature soils var-
Alpine terminology. Climatically it was marked ies, but tends toward a mean of 60 mm.
by mild summers and winters warmer than
those in present-day N. America. aggradation The general accumulation
of unconsolidated sediments on a surface,
Agassiz, Jean Louis Rodolphe (1807–73) which thereby raise its level. A large range of
A Swiss geologist who worked initially on fossil mechanisms may be involved, including *fluvi-
fish, Agassiz is better known for his *glacial al, *aeolian, marine, and *slope processes.
theory (1837). He met *Buckland in 1840, and
persuaded him that *drift deposits in Britain aggregate 1. In the building and construc-
were evidence of a glacial epoch. In 1846 he tion industry, a mixture of mineral substances
moved to the USA to become professor of zool- (bulk *minerals), e.g. sand, gravel, crushed
ogy and geology at Harvard, where he founded *rock, stone, slag, and other materials (e.g. col-
the Museum of Comparative Zoology (1859). liery spoil, pulverized fuel ash) which, when
cemented, forms *concrete, mastic, mortar,
agate (mocha stone) Variety of chalcedonic plaster, etc. Uncemented, it can be used as
silica (SiO2) that is *cryptocrystalline. It is simi- road-making material, railway ballasts, filter
lar to *chalcedony except that impurities of iron beds, and in some manufacturing processes as
and manganese may give it a distinct colour flux. In road-making, aggregate mixed with *bi-
banding which is frequently precipitated in con- tumen is called ‘coated stone’, and different
centric zones. Moss agate contains delicate, physical characteristics are required for the dif-
fern-like, dendritic patterns. Agates may be cut ferent layers comprising the road *pavement.
and polished as decorative stones. Fine aggregate is less than 6.35 mm in diameter,
coarse aggregate greater than 6.35 mm. See
age 1. The interval of geologic time equivalent aggregate tests; pavement. 2. Group of soil
to the *chronostratigraphic unit ‘*stage’. Ages particles adhering together in a cluster; the
are subdivisions of *epochs and may themselves smallest structural unit, or ped, of soil. Aggre-
be subdivided into *chrons. An age takes its gates join together to make up the major struc-
name from the corresponding stage, so like the tural soil units.
stage name it carries the suffix ‘-ian’ (or some-
times ‘-an’); the term ‘age’ is sometimes capi- aggregate abrasion value See aggregate
talized when used in this formal sense, e.g. tests.
‘*Oxfordian Age’. 2. An *informal term to denote
a time span marked by some specific feature, aggregate crushing value See aggregate
e.g. ‘*Villefranchian mammalian age’. tests.

ageostrophic wind The vector difference aggregate impact value See aggregate
between the *geostrophic and the actual winds. tests.

agglomerate Coarse-grained volcanic rock aggregate tests Specific tests used to deter-
with rounded to subangular fragments. These mine the suitability of *aggregates for special
fragments are mainly larger than 2 cm in size, purposes. There are tests for: (a) shape and
but the mixture of fragments is typically ill texture (the angularity number), to determine
sorted and the *matrix may be fine grained. An whether particles have a large angle of friction
agglomerate may be the product of a volcanic with good bonding properties; (b) size and grad-
explosion and therefore a *pyroclastic rock, but ing, to determine whether particles will pack
often the term ‘agglomerate’ is applied to brec- well; (c) moisture content, to discover whether
ciated volcanic rocks of uncertain origin. Those materials absorb so much water that freeze–
deposits may range from vent *breccias to de- thaw action might cause the break-up of struc-
bris from mudflow or *lahar deposits. tures; (d) rock density, which may affect the
economics of an operation; (e) strength, deter-
agglutinate A constituent of lunar soils com- mined by subjecting the rock to hammering in a
prising glass-bonded *aggregates, which consist standard test and measuring the percentage of
of *glasses and rock and mineral fragments fine material produced (the aggregate impact
welded together by glass. These aggregates value, or AIV); (f) resistance to crushing (the
form during the impact of micrometeorites aggregate crushing value, or ACV), measured
 aggregation 12

in a similar manner; (g) resistance to abrasion, contemporary German knowledge, his books be-
a measured by standard equipment to give the came basic reference material for two centuries.
aggregate abrasion value (AAV)—the lower the
AAV, the more resistant the rock; and (h) resis- agrometeorology The study of the rela-
tance to polishing, measured in the laboratory tionship between conditions in the surface
to give the polished stone value (PSV)—the layers of the atmosphere and those in the
higher the PSV, the greater the resistance to surface of the Earth, as this affects agriculture.
polishing and therefore skidding, and the more AGU See american geophysical union.
valuable the material.
Agulhas current Part of the large-scale cir-
aggregation 1. Process in which soil parti- culation of the southern Indian Ocean. It is a
cles coalesce and adhere to form soil aggregates. surface-water current that flows off the east
The process is encouraged by the presence of coast of southern Africa between latitudes
bonding agents such as organic substances, 25 S and 40 S in a south-westerly direction.
*clay, iron oxides, and ions (e.g. calcium and Flow velocity varies seasonally between 0.2 and
magnesium). 2. Progressive attachment of par- 0.6 m/s.
ticles (e.g. ice or snow) or droplets around a
nucleus, thereby causing its growth. ahermatypic Applied to corals that lack
zooxanthellae (symbiotic unicellular *algae)
Aglaophyton major See rhynia. and that are not *reef-forming.
Agnatha (phylum *Chordata, subphylum AIPG See american institute of profes-
*Vertebrata) Superclass of jawless, fish-like ver- sional geologists.
tebrates, with sucker-like mouths, including
the extant lampreys, slime-eels and hagfish, airborne dust analysis Sampling and de-
and some of the earliest primitive vertebrates, termination of airborne particles. This tech-
with heavily armoured forms, e.g. *Cephalaspis nique requires size segregation of the particles
(see also osteostraci), Pteraspis (see hetero- and a device for collection during updrafts
straci), and Jamoytius (see anaspida). They in order to obtain only local particles. Modern
appeared first during the *Ordovician. equipment sucks dust directly off vegetation
for analysis.
Agnostida An order of *Trilobita that lived
from the Lower *Cambrian to Upper *Ordovician. airborne gravity survey A regional *grav-
Most were blind, lacking sutures, and typically are ity survey undertaken from the air. Such surveys
found rolled up. They had a subequal *cephalon are now rapid and precise because of the devel-
and *pygidium. There were two suborders. They opment of *gravimeters capable of being com-
are important stratigraphic markers. pensated for changes in the motion and flight
path of an aircraft, particularly a helicopter.
agonic line A line joining points where the
magnetic *declination is zero. airgun A seismic source which discharges
a bubble of highly compressed air into water.
agric horizon Mineral-soil diagnostic horizon Airguns are most commonly used in marine
formed from an accumulation of *clay, *silt, and seismic exploration, but can also be used as a
*humus, which has moved down from an over- down-hole seismic source.
lying, cultivated soil layer. It is a *soil horizon
created by agricultural management, and is iden- air-lift pump A device composed of two
tified by its near-surface position, and by *col- pipes, one inside the other. Air is blown
loids accumulated in the pores of the soil. down the inner pipe, which is slightly shorter
than the outer pipe. The result of this is to push
agrichnion (pl. agrichnia) A *trace fossil an air–water mixture up the gap between the
comprising a burrow that formed the perma- two pipes. This is a useful pump for obtaining
nent dwelling of an organism and was used to samples from very small diameter boreholes.
trap or culture smaller organisms for food or use
them in chemosymbiosis. air mass (airmass) Large body of air (some-
times of oceanic or continental proportions)
Agricola, Georgius (Georg Bauer Agrico- identified primarily by an approximately con-
la) (1494–1555) The author of works on stant wet-bulb-potential temperature (i.e. the
‘geology’ and mineral classification, and of the lowest temperature to which the air can be
first comprehensive record of mining, De Re cooled by the evaporation of water into it).
Metallica (1556). Using Roman sources and The temperature and *humidity characteristics
13 alas

of an air mass, which are roughly the same Aitken nucleus Suspended, atmospheric,
within the one air mass at a particular latitude solid particle with a radius of less than 0.2mm. a
and height, are modified by and modify Most Aitken nuclei are about 0.5 mm. On aver-
the atmospheric environment through which age, their concentration varies from less than
the air mass passes. 1 000/cm3 over oceans to 150 000/cm3 in urban
areas. See aitken nuclei counter; nucleus.
air wave A sound wave which travels through
the air from a seismic shot. The speed of such a AIV See aggregate tests.
wave is approximately 330 m/s.
AIW See antarctic intermediate water.
Airy, George Biddell (1801–92) A Cam-
bridge astronomer and mathematician, Airy åkermanite See melilite.
became Astronomer Royal in 1835. He investi-
gated planetary motion and tides, and studied A’KF diagram A three-component triangular
the Earth and its density, using gravity measure- graph that is used to show how metamorphic
ments. His name is used to describe one version *mineral assemblages vary as a function of
of the theory of *isostasy. His wide-ranging ad- rock composition within one *metamorphic fa-
vice to the government on scientific issues cre- cies. The three components are: A’ = (Al2O3) +
ated, for the first time, the role of a professional Fe2O3) – (Na2 + K2O + CaO); K = (K2O); F =
(FeO + MgO + MnO). See also acf diagram.
A
scientific civil servant.
Airy model A model to account for *isostasy
which in the *lithosphere assumes a constant  Describes triangular plots in metamorphic
density (rc = 2 670 kg/m3), but in which topo- petrology.
graphic elevations (h) are compensated by the
presence of ‘roots’ replacing high-density *man-
aklé French term for a network of sand *dunes
found especially in the western Sahara. The
tle rocks (rm = 3 300 kg/m3) by lower-density
basic unit of the network is a sinuous ridge, at
lithospheric rocks. The depth of the root (d) is
right angles to the wind, made up of crescent-
equal to hrc/(r  rc). See also pratt model.
shaped sections which alternately face the wind
mountain (linguoid) and back to the wind (barchanoid).
Aklé patterns require winds from one direction,
and a large quantity of sand.
ocean

constant density
wind
direction

dense region

Aklé dune
Airy model
aktuopalaeontology A branch of *taphon-
Airy phase When a high-frequency seismic omy in which experimenters observe the decay
wave is superimposed on a low-frequency of recently living organisms under natural con-
ground wave, the two frequencies gradually ap- ditions.
proach one another until they merge, at which
point they form a single wave with a relatively alabaster See gypsum.
large amplitude, called the ‘Airy phase’.
alar The first lateral protosepta (see septum) on
Aitken nuclei counter Device for the esti- either side of the *cardinal septum. The term is
mation of the concentration of particles with used in descriptions of the septal development of
radii of more than 0.001 mm in a sample of air. the rugose corals (*Rugosa), and may also be ap-
Air is made to expand in a chamber: this causes plied to *fossulae which occur in a similar position.
it to cool. Water vapour in it condenses on to
particles, forming a mist whose opacity allows alas A *thermokarst depression with relatively
estimation of the number of particles present. steep sides and a flat floor, which may be occu-
See also aitken nucleus. pied by a lake. Alases are well developed in
 Alaska current 14

Siberia (the word ‘alas’ is of Yakutian origin) albic Applied to an almost white soil in which
a where they can occupy 40–50% of the land there is little *clay or oxides coating the sandy or
surface. silty particles. The albic *horizon lies at or below
the surface.
Alaska current Oceanic water boundary cur-
rent produced by the deflection of the *N. Pacific albite See alkali feldspar; plagioclase
current by the N. American continent. It flows in a feldspar.
north-westward direction along the south-eastern
margin of Alaska. The Alaska current is also called albite–epidote–amphibolite facies A
the *Aleutian current in some texts. set of metamorphic *mineral assemblages
that is produced by the *metamorphism of a
A-layer The seismic layer corresponding to wide range of initial rock types under the same
the *crust of the Earth. It varies in thickness metamorphic conditions, and is typically char-
from a few kilometres to 70–90 km. The base acterized by the development of the mineral as-
lies on the *mantle and this boundary is the semblage *albite–*epidote–*hornblende in rocks
*Mohorovicic discontinuity. of *basic *igneous composition such as *basalts.
Other rocks of contrasting composition, e.g.
albedo The proportion of *insolation that is *shales or *limestones, would each develop
reflected back from the Earth, from the tops their own specific mineral assemblage, even
of the clouds, and from the atmosphere, without though they are all being metamorphosed
heating the receiving surface. It averages about under the same conditions. The variation of min-
30%, but varies widely according to the sub- eral assemblage with starting rock composition
stance and texture of the surface, and the reflects a particular range of pressure, tempera-
angle and wavelength of the incident radiation. ture, and P(H2O). Experimental studies of min-
The value for green grass and forest is 8–27% eral P–T stability fields indicate that the *facies
(over 30% for yellowing deciduous forest in au- represents a range of low-pressure, moderate-
tumn); for cities and rock surfaces, 12–18% temperature conditions. See amphibolite.
(over 40% for chalk and light-coloured rock
and buildings); for sand up to 40%; for fresh, albite twin The *plagioclase feldspars, par-
flat snow up to 90%; and for calm water only 2% ticularly *albite (NaAlSi3O8), are frequently
in the case of vertically incident radiation but up twinned on the albite law (see twin law)
to 78% where there is a low angle of incidence. where the *twin plane and composition plane
The albedo for cloud surfaces averages 55%, but is (010). This twinning is often repeated to give a
can be up to 80% for thick *stratocumulus. series of fine lamellae, seen in the hand speci-
mens as striations (particularly on the basal
Albeluvisols A reference soil group in plane); such twinning is usually called ‘poly-
the soil classification scheme used by the synthetic’ or ‘*lamellar’ twinning.
*FAO. Albeluvisols have an argic B horizon (see
argic horizon) with an irregular upper bound- albitization The partial or complete replace-
ary (a condition sometimes known as ‘ton- ment of pre-existing *plagioclase or *alkali feld-
guing’). spar by albite. There are a number of ways
in which this can be achieved. A common pro-
Alberta low Storms common in Alberta, cess involves the residual water-rich vapour re-
Canada, and associated with heavy rain and leased during the final stages of crystallization
snow. The storms form as a result of *cyclone of a *granite body. This vapour, which can carry
regeneration after passage over the Canadian high concentrations of Na+ in solution, rises
Rockies: as they move eastwards they bring through the granite body and reacts with the
very cold conditions, with blizzards. feldspars present in the granite, converting
Albertan A *series (501–513 Ma ago) of the them to albite which is stable under the lower
Middle *Cambrian of N. America, equivalent to temperature vapour-rich conditions. A typical
the *St David’s. reaction that partially or completely replaces
plagioclase would be: CaAl2Si2O8 + 4SiO2 +
Albian *Stage (99.6–112 Ma ago) in the 2Na+ ! 2NaAlSi3O8 + Ca2+; anorthite + quartz +
*Cretaceous, underlain by the *Aptian, and sodium (in aqueous solution) ! albite + calci-
overlain by the *Cenomanian. It is known to um (in aqueous solution). This type of reaction,
contain a great variety of *molluscs, with the where a rock simmers in its own juices, is
*gastropods in particular being useful *zonal in- termed a ‘*deuteric reaction’. Another way in
dicators between continents. The Gault and which albitization can be achieved is by the
Speeton Clays of England are Albian. reaction of ocean-floor *basalts with sea water
15 aliasing

in thermal circulation cells within the basalt Alfvén waves Magnetohydrodynamic waves
layer of the *oceanic crust. that are produced by coupling forces between the a
*geomagnetic field and highly conductive fluids.
alcove A steep-sided hollow eroded by a Alfvén waves travel along magnetic field lines
stream from an exposed rock face. when jets of highly conductive fluid or charged
particles flow across the field lines. The waves
alcrete See duricrust. were discovered by the Swedish astrophysicist
Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén (1908–95).
Aldingan A *stage (33–36 Ma ago) in the
Lower *Tertiary of south-eastern Australia, un- alga (pl. algae) Common (non-*taxonomic)
derlain by the *Johannian, overlain by the *Jan- name for a relatively simple type of plant
jukian, and roughly contemporaneous with the which is never differentiated into root, stem,
*Bartonian and *Priabonian Stages. and leaves; which contains chlorophyll a as the
primary photosynthetic pigment; which has no
alete See spore. true vascular (water-conducting) system; and in
which there is no sterile layer of cells surround-
Aleutian current (Sub-arctic current) The ing the reproductive organs. The algae range
oceanic current that flows westwards south of in form from single cells (*Protista) to plants
the Aleutian Islands and parallel to, but north of, many metres in length; algae can be found
the *N. Pacific current. The water mass is a in most habitats on Earth, although the majority
mixture of water from the *Kuroshio and *Oya- occur in freshwater or marine environments. See
shio currents. See also alaska current. bacillariophyceae; charophyceae; chloro-
phyceae; chrysophyceae; dinophyceae;
Aleutian low Region of the N. Pacific, near phaeophyceae; rhodophyceae.
the Aleutian Islands, where the average value
of atmospheric pressure is low, owing to the algal bloom Sudden growth of algae in an
frequency of low-pressure systems (cyclones) aquatic ecosystem. It can occur naturally in
moving into and occupying the region. Any spring or early summer when primary produc-
one of these systems, when present on an indi- tion exceeds consumption by aquatic herbivores
vidual day, may be called ‘an Aleutian low’. (see primary productivity). Algal blooms may
Some of them are intense, others much less so. also be induced by nutrient enrichment of waters
The term is the Pacific equivalent of ‘*Iceland due to pollution.
low’, used in the Atlantic.
algal limestone See leighton-pendexter
Aleutian Trench The oceanic *trench which classification.
marks the boundary between the *N. American
Plate and the *Pacific Plate. The *subduction of algal mat A sheet-like accumulation of blue-
the Pacific Plate changes from normal to obli- green algae (*Cyanobacteria) developed in shal-
que from west to east along the trench, with the low marine *subtidal to *supratidal environments,
boundary becoming a *transform fault before as well as in lakes and swamps. The algae cover
subduction continues in the *Kuril Trench. To- the *sediment surface, and will in turn trap sedi-
wards the eastern end of the Aleutian Trench ment to produce a laminated alternation of dark,
there is an increasingly wide *accretionary organic-rich algal layers and organic-poor sedi-
wedge, and an absence of andesitic *volcanoes. ment layers. See also stromatolite.

Alexandrian A *series of the Lower *Silurian alginite See coal maceral.

of N. America equivalent to the Lower–Middle Algonkian A *Precambrian *system (Van Ey-
*Llandovery. singa, 1975) of equivalent time period to the
*Proterozoic.
alexandrite See chrysoberyl.
aliquot 1. A portion of the total amount of
Alfisols (grey-brown podzolics) An order of a *solution. 2. A section of land divided from a
mineral soils that have *clay-enriched or *argil- larger area by measuring distances along its
lic B *horizons; are alkaline to intermediate in edges, rather than its area.
reaction, with the *base saturation in the B ho-
rizon more than 35%; are usually derived aliasing A distortion in the frequency of sam-
from base-rich parent materials; and are drier pled data produced by insufficient sampling
than 15 bars moisture potential for at least per wavelength, which can result in spurious fre-
three months when plants could grow. quencies. When the sampling rate is too low to
 Alisols 16

represent the wave-form accurately, then aliasing (sodium feldspar, albite, or Ab), and CaAl2Si2O8
a will occur. To avoid aliasing, the sampling fre- (calcium feldspar, anorthite, or An) at the three
quency should be at least twice that of the high- apices. The alkali feldspars are represented by
est-frequency component contained within the the edge of the triangle joining KAlSi3O8 and
sampled wave-form. Alternatively, an anti-alias NaAlSi3O8 and these minerals may also contain
filter can be applied, which removes frequency up to 10% by weight of the third phase (CaAl2-
components above the *Nyquist frequency. Si2O8). At high temperatures the alkali feldspars
show complete *solid solution between the po-
Alisols A reference soil group in the soil clas- tassium and sodium *end-members, but as the
sification scheme used by the *FAO. Alisols have temperature drops unmixing occurs and potas-
an argic B horizon (see argic horizon) with sium feldspar and sodium feldspar separate out
a *cation-exchange capacity of more than 24 to produce a perthitic texture. Depending upon
cmolc/kg clay and a *base saturation of less the final temperature, a range of perthites may
than 50% within 100cm of the soil surface. Ali- result, from coarse (*perthite), representing
sols have a high concentration of aluminium. perthites formed during a large drop in temper-
alkali–aggregate reaction A chemical re- ature, to fine (*microperthite), and finally to
action that can lead to damage in *concrete very fine (*cryptoperthite), representing
structures. Free lime (CaO) in *cement reacts perthites invisible to the naked eye and often
with CO2 in the atmosphere to precipitate invisible under the microscope, but observed by
CaCO3 around the cement grains. This protects *X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. If the
them from *weathering and also gives an alkalin- amount of potassium exceeds that of sodium,
ity level (*pH higher than 7.0) which helps to then potassium feldspar is the host and sodium
protect steel from corrosion. If the aggregate con- feldspar occurs within the host mineral as
tains soluble *silica, however, new minerals may *blebs, irregular patches, etc. In the alkali feld-
precipitate by reaction between the aggregate and spars, perthitic textures occur in the composi-
the cement. These may absorb water, causing the tional range Or85Ab15 to Or15Ab85 (or Or85 to
concrete to swell and eventually crack. Water en- Or15). K-feldspar (KAlSi3O8) is the general
tering these cracks may cause rusting of reinforce- name for the *monoclinic, potassium-rich end-
ment bars and repeated wetting and drying may member: sp. gr. 2.6; *hardness 6; white, some-
eventually destroy a structure. times with a reddish tint; *vitreous *lustre; crys-
talline, *prismatic, with simple twins (see
alkali basalt A fine-grained, dark-coloured, crystal twinning). It is an *essential constitu-
volcanic rock characterized by *phenocrysts of ent of *acid *igneous rocks and *arkoses and
*olivine, titanium-rich *augite, *plagioclase, and is used in the manufacture of glazes, porcelain,
iron oxides. For similar SiO2 concentrations, al- and pottery. Microcline has the same physical
kali basalts have a higher content of Na2O and properties and composition as orthoclase, but is
K2O than other *basalt types such as *tholeiites. *triclinic and is characterized by ‘cross-hatched’
They are also characterized by the development twinning. It is greyish-white, but bright green in
of *modal *nepheline in their *groundmass (only the variety known as ‘amazonstone’ (‘amazon-
seen with the highest powered lens on a petro- ite’). Anorthoclase is very similar to microcline,
logical microscope) and normative nepheline but the amount of sodium exceeds that of potas-
(Ne) in their *CIPW norms. Alkali basalts are sium. Crystal twinning is common particularly
typically found on updomed and rifted *conti- along the *pericline and albite laws. Sanidine
nental crust, and on oceanic islands such as is the high-temperature variety of orthoclase
Hawaii and Ascension Island. and the inversion temperature is at 900  C. It
occurs in quickly cooled lavas. Adularia is a vari-
alkalic See alkaline. ety of microcline, but with up to 10% sodium
substituting for potassium. It may show an opal-
alkali-calcic series See calc-alkaline. escent play of colours to give a variety known as
alkalic series See calc-alkaline. ‘moonstone’. Albite (NaAlSi3O8) is the sodium-
rich end-member of both the alkali feldspars and
alkali feldspar A group of *silicate minerals the *plagioclase feldspars. The semi-precious
that contain the alkali metal elements potassi- moonstone, with its characteristic bluish sheen
um and sodium. The normal feldspar minerals or *schiller, is an example of a perthitic alkali
(including the calcium-bearing varieties) can be feldspar.
plotted on a chemical basis into a triangle which
has KAlSi3O8 (potassium feldspar, sanidine, alkaline (alkalic) 1. Having a *pH greater
orthoclase (Or), or microcline), NaAlSi3O8 than 7.0. 2. See alkaline rock.
17 allochthonous terrane

alkaline rock *Igneous rock containing a rel- allelomorph Term that is commonly short-
atively high concentration of the alkali (lithium, ened to ‘*allele’. a
sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and
francium) and alkaline earth metals (magne- Allen’s rule A corollary to *Bergmann’s rule
sium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium). and *Gloger’s rule, holding that a race of warm-
Both silica-saturated and silica-undersaturated blooded species in a cold climate typically has
varieties exist, expressed in the presence of *al- shorter protruding body parts (nose, ears, tail,
kali feldspars and *feldspathoids respectively. and legs) relative to body size than another race
Alkali *ferromagnesian minerals are usually pre- of the same species in a warm climate. This is
sent, and their identity depends on the compo- because long protruding parts emit more body
sition of the rock. Igneous rocks of the alkaline heat, and so are disadvantageous in a cool
suite span the composition range from *basic to environment, but advantageous in a warm en-
*acid, and may be *intrusive or *extrusive. vironment. The idea is disputed, critics pointing
to many other adaptations for heat conservation
alkaline soil Soil with a *pH greater than which probably are more important, notably fat
7.0. Degrees of soil alkalinity are recognized. layers, feathers, fur, and behavioural adapta-
The *USDA lists soils with pH 7.4–7.8 as mildly tions to avoid extreme temperatures.
alkaline; 7.9–8.4 as moderately alkaline; 8.5–9.0
as strongly alkaline; and more than 9.0 as very Allerød Late glacial (i.e. late *Devensian) peri-
strongly alkaline. Soil is not regarded as highly od marking a prolonged warmer oscillation
alkaline unless the reaction is between 8.0 and or *interstadial during the general phase of ice
10.0. The full range of the pH scale (0–14) is not retreat in NW Europe. *Radiocarbon dating sug-
used in soils, as the reaction of most soils is gests it lasted from about 12 000 BP to 10 800 BP.
between pH 3.5 and pH 10.0. A *base saturation Pollen records for the NW European area indi-
of 100% indicates a pH of about 7.0 or higher. cate a cool temperate flora with birch (Betula
species) widespread, in marked contrast to the
alkaliphile An *extremophile (domain *Ar- preceding and following, colder, *Dryas, phases.
chaea) that thrives in environments where the
allochem The collective term for particles
*pH is above 9.0.
(grains) which form the framework in mechan-
allanite (orthite) *Mineral, with the formula ically deposited *limestones. In the limestone
(Ca,Ce,Y,La,Th)2(AlFe)3Si3O12(OH); sp. gr.3.4– classification of *Folk, allochems are often
4.2; *hardness 5.0–6.5; *monoclinic; light found together with a *carbonate mud *matrix
brown to black; pitchy to *sub-metallic *lustre; (*micrite) and may subsequently have *pore
faintly radioactive; *crystals normally *prismat- spaces filled by sparry *calcite *cement (*spar-
ic, often *tabular, sometimes *massive; *cleav- ite). Common allochems include skeletal frag-
age imperfect {001}; often occurs as an ments (*bioclasts), *ooids, *peloids, and
*accessory mineral in granitic rocks, *syenites, *intraclasts.
*gneisses, and *skarns.
allochemical A *limestone defined by the
Alleghanian orogeny A phase of mountain *Folk classification as comprising *allochems
building, that began in the Early *Carboniferous with either a sparry *calcite *cement (*sparite),
and was completed by the end of the *Permian, or a *microcrystalline *calcite (*micrite) *matrix.
caused by the collision between N. America and Limestones lacking allochems are defined by
Africa. It formed part of the general WSW to Folk’s classification of limestones as *ortho-
ENE *Hercynian belt. The orogeny affected the chemical limestones or *autochthonous *reef
Lower *Palaeozoic *basement and Lower Perm- rocks.
ian strata along the western margin of the allochthon A body of rock that has been
southern and central parts of the Appalachian transported to its present position, usually over
Mountains extending from what is now Penn- a considerable distance. See allochthonous.
sylvania to Alabama, with effects as far north as
New Brunswick and Newfoundland. See appa- allochthonous Not indigenous; acquired. In
lachian orogenic belt. the Earth sciences the term is applied to geolog-
ic units that originated at a distance from their
allele Common shortening of the term ‘allelo- present position. Such displacement may be
morph’. One of two or more forms of a *gene due to lateral thrusting and overfolding, or to
arising by mutation and occupying the same gravity gliding. Compare autochthonous.
relative position (locus) on homologous *chro-
mosomes. allochthonous terrane See terrane.
 alloclast 18

alloclast A *clast produced by subterranean, food, shelter, or other resources usually de-
a igneous processes that break up pre-existing crease (i.e. the characteristics converge). The
volcanic rocks. Compare autoclast; epiclast; process is called character displacement and
hydroclast. may be morphological or ecological.

allocyclic mechanisms Events responsible allophane (kandite) *Clay mineral of the

for the accumulation of sediments that are *kaolinite group, Al2Si2O5(OH)2; whitish; amor-
external to the sedimentary system itself (e.g. phous, non-crystalline; occurs along *faults or
sea-level changes, tectonic activity, or climate). *joint planes in a variety of rocks.
Compare autocyclic mechanisms.
allostratigraphic units Allogroups, allo-
allodapic Applied to materials deposited by formations, and allomembers; these are sub-
turbidity (see turbidity current) or *mass divisions of sedimentary structures that are the
flow, particularly used in relation to *limestones subject of *allostratigraphy.
deposited by mass flow.
allostratigraphy The study of sedimentary
alloformation See allostratigraphic units. strata that can be defined and identified from
the discontinuities bounding them, and that
allogenic Applied to minerals, or other com- can be mapped.
ponents of a rock, that have been derived from
pre-existing rocks and transported some dis- allotriomorphic See anhedral.
tance to form part of the present unit; e.g.
*quartz grains in a *sandstone. Compare authi- allotrope See allotropy.
genic.
allotropy The property of some chemical
allogenic stream Stream originating outside elements existing in two or more forms, called
a particular area and whose continuation is in- allotropes. For example, dioxygen (O2) and
consistent with its new surroundings. Type ex- ozone (O3) are allotropes of oxygen.
amples are the Nile and Indus, whose discharges
are sufficient to carry them through arid regions, allowable bearing pressure The *bearing
and the European Neretva, which is large en- capacity that takes account of both the weight
ough to pass over permeable limestone. of the built structure and the strength of the
geological structure beneath the foundation to
allogroup See allostratigraphic units. ensure that geological deformation and the set-
tlement of the building remain within limits
allomember See allostratigraphic units. the building can tolerate. The allowable bearing
allometry Differential rate of growth such that capacity (qa) is always equal to or less than the
the size of one part (or more) of the body changes *safe bearing capacity (qs).
in proportion to another part, or to the whole alluvial Applied to the environments, action,
body, but at a constant exponential rate. For ex- and products of rivers or streams. Alluvial de-
ample, the antlers of the extinct Irish elk (Mega- posits (alluvium) are *clastic, *detrital materials
loceros giganteus), the largest of all deer, grew 2.5 transported by a stream or river and deposited
times faster than the rest of its body to reach an as the river floodplain. The term is also applied
adult span of up to 3.5 m in the largest individuals. to surface flow, as in *alluvial fans, *bajadas, etc.
Allometry may in other cases be negative, leading
to comparatively smaller parts. alluvial cone See alluvial fan.
allopatric speciation Formation of new alluvial fan (alluvial cone) Mass of sedi-
*species from the ancestral species as a result ment deposited at some point along a stream
of the geographic separation or fragmentation of course at which there is a sharp decrease in
the breeding population. Genetic divergence gradient, e.g. between a mountain range and
in the newly isolated daughter populations ulti- a plain. Essentially, a fan is the terrestrial equiv-
mately leads to new species; divergence may be alent of a river-delta formation.
gradual or, according to punctuationist models,
very rapid. See also punctuated equilibrium. alluvium An *alluvial deposit.
allopatry The occurrence of *species in dif- almandine Member of the *garnet group of
ferent geographic regions. When closely related *minerals, Fe3Al2(SiO4)3; sp. gr. 4.25; *hardness
species are separated, differences between 6.5–7.5; *cubic; red, brown-red, or black; greasy
them that minimized their competition for to vitreous *lustre; most common *crystals are
19 altocumulus

dodecahedra, and many are irregular grains; from yellow-orange to a rosy pink, which finally
widely distributed in *metamorphic and *igneous becomes purplish. The same series of colours in a
rocks, and in beach *sands and *placers. Trans- reverse order is seen on mountains in the west
parent crystals are used as *gemstones, and the at sunrise.
mineral is useful in general as an abrasive.
Alpine–Himalayan orogeny Period of
alnöite An *intrusive, *basic, *igneous, *carbo- mountain building that affected both northern
natite rock, distinctive in possessing primary and southern margins of the ancient *Tethyan
*calcite, and consisting of *melilite (⅓); *biotite ocean. It began in the *Triassic, but reached its
(⅓); and *pyroxene, calcite, and *olivine (⅓). high point during the Late *Oligocene and *Mio-
*Feldspar is not present in the rock, its place cene. The Alps are an obvious testament to this
being taken by the mineral melilite which has orogeny, while the gentle folds of northern
the general formula: X2YZ2O7; where X = Ca, Na; France, and the Weald and London Basin in
Y = Mg, Al; Z = Si, Al. The type location for this England, reflect its outer effects.
rock is Alnö island off the coast of Sweden.
Alportian The final stage (318.1–324.5 Ma
alpha decay Certain radionuclides (radioac- ago) of the *Serpukhovian epoch, underlain by
tive *nuclides) decay by the spontaneous emis- the *Chokierian.
sion of alpha particles from their nuclei. The
alpha particle is composed of two protons and alteration A change produced in a rock
two neutrons and has a charge of +2. It also has by chemical or physical action.
an appreciable mass and its ejection from the alteration halo A border of minerals pro-
nuclide creates a certain amount of recoil ener- duced by *hydrothermal *alteration in the rock
gy in the nucleus. The total energy (Ex) created surrounding a *vein.
by alpha decay is, therefore, the sum of the
kinetic energy of the particle, the recoil energy alternating current The current output,
given to the new *nucleus and the total energy with a sinusoidal wave-form, from an alternator
of any emitted *gamma rays. See also radioac- or dynamo.
tive decay.
alternating-magnetic-field demagne-
alpha diversity Diversity among members tization (AF demagnetization, thermal
of a species within a single population. cleaning) A common method for demagnetiz-
ing (see demagnetization) rock samples that
alpha-mesohaline water See halinity. is widely used in *palaeomagnetism and *ar-
chaeomagnetism because of its simplicity and
alpha–proton–X-ray spectrometer because it produces no chemical change in the
(APXS) A set of instruments carried on Russian samples. It can cause problems associated with
*Vega and *Phobos missions and by Sojourner, *anhysteretic and *rotational remanences, and
the rover vehicle carried on the 1997 *Mars is only fully suitable for *magnetite-bearing rock
Pathfinder mission, that measures the elemen- samples.
tal chemistry of surface materials. The sensor
head of the instrument contains curium, as a altiplanation Process of relief reduction or
source of alpha particles, an alpha particle de- planation (i.e. the smoothing of the surface)
tector, a proton detector, and an X-ray detector. under periglacial conditions. Two mechanisms
The head is placed in contact with a sample are involved: destruction of upstanding relief
and remains there for 10 hours. Alpha particles features by *gelifraction or *nivation, and accu-
of known energy bombard the sample. Scat- mulation of debris in depressions or as terraces.
tered alpha particles, protons from alpha– In many areas only partial altiplanation has
proton reactions, and X-rays produced by exci- been achieved, with the emergence of altiplana-
tation by the alpha particles of the atomic struc- tion terraces, such as those of Cox Tor on Dart-
ture of the sample are measured by the moor, England.
detectors. The energy spectrum of detections
by all three instruments is then recorded and altocumulus From the Latin altum (height)
transmitted to Earth. and cumulus (heap). A genus of cloud com-
posed largely of water droplets, and consisting
alpine glow At sunset, beginning as the of grey-white sheets, or banded layers and rolls,
Sun nears the horizon, mountains exposed to which may also be broken up into cells. Some-
direct sunlight in the east, particularly if snow- times it has a banded appearance, occasionally
covered, assume a series of colours changing giving a mackerel-sky effect; this is probably
 Altonian 20

associated with strong vertical wind shear in brown in colour. It is found in *sediments or on
a middle altitudes. See also cloud classifica- the shore and takes a fine polish.
tion.
ambient pressure Atmospheric pressure
Altonian A *stage (16.5–17.5 Ma ago) in the in the surrounding air.
Upper *Tertiary of New Zealand, underlain
by the *Otaian, overlain by the *Cliffdenian, ambient temperature The dry-bulb
and roughly contemporaneous with the upper temperature prevailing in the surrounding air.
*Burdigalian Stage.
ambitus The outline or edge of an echinoid
altostratus From the Latin altum (height) (*Echinoidea) when seen from above or below.
and stratus (spread out). A genus of cloud con- Usually it is the place where the *plates of the
sisting of greyish sheets or layers; the cloud may *test are at their widest.
be striated, fibrous, or uniform. It may be com-
posed of ice crystals as well as water droplets. ambulacral Applied to those areas of the
See also cloud classification. body of an *echinoderm that bear *tube feet.

alumstone See alunite. ambulacral groove See ambulacrum.

alunite (alumstone) *Mineral, KAl3(SO4)2 ambulacrum (amb) In *Echinodermata, an

(OH)6; sp. gr. 2.6–2.8; *hardness 3.5–4.0; *trigonal; area of the body surface (covered in most clas-
white, sometimes grey to reddish; white *streak; ses by calcitic (see calcite) *plates), that over-
*vitreous *lustre; *crystals rare, *habit *massive; lies one of the radial canals of the internal water
*cleavage basal {0001}, distinct; *fracture uneven, vascular system, and bears the *tube feet. In
*conchoidal; slightly astringent taste. Occurs as a some echinoderms, e.g. Asteroidea, *Blastoidea,
*secondary mineral in volcanic rocks containing and *Crinoidea, the ambulacrum is marked by a
potassic *feldspars altered by sulphuric-acid solu- deep linear depression, the ambulacral groove.
tions. It is difficult to distinguish from *dolomite, Typically, echinoderms have five ambulacral
*anhydrite, and *magnesite. areas, or a multiple of five. See echinoidea.
alveolus See belemnitida. ambulacrum
ambulacral
A/m See amperes per metre. spine

Amalthea (Jupiter V) The jovian satellite

with the closest orbit to Jupiter. Its surface col-
our is reddish, apparently because of sulphur
emitted from *Io. Its diameter is 189 km (262 
mouth
146  134 km), the irregular shape suggesting a
rigid body. Its mass is 7.17  1018 kg; mean
distance from Jupiter 181 000 km. It radiates
more heat than it receives from the Sun.
ambulacral
groove
Amarassian See kazanian; tatarian.
Amazonian A division of *areological time,
lasting from 1.80 Gy to the present in the Hart-
mann–Tanaka Model and 3.55 Gy to the present Ambulacrum
in the Neukum–Wise Model, and divided into
three epochs: Lower Amazonian (1.80–0.70 or Ambulocetus natans The most completely
3.55–2.50 Gy); Middle Amazonian (0.70–0.25 or known early cetacean, described in 1994 by
2.50–0.70 Gy); and Upper Amazonian (0.25–0.00 J. G. M. Thewissen, S. T. Hussain, and M. Arif,
or 0.70–0.00 Gy). from Lower to Middle *Eocene beds in Pakistan.
It is known by parts from most of the skeleton,
amazonite See alkali feldspar. showing that it had a long neck, relatively long
amazonstone See alkali feldspar. hind limbs, and five separate (hoofed) digits
on each limb. It was the size of a sea lion.
amb See ambulacrum.
amensalism An interaction of species popu-
amber Fossil conifer resin which is brittle and lations, in which one population is inhibited
hard, translucent to transparent, and yellow to while the other (the amensal) is unaffected.
21 Amphibia

American Geophysical Union (AGU) complex patterns; the ceratites, in which part of
A society with approximately 35 000 members the suture line is frilled; and the goniatites, with a
that was founded in 1919 and is based in Wash- relatively simple suture lines. They range in
ington, DC. It is the leading academic body for age from *Devonian to Upper *Cretaceous. All
geophysicists. members are now extinct. See also aperture;
aptychus; foramen; phragmocone; venter.
American Institute of Professional
Geologists (AIPG) The body that certifies ammonoids See ammonoidea.
professional geologists in the United States,
based on their competence, integrity, and ethi- amnion See amniotic.
cal standards. The AIPG presents testimony and
amniotic Applied to a type of development
position papers to legislators and agencies at
typical of higher *vertebrates (*reptiles, *birds,
federal and state level on matters pertaining to
and *mammals), in which the amnion (a pro-
the interests and employment opportunities of
tective membrane) surrounds the embryo in a
geologists. Through its contacts with equivalent
bag of (‘amniotic’) fluid. Evolutionarily, the am-
bodies in other countries, the AIPG provides
nion is *primitively associated with a shell and is
American geologists with access to professional
capable of gaseous exchange; its development
registration in those countries.
thus enabled eggs to be laid on dry land for the
American Province See pacific province. first time in vertebrate evolution. Compare
anamniotic.
Amersfoort An *interstadial in the last *gla-
ciation of the Netherlands during the early *De- Amontons’ laws of friction Leonardo da
vensian (somewhere between 60 000 and 70 000 Vinci (1452–1519) investigated the phenome-
Ma). The July temperature (based on floral evi- non of *friction and the conclusions he reached
dence) was perhaps 15–20  C. were eventually discovered and formalized
by the French physicist and inventor Guillaume
amesite See chamosite. Amontons (1663–1705) as two laws:
1. The force of friction is directly proportional
amethyst See quartz. to the applied load;
2. The force of friction is independent of the
amino acid Organic compound containing apparent area of contact (i.e. if two bodies of
an acidic carboxyl (COOH) group and a basic equal mass and made from similar material
amino (NH2) group. They constitute the funda- are both in contact with the same third body,
mental building blocks of peptides and proteins the same amount of force will be required to
and are classified either (a) as neutral, basic, move them across the surface of the third body
or acidic (according to their *pH), or (b) as regardless of differences in the area of contact).
non-polar, polar, or charged (according to
their electrical configuration). amorphous cloud Continuous cover of low,
featureless cloud (e.g. *nimbostratus), often
amino group The chemical group -NH2. producing rain.
ammonites Family of *Ammonoidea. amosite See anthophyllite; asbestos.
Ammonoidea (ammonoids) (phylum *Mol- amperes per metre (A/m) The SI unit of
lusca, class *Cephalopoda) Subclass of cephalo-
magnetic moment per unit volume. 1 A/m = 103
pods which generally have *planispirally coiled,
gauss.
septate shells (see septum). Characteristically
the shells are tightly coiled and planispiral, al- Ampferer subduction See a-subduction.
though some are coiled loosely or spirally; the
*protoconch is globular; the shells may be either Amphibia (amphibians) Class that appeared
*involute or *evolute. Some forms have marked first in the *Devonian, having evolved from rhi-
*ventral *keels; ribs and nodes may also be pre- pidistian (lobe-finned) fish (see rhipidistia).
sent. The *siphuncle is variable but mainly ven- They flourished in the *Carboniferous and
tral in position. *Sutures are often very complex. *Permian. During the *Triassic some forms,
*Camaral deposits are absent. The Ammonoi- e.g. Mastodontosaurus, grew to 6 m long, and
dea were probably tetrabranchiate (four-gilled) the first modern types were established. Today
cephalopods. They constitute the largest ceph- the amphibians are represented by just three
alopod subclass, with 163 families including the groups, of which the Urodela (salamanders)
ammonites, in which the suture lines form very and Anura (frogs and toads) are the best
 amphibians 22

known (the third group, the caecilians (Apoda), (*plagioclase)–*hornblende in rocks of *basic
a are worm-like and burrowing). Most amphib- *igneous composition. Other rocks of contrast-
ians are found in damp environments and they ing composition, e.g. *shales or *limestones,
occur on all continents except Antarctica. would each develop their own specific mineral
assemblage, even though they are all being
amphibians See amphibia. metamorphosed under the same conditions.
The variation of mineral assemblage with
amphiboles A group of *minerals possessing
starting rock composition reflects a particular
double chains of silicon–oxygen [SiO4] tetrahe-
range of pressure, temperature, and P(H2O)
dra with a composition of [Si4O11]n running par-
conditions. Experimental studies of mineral
allel to the *crystallographic axis; i.e. parallel to
P–T stability fields indicate that the facies rep-
the *prism zone of a crystal. The double chains
resents a range of moderate-pressure, moder-
are held together by monovalent, divalent,
ate-to high-temperature conditions.
or trivalent cations, of which Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+,
Fe2+, Al3+, and Fe3+ are the most important; amphicoelous Applied to the condition in
hydroxyl ions also occur. There are three main which the central part of each *vertebra (the
groups of amphibole minerals: centrum) is concave on both anterior and pos-
(a) calcium-poor amphiboles with the gener- terior faces. Compare heterocoelus.
al formula X2Y5[Z4O11]2(OH,F)2, where X = Mg
or Fe2+, Y = Mg, Fe2+, Fe3+, Al3+, etc., and Z = Si Amphicyonidae See carnivora.
or Al; (b) the calcium-rich amphiboles with the
general formula AX2Y5[Z4O11]2(OH,F)2, where amphidetic Applied to a bivalve (*Bivalvia)
A = Na, X = Ca, Y = Mg, Fe2+, Fe3+, Al, etc., and ligament located around the *umbones in both
Z = Si or Al; and (c) the alkali amphiboles in anterior and posterior areas. Compare opistho-
which Na > Ca and with the general formula detic.
AX2Y5[Z4O11]2(OH,F)2, where A = Na or K, X = amphidromic point The centre of an amphi-
Na (or Na and Ca), Y = Mg, Fe2+, Fe3+, Al, etc., dromic or tidal system; a no-tide or nodal point
and Z = Si or Al. Calcium-poor amphiboles around which the crest of a standing wave or a
include the *orthorhombic amphiboles (called high-water level rotates once in each tidal cycle.
the orthoamphiboles) and include *anthophyl- The tidal range increases progressively with in-
lite and gedrite, but the other two groups are creasing distance from the central point. The high
*monoclinic and include the common *horn- water rotates anticlockwise around the central
blendes *tremolite and *actinolite, as well as point in the northern hemisphere and clockwise
the sodium-rich varieties such as *glaucophane in the southern hemisphere.
and *riebeckite. Amphiboles are common rock-
forming silicate minerals that occur in *interme- Amphineura (phylum *Mollusca) Class of
diate and *alkaline *igneous rocks and also in elongate, bilaterally symmetrical, marine mol-
many regional *metamorphic rock types. luscs, first appearing in the Upper *Cambrian, in
which the shell, if present, consists of seven
amphibolite A medium-grained, dark- or eight overlapping, calcareous plates on the
coloured, regional *metamorphic rock com- dorsal surface. The class comprises the *Poly-
posed of *hornblende and *plagioclase with placophora (chitons), and the Aplacophora
minor *epidote, *sphene, *biotite, and *quartz. which have no fossil record.
The rock may show a well-developed planar or
linear alignment of elongate hornblende crys- amphitheatre Flat-topped, steep-walled de-
tals as a result of suffering deformation at the pression, shaped like a horseshoe and resem-
same time as *regional metamorphism. These bling an ancient Greek theatre. It may be the
alignments define *fabrics within the rock result of glacial erosion, forming a *cirque, or
known as *schistosity and *lineation respective- the collapse of a volcano. In the case of Mount
ly. Amphibolites are formed by medium-grade St Helens, the catastrophic collapse of the sum-
*metamorphism of *basic *igneous rocks such mit and northern slopes of the cone and the
as *basalts, both *extrusive and *intrusive types. subsequent *pyroclastic flow eruption on 18
May 1980 created a north-facing amphitheatre
amphibolite facies A set of metamorphic enclosing a small active vent, later occupied by
*mineral assemblages produced by the *meta- a small *dacite dome.
morphism of a wide range of starting rock
types under the same metamorphic conditions amplitude 1. Of a *fold, the height of the
and typically characterized by the develop- maximum displacement of a folded layer mea-
ment of the mineral assemblage andesine sured from a median trace which passes
23 anamniotic

through the *inflexion points of adjacent limbs. analcime (analcite) *Mineral, Na(AlSi2O6)
2. Of a wave, the distance between the highest H2O; sp. gr. 2.2–2.3; *hardness 5.0–5.5; *cubic; a
point of the wave and the position of zero can be colourless or white, with grey, red, and
displacement. greenish tints, sometimes pigmented with iron
oxides; *vitreous *lustre; *crystals polyhedra and
ampulla An inflatable sac at the end of each tetragonal trioctahedra, also found in granular
*tube-foot in the echinoids (*Echinoidea). It aggregates; *cleavage poor, cubic; occurs in
controls water pressure in the tube-foot when rocks of low-temperature *igneous origin that
the muscles in its walls are contracted. are rich in soda and water (e.g. *nepheline sye-
nites), and also volcanic *tuffs.
amygdale (amygdule; adj. amygdaloidal)
Spheroidal, ellipsoidal, or (literally) ‘almond- analcite See analcime.
shaped’ cavity or *vesicle within a *lava, filled
with secondary minerals, e.g. *calcite, *quartz, analcite-basanite See basanite.
or *zeolites.
analcitite An *igneous rock in which the
abundant *plagioclases have been replaced by
amygdaloidal See amygdale.
the *mineral *analcime during late-stage deuteric
amygdule See amygdale. activity (see deuteric reaction). *Magma-de-
rived, late-stage aqueous fluids penetrate along
An See alkali feldspar. *cleavages and *fractures in primary plagioclase
within the crystalline rock body and react with it,
anabatic wind A wind that blows up a slope, converting the plagioclase to analcime which is
often gently, and usually when the sloping stable in the presence of a late-stage fluid.
ground surface has been warmed by the Sun.
Compare katabatic wind. analog data (analogue data) Data which
are recorded continuously, as opposed to digital
anabranching channel A type of *distribu- data which are recorded by discrete (digital)
tary river channel that separates from its trunk sampling.
stream and may flow parallel to it for several analogous structures Features with
kilometres before rejoining it. The anabranch- similar functions which have developed inde-
ing channel remains undivided, and so differs pendently in unrelated taxonomic groups, in
from an anastomosing channel which has major response to a similar way of life, or similar
distributaries that branch and then rejoin it. method of locomotion, or similar food source,
etc. Thus the wings of birds and insects are
anacline A common condition of the inter-
analogous.
area in a strophic brachiopod (*Brachiopoda)
shell. It describes the situation where the inter- analogue image In *remote sensing, an
area is at an angle of less than 90 to the plane of image in which continuous variation in the
*commissure. Compare apsacline. scene being sensed is represented by continu-
ous variation in image tone, such as the image
anaerobic 1. Of an environment: one in produced from photosensitive chemicals in
which air (oxygen) is absent. In the case of a a photographic film. Compare digital image.
depositional environment, one with 0.0–0.1 ml
of dissolved oxygen per litre of water. Compare analyser A piece of *Polaroid in a transmit-
aerobic; dysaerobic. 2. Of an organism: one ted- or *reflected-light microscope which may
able to grow only in the absence of oxygen, i.e. be inserted into the light path above the *min-
an anaerobe. 3. Of a process: one that can occur eral section. When the analyser is out of the
only in the absence of oxygen. path of light through the microscope observa-
tions are made in *plane-polarized light (PPL);
anafront Front (warm or cold) at which there when the analyser is in the path of light, obser-
is upward movement of the warm-sector air, vations are made in crossed polarized light, or
commonly producing clouds and precipitation. *crossed polars (crossed nicols, xpols, or XPL).
Compare katafront. See nicol prism.
anagenesis In the original sense, refers to anamniotic Applied to a type of development
evolutionary advance. Now it is often applied typical of lower *vertebrates (*fish and *amphib-
more widely, to virtually all sorts of evolutionary ians). The egg lacks a shell and protective em-
change, along a single, unbranching lineage. bryonic membranes: consequently it must be
 Ananke 24

laid in water or in a suitably damp environment. be extracted from the partially molten rock system,
a Compare amniotic. or can remain within the system. Typical examples
of anatexis would be the generation of granitic
Ananke (Jupiter XII) One of the lesser satel- melts (see granite) by partially melting alumi-
lites of *Jupiter, with a diameter of 20 km; its nous crustal rocks, and the generation of *basalts
orbit is *retrograde. by partially melting *mantle *peridotite.
Anapsida Group of *reptiles characterized by Anatolepis heintzi Possibly one of the
a skull that lacks apertures in the temple regions earliest jawless fish, known from a number of
behind the eyes. This was the condition in the associated scales and fragments discovered in
earliest reptiles, the *Cotylosauria or ‘stem rep- Lower *Ordovician (*Arenig) strata at Spitzbergen.
tiles’. Four groups flourished in the late *Palaeo-
zoic: the *Captorhinomorpha; the *Mesosauria; anchialine Applied to flooded caves lying
the *Pareiasauridae; and the *Procolophonia, deep below the ground surface. They form in
which survived into the *Triassic. The only liv- limestone environments and from volcanic
ing representatives are the turtles (Chelonia). tubes.
anchimetamorphism A *metamorphic
grade in sedimentary rocks where changes due
to *diagenesis are overtaken by the very earliest
po phases of *metamorphism.
sq
anchor 1. Rock anchors are long bolts or ca-
bles with one end *grouted into a *drill hole and
with a plate and nut on the exposed end. These
can carry considerable *loads, although slow
*failure of the rock will lessen the support.
sq = squamosal 2. Soil anchors may be used in sediments
po = post orbital
where the material is strong enough to provide
Anapsida sufficient reaction to the load. Holes must be
drilled and the anchor installed and grouted
Anaspida (anaspids) (superclass *Agnatha) quickly, as soil around the hole may crumble
Extinct order of fish-like *vertebrates. The body, and reduce the strength of the bond.
including the head region, was covered in der-
mal scales (see dermal bone), and was less ancient biomolecule Any molecule pro-
flattened than in the *Osteostraci. The tail was duced by an organism during its lifetime which
hypocercal (tilting downwards). Anaspids were persists post mortem. Identification and charac-
small (up to 15 cm in length). Genera included terization of an ancient biomolecule may
Jaymoytius, Pharyngolepis, and Pterygolepis. allow inferences to be drawn about the organ-
Anaspids ranged from the Late *Silurian to the ism in which it was produced, i.e. the type of
Late *Devonian. organism or evolutionary relationships. The
types of molecule studied include nucleic
anastomosing channel See anabranch- acids, lipids, proteins, and complex polysaccha-
ing channel. rides such as lignin.
anatase (octahedrite) *Mineral, TiO2; sp. gr. Ancient Cratered Terrain See martian
3.9, *hardness 5.5–6.0; *tetragonal; yellow, or terrain units.
shades of brown, blue, or black; white *streak;
*vitreous *lustre; *crystals normally *bipyramidal andalusite (chiastolite) A member of the
octahedra, but sometimes *tabular; *cleavage per- Al2SiO5 (or Al2O3.SiO2) group of *polymorphic
fect, basal, and *pyramidal; occurs as an *acces- minerals; the other members of this group are
sory mineral in *metamorphic and *igneous *kyanite and *sillimanite. The mineral *mullite
rocks, also in *hydrothermal veins and *granite (3Al2O3.2SiO2) is related to this group of min-
*pegmatites. erals; sp. gr. 3.2; *hardness 6.5–7.5; *orthorhom-
bic; pink or red, sometimes grey-brown and
anatexis The partial or incomplete melting of green, transparent varieties used as *gemstones;
a rock in response to an increase in temperature *vitreous *lustre; *crystals *prismatic with a
(at constant pressure), or a drop in pressure pseudo-tetragonal form which has a character-
(at constant temperature). Melting takes place istic cross-section, can also be *massive; *cleav-
along grain boundaries, and the *melt can either age at right angles, distinct {110}; occurs
25 angle of draw

principally in thermally *metamorphosed rocks dodecahedral; occurs widely in *metamorphic and

that show alteration to aggregates of white *mica, *igneous rocks often as a result of *metasomatism, a
in low-grade, regionally metamorphosed rocks, also in beach *sands and *alluvial *placers. Trans-
and also in *granites and *pegmatites together parent crystals are used as *gemstones, and the
with *corundum, *tourmaline, *topaz, and other mineral can be used as an abrasive.
minerals. The name is derived from Andalusia in
Spain. anemometer An instrument for measuring
the speed of flow in a fluid. Meteorological ane-
Andean orogenic belt Part of the active mometers measure wind speed. Most do so either
Cordillera Mountain Belt on the eastern margin from the rotation of a wind-driven turbine (‘rotat-
of the Pacific Ocean, the Andes extend approx- ing cups anemometer’) or from the wind pressure
imately 10 000 km from the Caribbean Sea through a tube aligned by a vane to point into the
to the Scotia Sea. They developed during the wind (‘pressure-tube anemometer’).
*Mesozoic and *Cenozoic Eras, largely as a re-
sult of the *subduction of normal oceanic *lith- anemometry The measurement of the speed
osphere. Unlike the N. American Cordillera, of flow in a fluid.
very few *allochthonous *terranes have been
recognized, and there have been no collisions aneroid barometer Instrument for measur-
of major continental masses as in the Hima- ing atmospheric pressure as represented by
layas. These differences have led to the concept the height (or thickness) of a sealed, flexible,
of a distinctive ‘Andean-type orogeny’. metal, concertina-shaped drum from which air
has been partially evacuated. Variations in the
andesine See plagioclase feldspar. height of the drum are transmitted to a pressure
scale either mechanically, through a series of
andesite Fine-grained volcanic rock (named levers and a pointer, or electronically.
after the Andes mountains) characterized by the
presence of *plagioclase feldspars of the *oligo- Angara A continental mass of Asia, China, and
clase–*andesine end of the range, and of some the Far East that existed during the *Palaeozoic.
combination of *augite, *orthopyroxene, and In the latest Palaeozoic it became joined to
*hornblende. In chemical and mineralogical *Euramerica along the line of the present Ural
terms andesites are similar to *diorites. The feld- Mountains.
spars frequently occur as strongly zoned *pheno-
crysts. Glassy andesites are rare. An increase in the Angaraland Name given by the Austrian
*quartz percentage marks the gradation of andes- geologist Eduard *Suess (1831–1914) to a
ites into *dacites. An increase in the percentages of small *shield in north-central Siberia, where
*alkali feldspars marks the change from andesites *Precambrian rocks are exposed, and which
into trachyandesites, some of which (e.g. mu- was considered to be the nucleus for subse-
gearite and hawaiite) exhibit basaltic features, in- quently developed structural features in Asia.
cluding a higher *olivine content. See basalt. angiophyte A plant belonging to the evolu-
andhis Local term, used in the north-west of tionary line leading to the *angiosperms. Angio-
the Indian subcontinent, for dust storms accom- phytes may have begun to diversify in the Late
panying violent squalls, caused by strong con- *Triassic, become rarer during the *Jurassic, but
vection. radiated vigorously in the Early *Cretaceous.

andic horizon A *soil horizon containing angiosperm A flowering plant, distinguished

weathered *pyroclastic deposits. by producing seeds that are enclosed fully by
fruits. Angiosperms are the most highly evolved
Andino-type margin See active margin. of plants, and appear first in rocks of Lower
*Cretaceous age. All of them are included in
Andosols A reference soil group in the classi- the division Anthophyta.
fication used by the *FAO, comprising volcanic
soils with a *vitric horizon at a depth of more Angiospermae (*angiosperm) One of the
than 30 cm or an *andic horizon within 25 cm of two divisions of the *Spermatophyta (seed
the surface. plants), the other being the Gymnospermae. In
modern classifications the Angiospermae are
andradite Member of the *garnet group of called Anthophyta.
*minerals, Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3; sp. gr. 3.75; *hardness
6.5–7.5; *cubic; yellow, greenish, or brownish-red, angle of draw The angle between the end of
to black; greasy to *vitreous *lustre; most *crystals an underground working and the point on the
 angle of incidence 26

ground surface to which *subsidence, due to Anglian 1. A *glacial *stage of the middle
a that working, may extend. Draw usually pro- *Pleistocene in Britain.
ceeds at an angle of 65–75 to the horizontal. 2. A middle-*Pleistocene, cold-climate series
of deposits. There were a number of glacial ad-
angle of incidence (incident angle) The vances in East Anglia (England), which are diffi-
angle between an incident ray or wave and cult to understand. Near Lowestoft there are two
the normal to a reflecting or refracting surface. *till sheets separated by stratified sands. The
The angle of incidence is related to the *angle of lower, North Sea Drift, contains Scandinavian
refraction by *Snell’s law. See also critical angle. *erratics, and the upper, thicker till, contains
erratics of *Jurassic or *Cretaceous material.
angle of internal friction (friction angle) The highest terraces of the Thames may belong
A measure of the ability of a unit of rock or soil to this period and perhaps could also be corre-
to withstand a *shear stress. It is the angle (f), lated with the *Elsterian deposits of Europe.
measured between the normal force (N) and
resultant force (R), that is attained when failure ångstrom (Å) Unit of length equal to 10-10 m,
just occurs in response to a shearing stress (S). used in measuring *electromagnetic radiation
Its tangent (S/N) is the coefficient of sliding including visible light and X-rays. Replaced in
friction. Its value is determined experimentally. SI units by the nanometre (10 Å = 1 nm).

angle of reflection The angle between a angularity number See aggregate tests.
reflected ray or wave and the normal to a re-
flecting surface. angular momentum The momentum of a
body rotating in a plane around a point. It is
angle of refraction The angle between a formally the product of the mass of the body, the
refracted ray or wave and the normal to a re- radius of the orbit, and the square of the angular
fracting surface. The angle of refraction is relat- velocity (mro2). Because of its rotation about its
ed to the *angle of incidence by *Snell’s law. A axis, the Earth has rotational angular momentum,
ray or wave entering a medium in which its and orbital angular momentum on account of its
speed is higher than in the medium it is leaving annual revolution around the Sun. The angular
will deviate away from the normal, whereas momentum of the Earth–Moon system (3.45 
when it enters a medium of lower speed it will 1034 rad/kg/m2/s) is the sum of the rotational
deviate towards the normal. angular momentum of the Earth and the Moon’s
orbital angular momentum, and is high com-
angle of repose Maximum angle at which pared to that of the other terrestrial planets.
unconsolidated material can stand. Various fac-
tors determine this angle, including particle size angular shear strain A measure of the an-
and angularity, the degree of interlocking be- gular rotation from two mutually perpendicular
tween particles, and *pore-water pressure. A typ- reference axes following simple *shear. The
ical angle of repose for coarse scree is 32–36 . shear strain is given as the tangent of angular
shear c, and may be positive or negative with
angle of shearing resistance (internal respective clockwise or anticlockwise rotations
angle of friction, angle of frictional resis- in relation to the reference perpendicular.
tance; f) Approximate angle of repose for
angular unconformity A *discordant sur-
clean *sand; it reduces with moisture content
face of contact between the deposits of two
and is zero for a sheared, saturated *clay. For
episodes of sedimentation in which the older,
rocks, a rough determination of the angle may
underlying *strata have undergone folding, up-
be made by placing two small blocks of material
lift, and *erosion before the deposition of the
together and inclining them until the top one
younger *sediments, so that the younger strata
slides.
truncate the older. See also unconformity.
anglesite *Secondary lead mineral, PbSO4; angular velocity (Ω) The speed of a body
sp. gr. 6.3–6.4; *hardness 3; *orthorhombic; nor- that is moving along a curved path, usually ex-
mally colourless to white, but sometimes yel- pressed in radians per second; Ω = 2p/T, where
low, grey, or coloured by a bluish tinge; white T is the time taken to complete one revolution.
*streak; *adamantine *lustre; *crystals *tabular,
*prismatic, or pyramidal, or occurring as *mas- anhedral (allotriomorphic) A morphological
sive, granular, or compact aggregations; nor- term referring to grains in *igneous rocks which
mally occurs in the oxidized zone of lead have no regular crystalline shape. Anhedral
deposits, and often surrounds a core of *galena. forms are developed when a *crystal’s free
27 ankerite

growth in a *melt is inhibited by the presence of name of the corresponding European *stage,
surrounding crystals. The shape of the growing which is roughly contemporaneous with the a
crystal is thus controlled by the arrangement Guan Ling (China) and *Etalian (New Zealand).
and orientation of the surrounding pre-existing
crystals. Compare euhedral. Anisograptidae See graptoloidea.

anhydrite Mineral sulphate, CaSO4, found in anisometric growth A change in the ratio
*evaporite deposits; sp. gr. 2.9–3.0; *hardness between the sizes of two parts of an organism
3.0–3.5; *orthorhombic; normally white to col- during its *ontogeny, such that if an organism
ourless, sometimes with a bluish tinge, but oc- grows anisometrically its shape will change.
casionally grey and reddish; white *streak; anisomyarian See muscle scar.
*vitreous to pearly *lustre; *crystals rare, the
mineral being usually *massive, granular, and anisotropic 1. Applied to substances whose
fibrous; three *cleavages at right angles, perfect optical or other physical properties vary accord-
{010}, good {100}, {001}; occurs with *gypsum ing to the direction from which they are ob-
and *halite, deposited directly from sea water served. In optical mineralogy the term is
at temperatures in excess of 42  C, can form applied to *minerals other than *cubic that
from the dehydration of gypsum; may occur as split the light passing through them into two
a *cap rock above *salt domes, and as a minor *vibration directions, each with a different ve-
*gangue mineral in *hydrothermal veins. It is locity (provided the light is not travelling along
used as a raw material for cements. an *optic axis), as a result of the light being
doubly refracted (see double refraction). In
anhysteretic magnetization The magne- addition, each beam is refracted differently for
tization acquired when a direct magnetic field is different colours of light.
applied to a specimen which is simultaneously 2. In engineering geology, anisotropy refers to
held in an alternating magnetic field. See alter- a rock whose engineering properties vary with
nating magnetic field demagnetization. direction. For example, *schist, a highly aniso-
tropic rock, has a compressive strength that
Animalia (Metazoa) Multicellular organisms varies depending upon the orientation of the
that develop from embryos; one of the three king- *foliation to the applied load (see compressive
doms of multicellular organisms (the other two stress).
being *Fungi and *Plantae). The kingdom includes
all animals other than protozoons (some of anisotropic meter Any instrument that mea-
which are colonial); *Porifera (sponges) are some- sures differences of particular parameters in dif-
times excluded because their structure differs ferent directions. Specific instruments measure
markedly from that of other animals. Animals *electrical conductivity, *seismic waves, and low-
first appeared in the *Precambrian, the Porifera and high-field magnetic *susceptibility.
from one kind of *protist forebear, and all other
animals from another (or possibly more than one anisotropy The variations in the physical
other) protist. The oldest fossils are burrows of properties of a medium that depend on the
a *coelomate in rocks rather less than 700 Ma old. direction in which they are measured. Compare
inhomogeneity; isotropy.
Animikian A *system of the *Palaeoprotero-
zoic dated at about 2 225–2 050 Ma (Int. Com- ankerite *Mineral, Ca(Mg.Fe)(CO3)2; sp. gr.
mission on Stratigraphy, 2004). 2.9–3.2; *hardness 3.5–4.0; *trigonal; yellowish-
brown, sometimes white, yellow, or grey; white
anion A negative ion, i.e. an atom, or complex *streak; *vitreous *lustre; *crystals can be rhom-
of atoms, that has gained one or more electrons bohedral, but ankerite also occurs *massive and
and thereby carries a negative electric charge, granular; *cleavage rhombohedral, perfect
e.g. Cl-, OH-, and SO42-. So-called because when {1011}, faint {0221}; occurs as a *gangue mineral
an electric current is passed through a conduct- with iron ores, and as fillings associated with
ing solution the negative ions present in the coal seams, and in an environment similar
solution are attracted to the anode (the positive to that of *dolomite. It is a form of ferroan
electrode). Compare cation. dolomite where ferrous iron substitutes for Mg
in a *solid solution series from dolomite (CaMg
Anisian 1. A Middle *Triassic *age, preceded (CO3)2) to ankerite ((CaMg0.75Fe0.25)(CO3)2).
by the *Scythian Epoch, followed by the *Ladi- Ankerite often forms as a *cement by diagenetic
nian Age, and dated at 237–245 Ma ago (Int. reaction (see diagenesis) from ferroan *calcite
Commission on Stratigraphy, 2004). 2. The at burial depths of about 2.5 km. It is named
 Ankylosaurus 28

after the Austrian mineralogist M. J. Anker. the proportions in lead that is then isotopically
a See also carbonatite. anomalous. Anomalous lead can give dates
that are older than the rock in which the lead is
Ankylosaurus (ankylosaurs) Genus of embedded, so it appears that nearby *common
*Cretaceous *dinosaurs, heavily armoured with lead will not form until some time in the distant
bony plates, rather in the manner of armadillos. future.
They had small heads with insignificant teeth,
and some forms were toothless. anomaly See geobotanical anomaly;
geochemical anomaly; gravity anomaly;
ankylosaurs See ankylosaurus. heat flow anomaly; magnetic anomaly.
annealing See hot working. anomphalous See imperforate.
Annelida Phylum of *coelomate worms anorogenic Applied to 1. a feature that was
which possess a definite head and good *meta- not formed as a result of tectonic disturbance,
meric segmentation. The body is elongate, and i.e. in an interval between orogenic events, and
each segment has bristles. Their fossils are 2. such an interval.
found in rocks dating from the *Cambrian, and
possible fossil annelid worms are known from anorthite See alkali feldspar.
*Precambrian sediments in S. Australia. They anorthoclase See alkali feldspar.
are represented today by the earthworms, sand-
worms, and leeches. anorthosite *Plutonic rock composed almost
entirely of *plagioclase feldspar (90% or more)
Anning, Mary (1799–1847) The daughter of a which may be oligoclase, andesine, labradorite,
cabinet maker who sold ‘natural curiosities’ in or bytownite. These rocks occur most frequently
Lyme Regis, on the Dorset coast in the south in *Precambrian *shield areas as non-stratiform
of England, Mary Anning learned from her father intrusions or in layered complexes. Anorthosite
how to collect *fossils from the *Jurassic rocks also constitutes the *lunar highlands where it is
exposed in the cliffs along the shore. After her largely composed of the calcium *end-member
father died in 1810, Mary began collecting fossils anorthite.
on her own behalf. In 1811 she saw bones pro-
truding from the cliff and hired men to dig out anoxic The condition of oxygen deficiency or
the rock in which they were embedded. When absence of oxygen. Anoxic *sediments and anox-
the material was finally exposed it proved to ic bottom waters are commonly produced where
be the skeleton of an animal 5 m long, there is a deficiency of oxygen due to very high
and eventually identified as Ichthyosaurus pla- organic productivity and a lack of oxygen replen-
tyodon (see ichthyosauria). Mary Anning later ishment to the water or sediment, as in the case
found fossils of cephalopods (see cephalo- of stagnation or stratification of the water body.
poda), Plesiosaurus (see plesiosau-roidea),
Dimorphodon (*Pterosauria), and fish. Her dis- Antarctic air Very cold, continental polar *air
coveries attracted many distinguished palaeon- mass, which originates over the frozen surface
tologists to Lyme Regis and made her famous. of Antarctica and the surrounding pack-ice, and
She is commemorated by a stained glass window over the coldest waters of the *Antarctic Ocean.
in the parish church and in the tongue-twister As this air moves northward over warmer waters
‘She sells sea shells on the sea shore’. it becomes convectively unstable.

annual snow-line See firn line. Antarctic bottom water (AABW) A dense
bottom-water mass, formed in the Weddell and
annulus (planetary) A ring-like structure Ross Seas, which moves in an easterly direction
used, for example, to describe a discrete ring around Antarctica under the influence of the
of ejecta around a martian *rampart crater. deep-reaching, wind-driven surface *Antarctic
Circumpolar Current (West Wind Drift). It is
anode A positive electrode. See anion. typified by a *salinity of 34.66 parts per thou-
sand and a low temperature (2  C to 0.4  C).
anomalous lead *Lead–lead dating is based The high salinity and dense nature is caused by
on the assumption that the decay of uranium and the removal of pure water as sea ice.
thorium add the *isotopes 206Pb, 207Pb, and 208Pb
at a constant rate to the lead being sampled. Antarctic Circumpolar Current (West
Certain processes (e.g. *pneumatolysis) can re- Wind Drift) The largest and most important
distribute lead isotopes, however, altering ocean current in the southern hemisphere. It
29 Anthozoa

flows in an eastward direction around Antarcti- continent to the surrounding *constructive plate
ca, and occupies a wide tract of water in the margins. a
S. *Pacific, S. *Atlantic, and *Indian Oceans.
There is very little separation between surface- Antarctic polar current A surface current
and *bottom-water circulation within this area. which flows in a westward direction around
The current is remarkably constant and is char- Antarctica under the influence of easterly
acterized by low *salinity (less than 34.7 parts per winds blowing off the ice cap.
thousand), and cold waters (1 to 5  C). It is the
only current which flows right around the world.
Antarctic polar front See antarctic
convergence.
Antarctic Coastal Current (East Wind
Drift) A narrow ocean current that flows in a ante- From the Latin ante, meaning ‘before’,
westerly direction parallel to the coast of Ant- a prefix meaning ‘preceding’ or ‘previous’.
arctica at about 65 S. Its average speed is antecedent drainage The hypothesis that a
0.1 m/s. The current is not continuous, being stream crossing a geologic structure may be older
absorbed into the *gyres circulating in the than that structure. Such a stream is believed to
Weddell and Ross Seas. maintain its course across a developing *fold or
Antarctic convergence (AAC) A conver- *fault. This is a favoured explanation for streams
gence line in the seas that circle Antarctica be- crossing structures in geologically active areas, as
tween latitudes 50 S and 60 S. It is where the do the Arun in the Himalayas, and the Grand
cold waters from the Antarctic region meet and Canyon section of the Colorado in the Rockies.
sink beneath the warm waters from the middle
anterior (biological) In animals, applied to
latitudes, so forming the *Antarctic intermediate
the front part of the body when the animal
water. This convergence line is now called the
is moving forward. In plants, that part of the
Antarctic polar front.
inflorescence that is farthest from the main stem.
Antarctic front Frontal boundary between
Anthocyathea See irregulares.
cold Antarctic air and warmer air, usually lying
to the north of it. anthophyllite *End-member (Mg,Fe)2(Mg,
Antarctic intermediate water (AIW) A Fe)5[Si4O11]2(OH,F)2, along with gedrite, of the
water mass formed at the surface near to the calcium-poor, orthorhombic *amphiboles. In
*Antarctic convergence, at about 50 S. It is typ- anthophyllite Mg > Fe, whereas in gedrite Mg
ified by a low *salinity (33.8 parts per thousand) < Fe. It is found exclusively in *metamorphic
and low temperature (2.2  C). As it spreads rocks, where it may occur with *cordierite. Am-
northwards it sinks to depths of 900 m and can osite is the asbestiform variety of anthophyllite.
be traced even in the North Atlantic at 25 N. Anthophyta See angiosperm.
Antarctic meteorites *Meteorite finds Anthozoa (sea-anemones, corals, sea
from *ablation zones on Antarctic glaciers, pens) (phylum *Cnidaria) A class of exclusively
which represent about 25% of all the meteorites polyploid, marine cnidarians. They probably
so far discovered. They vary in composition but first appeared in the *Ordovician although
are usually quite fresh and may have fallen from there are possible records for some groups in
one million years ago to the present day. They the *Cambrian. They are solitary or colonial and
are therefore of great importance in the study of usually sedentary. The oral end is expanded as
meteorites. Antarctic meteorites include the first an oral disc with a central mouth that has one
meteorites known to have been derived from or more rings of hollow tentacles. Anthozoans
the *Moon and *Mars. have a well-developed stomodeum (gullet)
Antarctic Ocean (Southern Ocean) The leading from the mouth to the enteron (gastro-
ocean surrounding Antarctica. It extends north- vascular cavity). The interior of the enteron is
wards to about 40 S latitude, the limit of the divided by *mesenteries (infoldings of the gut
northward drift of ice from the Antarctic region, wall). Those members of the class that secrete
where there is a marked change in water temper- hard, calcareous skeletons are important in the
ature and *salinity. The Antarctic Ocean is typified geologic record from the *Palaeozoic onwards,
by low water temperatures (1.8  C to 10  C). and at some levels form true coral *reefs. In the
Palaeozoic they are often associated with other
Antarctic Plate A present-day major litho- organisms, e.g. stromatoporoids (*Stromatopor-
spheric plate that extends beyond the Antarctic oidea), to produce organic build-ups or reef
 anthracite 30

mounds. See heterocorallia; octocorallia; gas, or water may accumulate. In Middle East
a rugosa; scleractinia; tabulata; zoantharia. oilfields, large, upright folds occur in thick,
competent *limestones which extend for many
anthracite A type of *coal, relatively hard, jet kilometres; fracturing along the crests of the
black, with a metallic *lustre, sub-*conchoidal *anticlines increases *permeability in the reser-
fracture, unbanded, with less than 10% *vola- voir rocks. See petroleum; natural gas. Com-
tiles and more than 90% carbon. It burns with pare fault trap; reef trap; stratigraphic
intense heat and a non-luminous flame. trap; structural trap; unconformity trap.
Anthracosauria (Embolomeri) An order anticlinal valley Valley developed along
of *Carboniferous and early *Permian labyrintho- the axis of an *anticline. Inward-facing *escarp-
dont amphibians (*Labyrinthodontia) that in- ments are developed where the upper beds of the
cludes the ancestors of reptiles. Many of the anticline are relatively resistant, while softer lower
fossils were found in coal measures and the name materials occupy the valley floor. It is a common
means ‘coal lizards’. The anthracosaurs were first land-form in gently folded strata of varying resis-
defined as large, aquatic amphibians, and later as tance, such as occur in southern Britain.
reptile-like amphibians. They are now defined
as reptile-like tetrapods (*Tetrapoda), and proba- anticline Arch-shaped fold in rocks, closing
bly not true amphibians, comprising a *paraphy- upwards, with the oldest rocks in the core.
letic order within the superorder *Reptilomorpha.
anticlinorium A regional antiformal struc-
Anthropogene See quaternary. ture (see antiform) composed of a series of
smaller, higher-order *anticlines and *synclines,
anthropogenic Applied to substances, pro-
some of which may be small enough to be
cesses, etc. of human origin, or that result from
viewed in *outcrop.
human activity.
anticoincidence circuit A device to mini-
anthropogeomorphology The study of
mize errors that may occur when measure-
those land-forms and processes that are a direct
ments are made to date radiocarbon samples.
result of human activity, including accelerated
These measurements must be extremely accu-
*erosion, channelized river channels (i.e. rivers
rate due to the very low level of activity (see
made to flow along fixed, sometimes concrete-
radiocarbon dating). The error quoted on a
lined, channels), the melting of *permafrost,
radiocarbon age determination is solely an error
and ground subsidence due to the extraction
in counting statistics. Such errors may rise
of water or minerals. Particular examples in-
from spurious counts generated by contamina-
clude the Norfolk Broads, England, which are
tion of the sample, cosmic activity detected
essentially flooded peat quarries, and the Zuider
by the counter, and radioactive contaminants
Zee, whose damming has had a major impact
in the equipment being used. Initially the coun-
on the coastal morphology of the Netherlands.
ter was shielded by surrounding it with large
Anthropoidea See simiiformes. amounts of iron, lead, distilled mercury, or par-
affin wax mixed with boric acid. An anticoinci-
Anthrosols A reference soil group in the soil dence circuit is an alternative to material
classification scheme used by the *FAO. Anthro- absorbers, and consists of a series of tangential-
sols have *soil horizons that have been strongly ly placed *Geiger tubes operated in anticoinci-
affected by human activity (see hortic hori- dence (i.e. they do not require input signals
zon; irragic horizon; terric horizon). to arrive within specified intervals in order to
be activated). These are positioned within an
anti- From the Greek anti, meaning ‘against’, iron shield, and around the central counting
a prefix meaning ‘against’ (in the sense of op- chamber. Radiation from outside, or from with-
posed to), ‘opposite’, or ‘preventing’. in the shield, is detected by this ring of Geiger
Antian The Lower *Pleistocene, temperate, ma- tubes and can be discounted. Special counters
rine deposits that form the upper section of a tri- have now been developed in which the antic-
partite division of deposits revealed in a *borehole oincidence counters are built into the same tube
at Ludham, in eastern England. See also baven- as the main counter, so that the same gas is
tian; ludhamian; pastonian; thurnian. used in the whole system. The wall of such a
counter usually consists of a polystyrene foil
anticlinal trap A *fold structure with an arch covered on both sides with aluminium. This is
of non-porous rock overlying porous strata then surrounded by a ring of wires forming the
(*reservoir rock), providing a trap in which oil, *anode for the anticoincidence circuit.
31 Apatosaurus

anticyclogenesis Process whereby an *anti- antiferromagnetic Applied to a *ferromag-

cyclone or a ridge of high pressure is formed netic (in the wide sense) substance in which a
and developed. the magnetic lattices are magnetized in exactly
equal and opposite directions. Such a substance
anticyclolysis Process whereby an *anticy- does not have an external magnetic field in its
clone or ridge of high pressure is dissipated pure form, but a distorted lattice may result in a
or weakened. *parasitic magnetization.
antiform Arch-shaped rock structure which,
anticyclone Area or system of high atmo- by definition, closes (i.e. arches) upward, but
spheric pressure that has a characteristic pattern in which it may not be possible to determine
of air circulation, with subsiding air and horizon- the oldest rocks. It is frequently observed in
tal divergence of the air near the surface in its complex orogenic regions.
central region. Winds are generally light because
of small pressure gradients; they flow clockwise antigorite See serpentine.
in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in
the southern hemisphere. A *temperature inver- antimonite See stibnite.
sion is common at the base of the air subsidence,
and this restricts the vertical development of antimony, native Metallic element, Sb; soft,
cloud. Weather conditions are generally settled. whitish; *crystals *tabular *hexagonal; *cleavage
Cold anticyclones form over continents in winter basal; occurs native in association with *stibnite
and over polar areas at any time, accompanied (antimonite).
by strong inversions: in the clear air, pronounced antimony glance See stibnite.
frosts and very cold surface conditions result.
Warm anticyclones (so called because of the antiperthite See hypersolvus granite;
warm, subsided air aloft) over land areas typical- plagioclase feldspar.
ly bring spells of settled and often warm weather.
See also anticyclonic gloom. antithetic fault A *fault, usually one of a set,
which in vertical section shows a sense of *slip
anticyclonic gloom Condition of low visi- opposite to that of the major fault from which
bility associated with *anticyclones accompa- it originates. The term derives from the Greek
nied, in the colder months of the year, by well- word antithethemi, meaning ‘set against’.
developed *temperature inversions that can antitrade Upper wind in low latitudes that
trap dust and other pollutants, and often have flows counter (i.e. poleward) to the *trade
*radiation fog in the lower layers. The stability of wind below.
the high-pressure system can make the resul-
tant reduced visibility very persistent and may anvil The common name for the supplemen-
establish *smog conditions. tary cloud feature known as an *incus.

antidune The *sediment *bedform generated apatite A widely distributed *phosphate *min-
by fast, shallow *flows of water with a *Froude eral, with the formula Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH);
number greater than 0.8. Antidunes form beneath sp. gr. 3.1–3.3; *hardness 5; *hexagonal; usually
*standing waves of water that periodically steep- a shade of green or grey-green, but may also
en, migrate, and then break upstream. The anti- be white, brown, yellow, bluish, or red; white
dune bedform is characterized by shallow *streak; *vitreous *lustre; *crystals commonly
*foresets (see cross-stratification) which *dip hexagonal *prisms, and often *tabular, also oc-
upstream at an angle of about 10 . Their preser- curs *massive, and granular; *cleavage, basal
vation potential is low, but they can be identified {0001}, imperfect prismatic {1010}; found as an
by low-angle (less than 10 ) foresets, dipping up- *accessory mineral in *igneous rock, in *pegma-
current. Normally antidunes show a close associ- tites and high-temperature *hydrothermal
ation with upper-flow-regime *plane beds. veins, and in *metamorphic rocks. It is the prin-
cipal constituent of fossil bones (see also col-
current direction lophane). Apatite is widely used as a phosphate
fertilizer, and for the production of phosphoric
direction of bedform migration
acid and various other chemicals.
Apatosaurus One of several gigantic
*saurischian *dinosaurs recorded from the
Antidune Upper *Jurassic. Apatosaurus was a sauropod,
 ape 32

a quadruped with a long neck, the total weight apex

a of which reached 30 tonnes. The name Apato-
saurus is a senior synonym of Brontosaurus (i.e.
it was the earlier of the two names). Animals of
22 m in length have been recorded from the
Morrison Formation of N. America.

ape A name originally (in medieval times) ap-

plied to the Barbary macaque (Macaca sylva-
nus) of North Africa (as were the Latin word
simia and Greek pithecus) and, by extension,
applied to other primates as these were made
known in Europe. As long-tailed monkeys
(‘tailed apes’, or cercopitheci) became better
known, ‘ape’ came to mean primarily ‘tailless
ape’, and today commonly denotes a member of
the *Hominoidea, comprising lesser apes (gib-
bons) and great apes (orang-utan, gorilla, chim-
panzee, and, in some usages, human). Apex

aperture 1. (window) The portion of a data APF See absolute pollen frequency.
record which is selected for specifying operators
aphanitic An *igneous rock *texture charac-
for use on the data set, e.g. operators such as
terized by mineral grains which are too small to
*autocorrelation functions and *filters are applied
be identified without a petrological microscope.
by apertures on *seismic records.
These extremely fine-grained, crystalline *fab-
2. In a mollusc (*Mollusca) shell, the opening
rics are formed when a *magma solidifies in
through which the soft parts of the animal
response to a very rapid loss of heat and dis-
emerge. It is often a simple, circular opening,
solved gases. Emplacement in high-level *dykes
but is modified in some genera. In gastropods
or eruption on to the surface can result in the
(*Gastropoda), where the aperture is circular or
development of aphanitic fabrics.
elliptical it is said to be ‘holostomatous’ or ‘entire’;
where it is notched (to accommodate a *siphon) it Aphebian A *stage (1 600–2 500 Ma ago) of
is said to be ‘siphonostomatous’. In cephalopods the lowermost *Proterozoic of Canada, overlain
(*Cephalopoda), the aperture may be indented or by the *Helikian.
notched at the ventral margin by a hyponomic
sinus, which houses the *hyponome. Some com- aphelion Point in the Earth’s elliptical orbit
pressed ammonites (*Ammonoidea) possess a at which the planet is farthest from the Sun.
pair of lateral shell extensions (lappets) on either See also perihelion.
side of the aperture.
aphyric An *igneous rock *texture character-
ized by a fine-grained *aphanitic *groundmass
and by an absence of any *phenocrysts. Aphyric
texture forms by the rapid crystallization of *melts
lacking large suspended *crystals, and thus these
melts must have been very close to their *liquidus
temperature (the temperature at which initial
aperture crystallization takes place in a cooling melt).
(holostomatous)
API gravity A measure of the density of *pe-
troleum devised by the American Petroleum
Institute (API). If the API gravity is less than
10 the petroleum is denser than water and will
sink; if it is greater than 10 the petroleum is less
dense than water and will float. Although the
Aperture value is dimensionless, it is expressed in degrees
( API).
apex The first-formed end of a shell, which is
usually pointed. The term is most commonly aplite A light-coloured, fine-grained, equigra-
applied to gastropod (*Gastropoda) shells. nular *igneous rock composed of *subhedral to
33 apparent wavelength

*anhedral grains of *quartz and *alkali feldspar, southern Appalachians, recent interpretations
and found as late-stage veins in *granite bodies. of a thin-skinned tectonic style in which a few a
The quartz–alkali feldspar composition corre- kilometres’ thickness of highly deformed mate-
sponds to the lowest temperature *melts in rial has been thrust westward for at least 200
granite *magma systems, suggesting that they km.
are residual melts formed by the differentiation
of granite *magma (see magmatic differenti- apparent age See absolute age.
ation). The lack of any hydrous minerals and
the fine *grain size points to the aplites crystal- apparent cohesion Cohesion of grains due
lizing from dry residual melts. to surface tension in the surrounding pore
water.
apodeme See exoskeleton.
apparent conductivity (sa) The inverse of
apogee The point in the orbit of the Moon (or *apparent resistivity; the units are *siemens/
any artificial satellite) that is most distant from metre.
the Earth. Compare perigee.
apparent dip The dip of the trace of a plane,
Apollo 1. A *solar system asteroid (No. 1862), which is measured from the horizontal in
diameter 1.6 km; approximate mass 2  1012 kg; any section non-perpendicular to the *strike of
rotational period 3.063 hours, orbital period the plane. Compare true dip. See also dip,
1.81 years. Its orbit crosses that of earth. 2. The angle of.
name of the *NASA manned lunar programme
that ran from 1963 to 1972. apparent polar wander (APW) The line
A
 A NASA programme of missions from 1963 to
traced on each of the continents by joining to-
gether the positions of the *palaeomagnetic
poles at different times. The geometry of the
1972 to land humans on the Moon and return line differs for each continent and appears
them to Earth. to suggest a path followed by poles that changed
apomorph Evolutionarily advanced (‘de- their positions over time. In fact, the changing
rived’) character state. The long neck of the positions of the poles reflect the latitudinal
giraffe is apomorphic; the short neck of its an- movements and rotations of lithospheric
cestor is *plesiomorphic. *plates, rather than movements of the poles.

apomorphic Applied to features possessed apparent resistivity (ra) A measurement

by a group of biological organisms that distin- of resistivity which is calculated as the product
guish those organisms from others descended of the measured resistance (R) and a *geomag-
from the same ancestor. The term means ‘new- netic factor (Kg) such that ra =; KgR, in units of
featured’ and refers to ‘derived’ characters that ohms/m. It is important to note that the appar-
have appeared during the course of evolution. ent resistivity is not an explicit measurement of
the electrical resistivity of a material and should
apophysis (pl. apophyses) 1. An irregular or not be interpreted as being diagnostic of a given
sheet-like *vein or *dyke which originates from material.
a larger *igneous rock body. 2. See vertebra.
apparent velocity (va) The velocity which a
Appalachian orogenic belt A 3200 km wave-front exhibits along a line of *geophones.
long, *Palaeozoic, *orogenic belt extending If the wavefront approaches the geophone
from Newfoundland to Alabama and inter- *array at an angle y, then the true velocity of
preted as the consequence of the closure of the wavefront, v, is given by v = vacosy. In *re-
the *Iapetus Ocean. Extensions of the belt fraction seismology, va is the reciprocal of the
along *strike include the Caledonian orogenic gradient of a straight-line segment of a *time-
belt (see caledonian orogeny) in north- distance graph.
western Europe, now separated by the Atlantic
Ocean. The deformation in the Appalachian belt apparent wavelength (la) If a wave train
ranges from late *Precambrian to *Permian, di- approaches a line of *geophones at an angle y,
vided into four major *orogenies (*Avalonian, then the distance between corresponding points
*Taconic, *Acadian, and *Alleghanian), with on successive cycles of the wave form as
the transport of *thrust-*nappes predominantly detected by those geophones is an apparent
north-westwards. *Seismic reflection profiling and not a true wavelength. True wavelength
by *COCORP has supported, at least for the l = lasiny.
 appinites 34

appinites Medium- to coarse-grained *plu- (CONAE), the Argentine space agency. Aquarius
a tonic rocks that occur as *intrusions of *horn- is in a *Sun-synchronous orbit at a height of 657
blende in a *matrix of *intermediate rock and/or km, and it measures sea-surface salinity.
*alkali *plagioclase feldspar. They are named for
the region around Appin in western Scotland. A
 A joint CONAE and NASA mission to measure
apsacline A condition of the interarea of a sea-surface salinity.
strophic brachiopod (*Brachiopoda) shell
where the inclination of the *cardinal area rela- aquiclude (aquifuge) A rock with very low
tive to the plane of *commissure is 90–180 . It is values of hydraulic conductivity which, al-
one of the most commonly occurring condi- though it may be saturated with *groundwater,
tions. Compare anacline. is almost impermeable with respect to ground-
water flow. Such rocks will act as boundaries
aptation A character that suits its possessor to to *aquifers and may form confining strata. See
its *environment; it may be an *abaptation, *ad- permeability.
aptation, or *exaptation.
aquic moisture regime The moisture
Aptian 1. An Early *Cretaceous *age, preceded balance of humid climates and soils, where an-
by the *Barremian, followed by the *Albian, and nual precipitation exceeds the combined actual
dated at 112–125 Ma (Int. Commission on evaporation and transpiration, and where
Stratigraphy, 2004). 2. The name of the corre- the soil moisture status is normally above
sponding European *stage, which is named after *field capacity.
Apt in France. See also neocomian.
aquifer A body of permeable rock, for exam-
aptychus A calcitic plate associated with *Me- ple, unconsolidated gravel or sand *stratum,
sozoic *ammonites. Normally these plates occur that is capable of storing significant quantities
in pairs. Aptychi are shaped like bivalves (*Bi- of water, is underlain by impermeable material,
valvia) and have an ornamented outer surface. and through which *groundwater moves. An
Since they have been found inside the aperture unconfined aquifer is one in which the *water
of ammonoid shells they were originally inter- table defines the upper water limit. A confined
preted as *opercula, protecting the ammonoid aquifer is sealed above and below by imperme-
body when it was withdrawn into the shell. able material. A perched aquifer is an un-
It has now been shown that aptychi are proba- confined groundwater body supported by a
bly the lower jaws of ammonoids and that the small impermeable or slowly permeable unit.
horny upper jaw is rarely preserved. See permeability.
APW See apparent polar wander. aquifer test See pumping test.
APXS See alpha–proton–x-ray spectro- aquifuge See aquiclude.
meter.
Aquitanian 1. The earliest *age (20.43– 23.03
Aqua A NASA satellite, launched on 4 May Ma ago) in the *Miocene Epoch, preceded by
2002, that carries six Earth-observing instru- the *Chattian (*Oligocene), followed by the
ments to measure almost all aspects of the *hy- *Burdigalian (Int. Commission on Stratigraphy,
drologic cycle, as well as radiative energy fluxes, 2004).
*aerosols, terrestrial vegetation cover, marine 2. The name of the corresponding European
phytoplankton and dissolved organic matter, *stage, which is roughly contemporaneous with
and air, land, and water temperatures. It is one the upper *Zemorrian and lower *Saucesian (N.
of the five satellites that comprise the *A-train.
A
America), parts of the *Otaian (New Zealand),
and the upper *Janjukian and lower *Longfor-
 A NASA mission launched in 2002 to study the dian (Australia). The *stratotype is in the Aqui-
Earth’s water. tanian Basin, France. The Aquitanian is itself
characterized by the appearance of the plank-
aquamarine See beryl. tonic *foraminiferid Globigerinoides primordia.

Aquarius An instrument built and owned by aquitard A *rock with low values of *hydraulic
NASA that was launched on 10 June 2011 on a conductivity, which allows some movement
Delta II vehicle, carried on the Argentine Satelite of water through it, but at rates of flow lower
de Aplicaciones Cientificas-D (SAC-D) of the than those of adjacent *aquifers. Compare aqui-
Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales clude.
35 Archaeocalamites radiatus

Arabian Plate One of the present-day minor by its lack of cleavage and its higher specific
lithospheric *plates, separated from the *African gravity. Calcite is the more stable form of a
Plate by the spreading *Red Sea, the continua- CaCO3, and many fossil shells that were made
tion of the *Carlsberg Ridge into the Gulf of originally of aragonite have either converted to
Aden, and the Dead Sea transform system, calcite or undergone replacement by some
while the boundary with the *Indo-Australian other mineral. Present-day mollusc shells
Plate is the Owen Fracture Zone; the plate is are formed of aragonite crystals. The name
colliding with the Iran Plate. is derived from the Aragon province of Spain.
See also carbonates.
arachnid See arachnida.
aragonite compensation depth (ACD)
Arachnida (arachnids: mites, scorpions, The depth in the ocean at which the rate of
spiders, etc.) Class of terrestrial chelicerates dissolution of *aragonite is equal to the rate at
(*Chelicerata) which have book lungs or trache- which aragonite accumulates. In sea water, ara-
ae derived from gills, indicating their aquatic gonite is less stable than *calcite. Consequently,
derivation. Of recent terrestrial animals, the the ACD is shallower than the *carbonate com-
arachnids are probably the oldest known class, pensation depth (CCD). The ACD is typically at
scorpions having been recorded from the *Silu- 2–3 km.
rian Period. A Silurian scorpion, Palaeophonus
nuncius, was perhaps the first terrestrial animal. aragonite mud A fine *carbonate mud, with
The first fossil spiders are known from the *De- particles less than 4 mm, composed mainly of
vonian. The class is extremely diverse, but ex- *aragonite needles. The aragonite is generally
cept in the mites the body is in two portions: the believed to have been deposited from the
prosoma (anterior portion) which bears the four break-up of calcareous green algae (*Chloro-
pairs of legs, the eyes, the pedipalps (second phyta).
pair of appendages), and the chelicerae (first
Aratauran See herangi.
pair of appendages, usually pincer-like); and
the opisthosoma (posterior portion) which con- arborescent See dendritic.
tains most of the internal organs and glands.
The two portions may be broadly jointed, or arc See island arc.
connected by a stalk or pedicel. The prosoma
has a dorsal shield or carapace, and the opistho- archae- (arche-) Prefix, from the Greek
soma is segmented in most orders, but not in arkhaios (‘ancient’), itself derived from arkhe
spiders and mites and only very weakly in har- (‘beginning’). It adds the meaning ‘ancient’,
vestmen. The number of eyes varies, and can be with the implication ‘first’, to words to which it
as many as twelve in some scorpions. is attached.
Archaea The *domain comprising what were
arachnid structure (arachnoids) A strange
formerly known as the archaebacteria. What
pattern of ridges, gathered in braids and belts,
used to be the kingdom Archaebacteria has
which merge with radial and concentric ridges
been split into two kingdoms: *Crenarchaeota
to give a ‘spiders and cobwebs’ appearance on
and *Euryarchaeota. The domain Archaea
the surface of Venus, particularly in the area
contains the *phenotypes: *methanogens,
between Sedna Planita and Bell Regio (about
*sulphate-reducing organisms, and *extremophiles.
43 N, 19 E). The ridges are large, 100–200 km
long and up to 20 km wide. Archaean (Archaeozoic, Azoic) One of the
three subdivisions of the *Precambrian, lasting
arachnoids See arachnid structure. from about 4000 to about 2500 Ma ago. Now
aragonite *Mineral, CaCO3; sp. gr. 2.9; *hard- formally an *eon.
ness 3.5–4.0; *orthorhombic; colourless, white, archaebacteria (domain *Archaea) Organ-
grey, or yellowish; white *streak; *vitreous *lus- isms belonging to the kingdoms *Crenarchaeota
tre; *crystals normally *prismatic, often *acicu- and *Euryarchaeota; formerly these were
lar, sometimes *tabular and pseudo-hexagonal; grouped together as the kingdom Archaebac-
also occurs fibrous and stalactitic; *cleavage im- teria.
perfect {010}; occurs in hot springs and in asso-
ciation with *gypsum, also in veins and cavities, Archaeocalamites radiatus First de-
and in the oxidized zone of ore deposits with scribed by A. *Brongniart in 1828, this species
other *secondary minerals. Aragonite is a *poly- is one of the earliest recorded equisetaleans
morph of *calcite, from which it is distinguished or ‘horse-tails’, a group of plants noted for the
 Archaeoceti 36

jointed nature of the stem. At each joint there is an archaeological context. Such studies include
a a ring of short branches. See sphenopsida. *magnetic dating, reconstruction of objects and
structures, sourcing artefacts, past firing tem-
Archaeoceti (ancient whales) (cohort Mu- peratures, etc.
tica, order Cetacea) An extinct suborder com-
prising the oldest and most primitive cetaceans, Archaeopteris Early *progymnosperm
which flourished in the *Eocene and may have found first in the *Frasnian stage of the *Devo-
originated in Africa. Most were comparable in nian Period. It was identified by its fronds,
size with modern porpoises, had an elongated and is the earliest known representative of the
snout, and nostrils on top of the skull. The brain Archaeopteridales.
case was long and low. The front teeth were
peg-like, the cheek teeth *heterodont and char- Archaeopteryx lithographica Only five
acteristic of primitive carnivores. There were 44 specimens of this species, the first bird, are
teeth in all. The hind legs in most were reduced known. Archaeopteryx is recorded solely from
to vestiges, but in some early genera (*Ambulo- the Lithographic Limestone of the Solnhofen
cetus, *Basilosaurus) still protruded from the region of Bavaria, Germany. It was first de-
body wall. They were fish-eating carnivores scribed by H. von Meyer in 1861 and is of Mid-
that had adopted an aquatic life to which they dle *Kimmeridgian or Upper *Jurassic age.
were more highly adapted than, for example, Recent work on this species by several palaeon-
modern seals. The term archaeocete really tologists tends to support the theory that the
means any primitive cetacean and probably birds, through Archaeopteryx, evolved from
does not designate a natural, *monophyletic *coelurosaur *dinosaurs similar to Compsog-
group. nathus. The species A. lithographica possesses
several primitive characters such as teeth, as
Archaeocyatha Extinct phylum of reef- well as specialized features such as feathers
forming organisms known only from the *Cam- and hollow bones. It is a good example of a
brian. They were cup-like, usually 10–30 mm in connecting species which exhibits a mosaic of
diameter and up to 50 mm in height. In some evolutionary features.
respects they were similar to both *sponges and
*corals, and may represent a true advance in archaeopyle See dinophyceae.
evolutionary *grade over the former. It is possi-
ble that they lived in a symbiotic relationship Archaeosperma arnoldii The earliest
with some *trilobites. The cause of their extinc- (*Devonian) seed-like structure.
tion is not known. There were two classes: *Reg-
ulares and *Irregulares. Archaeosphaeroides A coccoid cyano-
phyte (see cyanobacteria) from the Figtree
Archaeogastropoda An order of *Gastro- (see swazian) cherts of S. Africa, which are *Ar-
poda which appears in the Lower *Cambrian chaean and date from perhaps 3 000 Ma ago.
and also includes the extant Patella vulgata
(limpet). Gastropods may be subdivided ac- Archaeozoic See archaean; cryptozoic.
cording to their respiratory structures; archae-
ogastropods, the most primitive gastropods, archaic sapiens Humans (i.e. Homo sapiens)
possess just two gills. Some forms possess a that share features with earlier (non-Homo)
marginal slit near the *aperture to facilitate the species, relating mainly to cranial capacity and
removal of exhaled water and wastes. This may the robustness of the teeth and skeleton, that
extend posteriorly for some distance but even- are lost in anatomically modern humans. The
tually it is filled with shell material as the animal archaic species are classified as Homo sapiens,
grows and extends its shell. The filled slit (sele- but not as belonging to the subspecies of mod-
nizone) is usually completely plugged. In some ern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens.
species (e.g. Haliotis) the selenizone is repre-
sented by a linearly arranged series of apertures arche- Alternative spelling for the prefix
(tremata, sing. trema). *archae-.

archaeological geology The study of ar- archetype A hypothetical ancestral form in

chaeological sites in order to obtain data rele- which all the basic characteristics of a taxonom-
vant to geological investigations. ic group occur, although they are not special-
ized in any one direction. Thus the modern
archaeomagnetism The study of the mag- primitive mollusc Neopilina is perhaps close to
netic properties of objects and materials from the molluscan archetype.
37 Ardipithecus ramidus

Archie’s law An empirical law which relates, arctic front Frontal boundary between cold,
for a clay-free sediment, the electrical *resistiv- arctic air and warmer *air masses, usually lying a
ity r of a porous rock containing water and to the south of it. Many depressions originate on
cement to the fraction of the pore space that is it. In north-western Canada in winter, for exam-
filled with water. r = romsn, where ro is the ple, the frontal zone incorporates cold, dry,
resistivity of the water and s is the fraction of continental polar air and modified maritime
pore space filled with water. The exponent n is arctic air from the Gulf of Alaska to the north
usually about 2.0 if one-third of the pore space is of continental tropical air.
filled with water, and exponent m usually varies
between 1.3 for unconsolidated sediments to Arctic Ocean Smallest and shallowest of the
approaching 2.0 for a well-cemented sediment. major oceanic areas, the shallowness being
In the oil-bearing rocks, the remaining pore caused by the surrounding wide continental
space is considered to be filled with either oil or shelves (up to 1700 km wide). For much of
gas and the law is usually expressed as Sw = (Rw/ the year the surface is covered by floating
Rt)0.5f, where Sw is the fraction of pore space pack-ice.
filled by water with a resistivity Rw in a rock
with a true resistivity of Rt and a *porosity f. arctic sea smoke (frost smoke) *Fog ap-
pearing in very cold air from the arctic-ice or
arching 1. In an underground *excavation, a frozen-land regions, when it comes over the
small inward movement of the sides, roof, and warmer water of open parts of the *Arctic
floor of the cavity caused by in situ stress around Ocean. The rapid heating induces convection
the excavation. This reduces the permeability of currents which rise in the air: these carry mois-
the rock in the immediate vicinity of the exca- ture upwards from the water surface, and this
vation. 2. Masonry or steel support in under- becomes visible as the moisture quickly con-
ground workings. denses again in the very cold surrounding air.
Thus a fog of rising columns of condensing
archipelago Group of islands; a sea contain- water vapour is formed. The fog is usually fairly
ing many scattered small islands. shallow, wispy, and smoke like. This, and its
common occurrence in coastal seas around
architecture of sandbodies The large- cold land masses (e.g. Labrador, Greenland,
scale form and arrangement of *sandstone and Norway), gave rise to the name. Similar
beds. See sandbody. steam fogs may be seen in winter over the
open water of rivers when the air is 10  C or
archosaur See archosauria. more colder than the water.

arc-trench gap (fore-arc) The region be-

Archosauria (archosaurs) Infraclass of tween an oceanic *trench and the adjacent vol-
*diapsid reptiles, including the *crocodiles, canic *island arc. The arc-trench gap is at least
*dinosaurs, *pterosaurs, and *thecodontians. 100 km wide in nearly all cases, and up to 570
Thecodontians were ancestral to the other km at the eastern end of the Aleutian arc. The
groups and appeared at the base of the *Triassic. width of the arc-trench gap increases with time
The term ‘archosaur’ is from the Greek words through the growth of an *accretionary wedge
arkhi (‘chief’ or ‘leading’) and saura (‘lizard’). and the development of a *fore-arc basin.
arctic air Very cold *air mass, generally arcus From the Latin arcus (‘arch’). A cloud
formed north of the Arctic Circle. As air from feature having a rolled appearance, with frag-
this source moves southwards, it cools the re- mented edges on the leading surface of *cumu-
gions in which it arrives; but being itself heated lonimbus and occasionally *cumulus. When
in the process it becomes convectively unstable. well developed, the feature has a prominent
Polar *lows sometimes form and the accompa- arch-like form. See also cloud classification.
nying wintry precipitation is often heavy.
Ardipithecus ramidus The earliest known
arctic bottom water (ABW) Cold, dense member of the human lineage, discovered in
water that sinks, to a maximum depth of about 1993 by Tim White, Gen Suwa, and Berhane
6000 m, from the subpolar *gyre in the Green- Asfaw at Aramis, Ethiopia, and dated to 4.4 mil-
land and Norwegian Seas, fills the basins of lion years BP. The canine teeth are somewhat
those seas, then spills as an intermittent south- reduced from the primitive ape-like condition,
ward flow through narrow channels in the ridge but not so much as in *Australopithecus;
between Scotland, Iceland, and Greenland. the *enamel on the teeth is thin; the deciduous
 Arduino, Giovanni 38

arc-trench gap
a
sediment sediment trench

continental
crust accretionary
prism

oceanic
crust

Arc-trench gap

molars are intermediate between those of a Arenosols are weakly developed soils with a
human and a chimpanzee. The postcranial coarse texture.
skeleton indicates that it was, at least to some
degree, bipedal. areology The scientific study of Mars. De-
rived from the name of the Greek god Ares,
Arduino, Giovanni (1714–95) Arduino was known to the Romans as Mars, the god of war,
a Venetian mining engineer, who devised a clas- and logos (the Greek for word or discourse). It is
sification of the rocks of northern Italy, later analogous to geology as the study of the Earth.
adopted by T. O. *Bergman, A. G. *Werner, etc.
He distinguished between the Primary (moun- arête Knife-edged, steep-sided ridge found in
tain mica-slates), Secondary (mountain lime- upland areas that have been or are being glaci-
stones, with marine fossils), and Tertiary rocks ated, and formed by the meeting of adjacent
(fossiliferous valley sediments). *cirque headwalls. It may be diversified by ‘gen-
darmes’ (abrupt rock pinnacles that have re-
areal erosion Erosion by an *ice sheet of sisted frost shattering).
an area too large to be visible as an erosion
feature and identifiable only through mapping arfvedsonite A sodium- and iron-rich *am-
at a continental scale. phibole.
arenaceous Sandy, or sand-like in appear- argentite (silver glance) Ag2S, *ore mineral
ance or texture. The term is applied to *clastic for silver; sp. gr. 7.2–7.4; *hardness 2.0–2.5 (can
*sedimentary rocks with a grain size of 0.0625– be cut with a knife); *cubic; black and opaque;
2.00 mm. Three main groups of arenaceous slimy black *streak; *metallic *lustre; *crystals
rocks are recognized: quartz sandstones commonly cubes or octahedra, but can be
(*quartzites), which contain 95% *quartz; *ar- *massive; *cleavage poor, cubic; occurs in *hy-
koses, which have greater than 25% *feldspar; drothermal veins in association with native sil-
and *greywackes, which essentially are poorly ver and as a weathering product of primary
sorted sediments with rock (lithic) fragments in silver sulphides; unstable below 179  C and re-
a mud *matrix. placed by the *monoclinic form, acanthite.
Arenicolites An *ichnogenus of *domichnia. argic horizon In the soil classification used
Arenig A *series (471.8–478.6 Ma ago) of the by the *FAO, a *soil horizon showing signs of
Lower *Ordovician, underlain by the *Tremadoc clay enrichment.
and overlain by the *Llanvirn.
argillaceous Applied to rocks which are
arenite See dott classification; sand- *silt- to *clay-sized *sediments (grain size less
stone. than 0.0625 mm in diameter). They account for
more than 50% of *sedimentary rocks and most
Arenosols A reference soil group in the have a very high *clay mineral content. Many
soil classification scheme used by the *FAO. contain a high percentage of organic material
39 arroyo

and can be regarded as potential *source rocks Ariel (Uranus I) One of the major satellites
for *hydrocarbons. of *Uranus, with a radius of 581.1  577.9  a
577.7 km; mass 13.53  1020 kg; mean density
argillaceous limestone See marlstone. 1670 kg/m3; albedo 0.34. Surface features are
visible, including fissures, craters, and flows.
argillans See cutan.
aristogenesis Theory, like those of entele-
argillic horizon Subsurface B *soil horizon chy, nomogenesis, and orthogenesis, that
that is identified by the illuvial (see illuviation) claims that evolution proceeds along a deter-
accumulation of silicate *clays. The amount of mined path. Today, however, most people ac-
clay necessary is defined in comparison with the cept that natural selection does not direct
quantity in the overlying eluvial (see eluvia- evolution towards any particular kind of organ-
tion) horizon, but is at least 20% more. *Cutans ism or physiological attribute.
or clay skins may be used to help identify an
argillic horizon. It is at least one-tenth as thick Aristotle’s lantern The jaw apparatus pre-
as the overlying horizons. sent in *regular echinoids. Five strong jaws,
each with a single *calcite tooth, come together
argillite (lutite) A well-compacted, non- into a lantern-shaped structure which is sus-
fissile rock, containing *clay- and *silt-sized par- pended within the mouth of the echinoid. The
ticles; more indurated than a *mudstone. teeth are used in scraping algae and other food
from the sea floor.
argon–argon dating A method for *radio-
metric dating in which a sample is irradiated to arkose *Arenaceous rock containing *quartz
convert 39K to 39Ar. The sample is then heated in and 25% or more of *feldspar. The feldspar is
stages, at each stage yielding argon with a par- easily destroyed during chemical change or
ticular 40Ar: 39Ar ratio. The age of the sample is transportation, implying that arkoses were de-
calculated by comparing that ratio with the ratio posited rapidly under fairly arid environmental
in a sample of known age. The method provides conditions. Most were deposited near to land,
more detail than *potassium–argon dating and probably in close proximity to a granitic area.
it can be used with very small samples.
A
arkosic arenite A *sandstone comprising
more than 25% *feldspar and with more feldspar
 A tutorial on the 40Ar/39Ar step-heating dating than rock fragments, with less than 15% mud
technique. *matrix. The matrix is defined as material less
than 30 mm in grain size. See dott classifica-
argon-40 See potassium–argon method. tion.
arkosic wacke (feldspathic wacke, feld-
aridic moisture regime The moisture bal-
spathic greywacke) A *sandstone comprising
ance of arid climates and soils, where the annu-
more than 5% *feldspar, and more feldspar than
al precipitation is less than the potential
rock fragments, with more than 15% *matrix.
evaporation and transpiration, and where soil
The matrix is defined as material less than
moisture status is normally less than *field
30 mm in grain size. See dott classification.
capacity.
arls A collective name for *marl, *sarl, and *smarl.
Aridisol In the US Soil Taxonomy, an order of
soils found in arid environments. These soils Arnsbergian A *stage (325–326 Ma ago) of
have very little organic matter in their surface the *Serpukhovian Epoch, underlain by the
*horizons, but may contain calcium carbonate *Pendleian and overlain by the *Chokierian.
or *gypsum, and/or soluble-salt accumulations.
Arowhanan See raukumara.
aridity index Indication of moisture deficit.
All climatic classifications include arid catego-
array A geometrical distribution or pattern.
A line of *geophones or *shot points constitutes
ries, defined either by quantitative or, more
an array, as does a line of electrodes for a *resistivity
usually, by mainly subjective criteria. C. W.
survey. See also electrode configuration.
Thornthwaite first used the term ‘aridity index’
and calculated it as 100 times the water deficit, arrow worms See chaetognatha.
divided by the potential evaporation. See also
radiation index of dryness; thornthwaite arroyo Gully found along valley floors in an
climate classification. arid or semi-arid region and possessing steep or
 arsenopyrite 40

vertical walls cut in fine-grained cohesive sedi- either from primitive *Polychaeta, *Annelida,
a ments. The floor is flat and usually sandy. or from ancestors common to both. Arthropods
Found especially in the south-western United share with annelid worms a metamerically seg-
States, parts of India, S. Africa, and around the mented body (see metameric segmentation),
Mediterranean. at least in the embryo, a dorsal heart, a dorsal
anterior brain, and a ventral nerve cord that has
arsenopyrite (known historically as mis- segmental, ganglionic swellings. The limbs of all
pickel) *Mineral, FeAsS; sp. gr. 5.9–6.2; *hard- arthropods are paired, jointed, and segmental,
ness 5.5–6.0; *monoclinic; silver-grey to white, and the body has a chitinous *exoskeleton.
often with a tarnish; dark greyish or black Primitively, the limbs and cuticular plates cor-
*streak; *metallic *lustre; *crystals *prismatic, respond to the metameric segmentation of the
often striated, can also be *massive and granu- body, but in many groups there is considerable
lar; *cleavage distinct {101}; occurs in high- to loss and/or fusion of segments.
moderate-temperature mineral veins in associ-
ation with *gold, ores of tin, tungsten, *galena, arthropods See arthropoda.
and *quartz, and also disseminated in *lime-
stones, *dolomites, *gneisses, and *pegmatites. Articulata 1. (phylum *Brachiopoda) A class
It is the principal source of arsenic compounds of brachiopods, existing from the Lower *Cam-
used for pest control, for the manufacture of brian to the present day, in which the shell is
dyes and chemicals, and in leather treatment. calcareous and comprises valves hinged by
teeth in one valve and sockets in the other.
artesian water *Groundwater that is con- The *pedicle is of a horny material. Their main
fined in an *aquifer, but which may overflow radiation was in the early *Ordovician; of the
on to the land surface via artificial *boreholes seven orders present in the *Palaeozoic, three
or, sometimes, natural *springs, because of the are still extant.
high *hydraulic head that may be developed in a 2. (sea lilies) (*subphylum Crinozoa, class
confined aquifer. Artesian conditions are com- *Crinoidea) Subclass of sea lilies (crinoids) in
mon when the aquifer has a *synclinal form. which the basal plates are small or strongly
The London Basin, England, provided artesian reduced. Articulation between the radial and
water during the 19th century from a chalk brachial plates, and in the majority of brachials,
aquifer sealed by clays. The term is derived is muscular, with a well-developed fulcral ridge.
from the Artois region of north-western France. The arms are always *uniserial. All post-*Pa-
artesian well (overflowing well) A well laeozoic crinoids belong to the Articulata.
that flows at the surface without pumping, be-
cause it is sunk into a confined aquifer whose artificial freezing Method of controlling
*hydraulic head (sometimes called the potenti- *groundwater and improving strength of ground
ometric or piezometric head) lies above ground by pumping a refrigerant, e.g. calcium chloride
level. See aquifer; artesian water. or liquid nitrogen, through tubes in the ground;
as the ground freezes around closely spaced
Arthrodira (arthrodiriformes) (class *Placo- tubes, a continuous frozen zone may be formed.
dermi) Group or order of fossil (*Devonian) fish This is an expensive technique, but suitable for
with a body covered with bony plates, including mixed *strata as the results are more predictable
a heavily armoured *head shield, the gills open- than *dewatering or *grouting.
ing between head and body armour.
artificial rain Rain, or increased rain, pro-
Arthropoda A highly diverse phylum of joint- duced by seeding clouds artificially with ‘dry
ed-limbed animals, which includes the crusta- ice’ (frozen carbon dioxide), silver iodide,
ceans, arachnids, and insects as the major or other appropriate particles, which act as con-
components, as well as the classes Symphyla, densation nuclei.
Pauropoda, Chilopoda (centipedes), Diplopoda
(millipedes), and the extinct *Trilobita and eu- artificial recharge A process whereby the
rypterids (see chelicerata; merostomata). Ar- amount of water in an *aquifer is supplemented
thropods first appeared in the *Cambrian, by engineered, as opposed to natural, means.
already well diversified with such forms as the Artificial recharge may be through *boreholes,
trilobites, trilobitoids, *Ostracoda, and crabs purpose-built ponds, or simply by diverting
present, implying an earlier, hidden history, more water on to the surface *catchment of the
reaching back into the Precambrian. Embryo- aquifer. Artificial recharge may be implemented
logical evidence shows that they are derived as part of a conjunctive use scheme.
41 Asselian

Artinskian 1. An *age in the *Permian Epoch, have led to a worldwide reduction in asbestos
preceded by the *Sakmarian, followed by the production to below 3 million tonnes annually. a
*Kungurian, and dated at 284.4–275.6 Ma (Int.
Commission on Stratigraphy, 2004). 2. The Asbian A *stage (333–337.5 Ma ago) of the
name of the corresponding eastern European *Visean Epoch, underlain by the *Holkerian
*stage, which is roughly contemporaneous and overlain by the *Brigantian.
with the upper *Rotliegende (western Europe),
lower/middle *Leonardian (N. America), and aseismic Free from *earthquakes.
the Bitaunian (New Zealand).
aseismic margin See passive margin.
Artiodactyla (artiodactyls) (cohort *Ferun- aseismic ridge Long, linear, inactive, volca-
gulata) Even-toed ungulates, an order of nic, topographic feature found in many deep-
mammals that includes the living camels, pigs, ocean basins. An example is the Walvis Ridge
and ruminants. Descended from the *Condylar- in the south-eastern Atlantic, which extends for
thra, they underwent a spectacular burst of 3 000 km and in places reaches a height of 2 km
*adaptive radiation in *Eocene and early *Oli- above the deep-ocean floor.
gocene times, largely replacing the initially
more numerous *Perissodactyla. The ankle ash *Tephra less than 2 mm in size.
bone (astragalus) is specialized in artiodactyls
to give better spring. The axis of the foot is ash-cloud surge See surge.
paraxonic (passing between the third and fourth
digits). In primitive, four-toed types, e.g. the pig, ash cone See scoria cone.
the first digit is absent; in advanced forms the
second and fifth digits are also reduced or lost. ash-flow See pyroclastic flow.
Early forms had an unspecialized dentition, but
in the course of evolution the upper incisors Ashgill A *series (443.7–449 Ma) of the Upper
were lost in some species, the lower incisors *Ordovician, underlain by the *Caradoc and
biting against the hardened gum of the upper overlain by the *Llandovery (*Silurian).
jaw, an adaptation to a herbivorous diet.
asiderite See stony meteorite.
Arundian A *stage (339–341 Ma ago) of the asphalt Brown or black, solid or semi-solid,
*Visean Epoch, underlain by the *Chadian and bituminous substance made almost entirely of
overlain by the *Holkerian. carbon and hydrogen. It melts between 65 and
95  C and is soluble in carbon disulphide. It is
Asaphida An order of *Trilobita that lived formed by the evaporation of volatile *hydrocar-
from the Upper *Cambrian to *Silurian. There bons and occurs in oil-bearing rocks, e.g. in
were six suborders. Trinidad, or as a residue from *petroleum refin-
ing.
asbestos Fibrous varieties of *amphibole and
*serpentine, including chrysotile (fibrous ser- asphaltite See gilsonite.
pentine), *actinolite (asbestos proper), amosite
(a variety of *anthophyllite), and crocidolite assay The analysis of *minerals and mine
(blue asbestos; a variety of *riebeckite). Ancient products to determine the concentrations of
civilizations referred to asbestos cloth as their components.
amianthus (from the Greek word meaning ‘un-
defiled’), because it could be cleaned by throw- Asselian 1. An *age (294.6–299 Ma ago) in
ing it into a fire and all varieties of asbestos have the Early *Permian Epoch, preceded by the *Ste-
great heat-resistant properties; varieties with fi- phanian, *Gzhelian, and Noginskian (*Carbon-
bres long enough to be spun and woven are iferous), followed by the *Sakmarian (Int.
used commercially for heat-resistant cements, Commission on Stratigraphy, 2004).
cladding, and insulation material, and for asbes- 2. The name of the corresponding eastern
tos corrugated sheets. However, many of its European *stage which, because of lower
uses, particularly as brake pads for cars and as boundary uncertainties, has also been consid-
pipe and ceiling insulation materials, have been ered as part of the Carboniferous system.
banned, because the inhalation of asbestos dust It is roughly contemporaneous with the lower
(small, airborne, needle-like fibres) can cause *Wolfcampian and lower *Rotliegende (western
serious lung diseases (e.g. asbestosis) and con- Europe), and with the lower Somoholoan (New
tribute to pneumoconiosis. Health concerns Zealand). See also sakmarian.
 assemblage zone 42

assemblage zone (coenozone, fauni- (3352); mathilde (253); mimistrobell (3840);

a zone) *Biostratigraphic unit or level of *strata nereus (4660); pallas (2); shipka (2530); tou-
characterized by a particular assemblage of an- tatis (4179); vesta (4).
imals or plants. An assemblage zone is named
after one or more of the distinguishing *fossils Asterosoma A mounded, lobed, somewhat
present, which are chosen without regard star-shaped *trace fossil. The central tube was
for their total time ranges, so that the assem- occupied by an organism; the surrounding,
blage is of purely environmental significance. detrital lobes are the result of feeding processes.
Compare concurrent range zone.
Asteroxylon An early lycopsid (*Lycopsida)
assimilation In *petrology, the processes of plant that occurs in the Rhynie Chert, Aber-
melting and solution by which wall rock is in- deenshire, Scotland (Lower *Devonian). It has
corporated into *magma. Partial or complete dichotomous rhizomes and the aerial exten-
melting may occur at *contacts and at depth in sions bear leaf-like enations (outgrowths).
detached blocks or *xenoliths. Assimilation Asterozoa (starfish, brittle stars) (phylum
causing changes in composition of the original *Echinodermata) Subphylum whose members
magma may lead to hybrid or contaminated have *radial symmetry of projecting rays, and a
rocks. The term does not imply any particular star-shaped body. See also ambulacrum.
mechanism. See partial melting.
asthenosphere The weak zone within the
assimilation-fractional crystallization upper *mantle, underlying the *lithosphere,
(AFC) An important process in *igneous *petrol- where the mantle rocks deform by plastic flow
ogy whereby *melts with widely differing isoto- in response to applied stresses of the order of
pic and *trace elements can be produced. When 100 MPa. It is commonly considered to be co-
a primitive *magma, such as a *basalt, invades incident with the upper-mantle seismic *low-
crustal rocks, portions of the *country rock may velocity zone, but this is probably valid only
become detached and included in the magma for the oceanic sectors of the mantle. *Viscosity
as *xenoliths. Because of the high temperature is of the order of 1021–22 poise, i.e. the same as
and thermal capacity of the basalt, it is capable the underlying mantle, but it is much more
of melting a proportion of the country rock. In ‘fluid’ than the overlying lithosphere. Originally
doing so it loses some of its own heat and thus a it was recognized as a possible explanation for
proportion of the magma crystallizes. The com- *isostatic behaviour, and it is generally recog-
position of the resulting magma is determined nized as a mantle zone within which convective
by the relative amounts of magma and country motions take place. The depth of *earthquake
rock initially present; the rates at which assim- foci in *subduction zones suggests that des-
ilation and crystallization proceed; and by the cending convection limbs penetrate to 700 km,
*partition coefficients of the various elements just above the upper mantle–lower mantle
between solid and liquid. boundary. Rising limbs of asthenospheric man-
astatic magnetometer See magneto- tle convection are located under surface spread-
meter. ing centres (*mid-oceanic ridges).

astogenetic heterochrony Among colo-

Asteriacites An *ichnogenus of *cubichnia.
nial animals, *heterochrony that affects the
asteroid A small rocky or metallic body orbit- colony as a whole. Compare mosaic hetero-
ing the *Sun in the asteroid belt between the chrony; ontogenetic heterochrony.
orbits of *Mars and *Jupiter (from about 2.2 to
astraeoid A condition that occurs in massive
3.2 AU (see astronomical unit), with one fam-
*corals. Massive corals are composed of closely
ily (Trojans) at 5 AU occupying two of the jovian
packed *corallites and the individuals become
*Lagrangian Points). Two families (Apollo and
polygonal in shape. In the astraeoid condition
Aten, as well as some Amor objects) have orbits
the walls of the corallites become reduced or
that cross *Earth’s orbit. The largest asteroid is 1
lost but the *septa remain entire. See com-
Ceres (diameter 987  150 km). About 30 ex-
pound corals.
ceed 200 km in diameter and over 3000 have
been identified. *Meteorites are probable sam- astragalus The ankle bone.
ples of the asteroid belt. See apollo (1862);
castalia (4769); ceres (1); chiron (2060); astrobleme Literally, ‘star-wound’; a terres-
eros (433); gaspra (951); geographos (1620); trial crater formed by *meteorite, *asteroidal,
icarus (1566); ida (243); Juno (3); mcauliffe or *cometary impact. The term is generally
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
pontefici, e Carlomagno di molto andava debitore alla Chiesa e la
Chiesa di molto andava debitrice a Carlomagno. Il nuovo lignaggio
avea bisogno della forza morale che la podestà del chiericato
imparte, onde Adriano e Carlomagno si stringevan per mano, ed
ogni viaggio di quest'ultimo a Roma era un nuovo legame; e quando
alcun pontefice vedeasi cacciato dalle sollevazioni del popolo e
dall'invasion de' nemici, veniva a riparar ne' monasteri di San Dionigi
e di San Martino di Tours, mentre se a Carlomagno facea d'uopo di
qualche nuova dignità od indulgenza, ei veniva in persona o scriveva
a Roma. Dalla caduta del regno de' Longobardi principia la piena
autorità temporale de' papi, i quali divengono, a così dire, i
rappresentanti dell'antico spirito di Roma, de' suoi patrizi e de' suoi
senatori. La città eterna conserva il suo Foro, i suoi rostri, ed
appunto in mezzo a questo Foro Carlomagno vien, pochi anni dopo,
a cinger la corona imperiale.
 CAPITOLO X.
GUERRA CONTRO I SASSONI. — RUINA DELLA
LORO REPUBBLICA MILITARE.

Indole de' Franchi e dei Sassoni. — Cagioni delle

grandi vittorie di Carlomagno. — Le armature. — La
tattica. — La discordia. — I capi. — Tentasi la
predicazione cristiana. — Irruzione dei Sassoni. —
Mossa di Carlomagno oltre il Reno. — Seconda guerra
sassonica. — Conquista. — Ostaggi. — Terza
sollevazione. — Trattato pe' tributi e per la libertà della
predicazione cristiana. — Quarta sollevazione. — Le
grandi schiatte messe a morte. — Dispergimento delle
famiglie. — I Sassoni nei monasteri di Francia. —
Capitolari sulla conquista. — Ordinamento per contadi
e vescovadi. — Vittichindo si sottomette e fine della
repubblica militare. — Il popolo della Frisia e della
Sassonia. — I Danesi ultimi vendicatori della libertà
sassone. — La canzone di Guiteclino di Sassonia.

772 — 786.

Le lunghe guerre dei Franchi contro i Sassoni non si riferiscono solo

al regno di Carlomagno; ma al par di quelle dei Longobardi, esse
cominciano sotto il governo di Pipino, origine e principio delle
spedizioni de' Carolingi. Pipino ha cominciato le guerre, Carlomagno
le termina, degno figlio com'egli è dell'uomo più valoroso per
avventura che mai fosse nella sua breve ed esigua statura [155].
Questa guerra sassonica ha da durare trentatrè anni con intervalli sì
brevi di riposo che non si possono dir tregue, nè i Franchi cessano
mai di stare in armi finchè non abbiano intieramente domate le tribù
dell'Elba e del Visurgo (Veser) sì turbolente come furono nell'ottavo e
nel nono secolo.
Or quali eran dunque coteste popolazioni sassoni di cui le cronache
continuamente ci parlano? Donde procedea tanto vigor da queste
genti spiegato contro Carlomagno, contro quel principe che pur
dominava il tempo suo, con la perseveranza del sovrano suo volere,
e la potenza del valor suo? Nella mirabil opera da Tacito dedicata ai
costumi de' Germani, il grande istorico punto non scevera i Sassoni
dall'altra schiatta dell'antico ceppo alemanno. Queste antiche tribù
che abitavano in sull'estreme rive dell'Elba, non erano forse ancora
conosciute dai Romani, e confondevansi senza nome certo in alcuna
delle grandi diramazioni della famiglia, germanica [156]. Gli annali di
Roma fanno menzione per la prima volta de' Sassoni verso la metà
del secolo IV, quando in mezzo a quel gran commovimento di popoli
ed a quella vertigine che colse tutt'a un tratto le tribù accampate al
centro ed al settentrione dell'Europa, essi Sassoni cominciano a
mostrarsi nella universale irruzione. San Girolamo ne parla in una
delle sue epistole dove deplora i guasti delle Gallie fatti dai Barbari.
Nel tempo che l'imperatore Onorio fece far il censo delle diverse
popolazioni dell'impero, e ordinò di comporre il libro intorno alle
dignità del mondo romano [157], si vede notato un conte del lido
sassone [158]; indi, un secolo appresso, i Sassoni formano una
schiera di quella guardia germanica onde gl'imperatori di
Costantinopoli circondavano la loro persona [159]; e già s'eran renduti
famosi per le loro spedizioni marittime, sì che Sidonio Apollinare ce li
presenta come i navigatori più ardimentosi di que' tempi, e dal fondo
dell'Alvernia il pauroso vescovo già piange i guasti che questi popoli
far potranno sulle spiagge della Gallia e della Bretagna; nè andò
guari che le sue predizioni furono avverate, e che la conquista
dell'Inghilterra fatta dai Sassoni venne a dar prova di quanto
potevano quegli arditi navigatori.
In origine i Sassoni si mescolarono a quella massa di nazioni
scandinave che abitano dalle foci dell'Elba e dalla quasi che isola
della Islanda fino alla Norvegia e alla Svezia [160]. Qualche secolo
dopo in mezzo al generale trambusto delle nazioni conquistatrici
s'eran eglino stabiliti fin sulle sponde del Reno. E' non si vuol
confondere i Sassoni coi Bavari e gli Alamanni che abitavano la
Svevia e la Turingia fino al Danubio; nè cogli Unni tampoco e gli
Avari, attendati in Ungheria, e di poi traboccati, al secolo decimo,
nelle Gallie, coi quali non avevano nulla a che fare. I Sassoni aveano
piuttosto qualche identità co' Normanni d'origine scandinava, donde
la lega loro co' Danesi e Frisoni, popoli marittimi dell'Europa
settentrionale, fra cui trovavano soccorsi ed ausiliari; vinti,
riparavano nelle terre loro; vincitori si facevano spalla della Iolanda o
Giudland e della Frisia; avevano costumi consimili, la mitologia loro
appressavasi a quella dell'Edda, ed in capo a ogni rito i Sassoni
ponevano l'adorazione che grande aveano per Irminsul, unico dio
che differenziavasi dalla mitologia scandinava: lo adoravano sotto
grandi alberi, gli sagrificavano vittime umane, e l'invocavano nei
giorni di battaglia, a lui ascrivendo il dare e il tôr la vittoria [161].
Le sole notizie giunte insino a noi intorno al culto dei Sassoni d
vengono dai pellegrinaggi scritti dai santi vescovi, che tentarono di
convertirli al cristianesimo [162], e ci dicon che que' Barbari
innalzavano sopra sterminati massi i loro altari, e che sullo spazzo
del tempio i sacerdoti trafiggevano in cuore le vittime umane. Il Dio
loro apparteneva alla razza del gallico Teutate, torva divinità che
rappresentava il Tempo e Saturno in mezzo a sanguinosi olocausti.
Eresburgo era centro del culto de' Sassoni e di quella repubblica
militare, in cui ogni uomo libero era soldato all'uso antico dei
Germani. I pontefici loro eran potenti al pari dei druidi appo i Galli, e
il tempio era ornato di spoglie sanguigne. Il sagrificio delle vittime
umane era consuetudine presso le nordiche nazioni, e nei riti de'
Galli troviamo appiè degli altari la morte dell'uomo come simbolo di
riscatto e d'espiazione. La predicazione cristiana fu santa cagione
che queste fatali opinioni si mutassero, e l'Agnello di Dio in croce
venne a sbandir le viscere delle vittime e ad annunziar che gli
olocausti eran finiti col sacrificio di Gesù Salvatore.
La guerra più formidabile, più ostinata che Carlomagno ebbe a
sostener nell'operosa sua vita, fu certo, e la storia il conferma, quella
dei Sassoni, che si rinnovella ad ogni tornata di militar parlamento, e
scoppia ad ogni minimo accidente; i Sassoni si sottomettono, poi di
nuovo insorgono; vengono sino al Reno, e son quasi sempre ributtati
fino alle spiagge littorali del Baltico. Ogni volta che essi veggon gli
eserciti di Carlomagno occupati in lontane spedizioni, in Italia,
esempigrazia, o in Ispagna, e' corron da tutte le parti, e inondano le
provincie del Reno ed anche della Mosella, rizzano i loro templi,
spogliano le chiese cristiane, o atterrano le merlate torri da re Carlo
erette nel territorio loro; accanite ostilità di vagabonde ed indomite
popolazioni.
Di mezzo a questa continua guerra un fatto emerge tuttavia, ed è la
continuità de' trionfi degli eserciti franchi condotti contra i Sassoni da
Carlomagno. Questi popoli si gittano come uno sciame sino alle
frontiere dei Franchi, saccheggiano, guastano, via cacciano i conti, i
vescovi, ma non sì tosto appar Carlomagno e' son vinti, e fuggono in
faccia a lui, come se fulminati fossero dal balenare degli occhi suoi.
Egli scorre trionfalmente il loro paese, impone leggi, vince battaglie,
e li domina da signore quasi assoluto. Or donde un tale effetto? I
Sassoni e i Franchi hanno a un dipresso la stessa origine, la stessa
forza di corpo; biondi e torosi, sanguigni e collerici, questi due popoli
uscirono entrambi dalla Germania. Vittichindo è un capo di guerra
fiero altrettanto almeno quanto Carlomagno; nondimeno, il torno a
dir, questi popoli della Sassonia sono sempre rotti e fugati innanzi
alla vittoriosa razza degli Austrasii. Il che veniva dalla potente civiltà
dai Franchi acquistata poi che si furono stabiliti nelle Gallie. Quivi
aveano ereditate le armi e i modi strategici dei Romani; le legioni
traevano le loro armature dalle fabbriche di Lione, di Say e
d'Auxerre; esse erano coperte di ferro; ed i Franchi che veduto
aveano le maraviglie operate dalla disciplina unita con la fermezza
degli antichi signori del mondo, accettato avevano i loro strumenti da
guerra. Apparivano quindi in campo coperti di corazza, di scudi, di
usberghi; i leudi ed i conti bardavano i loro cavalli, e li faceano
muovere secondo certi principii dell'arte militare. Se i Sassoni
serbavano l'audacia, l'impeto de' loro antenati, aveano tuttavia il
disordine delle soldatesche indisciplinate; vero è che eglino
avventavansi a rotta, spargendo il terrore ne' punti più lontani, ma
se si trovavano aver a fronte un esercito ordinato, e modi d'assalto e
di difesa di studiata e ponderata gagliardia, erano fatti tosto inetti al
resistere. Carlomagno tenne, a quanto si vede, con loro l'osata sua
scaltra e tortuosa politica, la quale consisteva sempre in dividere le
tribù, i capi, i popoli fra loro, di che nulla era più facile appo i
Sassoni, repubblica errante che quasi contava un capo per ogni
villaggio. Questa politica del re dei Franchi con loro era quella stessa
dei Romani quando conquistarono le Gallie; col seminar la discordia
domò gli uni con l'opera degli altri.
Fino dal principio del regno di Carlomagno, tentossi la prima prova di
introdurre il dominio franco e cristiano fra i Sassoni. Già san
Bonifazio avea stabilito una sedia episcopale a Magonza, centro
cattolico, donde la predicazione potea stendersi lontano, e morto lui
martire ne' Frisoni, un altro semplice prete, di nome Levino, lasciò,
come Bonifazio, la sua solitudine d'Inghilterra, per andare ad
annunziare il Vangelo ai Sassoni. Le missioni destinate a convertire le
popolazioni scandinave partivano quasi sempre dall'Inghilterra,
perchè intendevano la lingua di questo paese, ed i predicatori
aveano con quelle comune l'origine. San Levino ricevette quindi
l'anello sacro e l'imposizione delle mani dal vescovo d'Utrecht, e
varcato il Reno venne ad annunziare la divina parola sull'Issel, dove
battezzò neofiti, ed edificò chiese con cappelle ed oratorii, che erano
come le prime piantagioni della conquista cristiana. Poi non
sufficiente parendogli questa prima missione, si risolse d'andar a
predicare all'adunanza generale dei Sassoni che teneasi sulle sponde
del Veser, e mentre quelle ardenti e bellicose tribù stavano
terminandola con alcuni sacrifizii al patrio Iddio, ei comparve in
mezzo a quell'armato tumulto con una croce in mano, il libro dei
Vangeli sul capo, e ornato de' suoi abiti sacerdotali, gridando:
«Ascoltate, ascoltate colui che vi parla per bocca mia: non v'è altro
Dio che il creatore del cielo e della terra, il vero Dio che ha
compassione della vostra cecità, a voi m'invia; ricevete il battesimo,
ed egli vi libererà da tutti i mali. Se le mie parole non vi toccano,
prestate orecchio almeno a questi miei salutari avvisi. Non lungi da
voi vive un re valoroso che si avanza come un rapido torrente per
dare il guasto alle vostre terre. Badate bene; ei condurrà in ischiavitù
le mogli e i figli vostri, una parte di voi perirà per le armi sue o per la
fame, e a tutti vi sarà forza piegar il capo sotto il giogo di questo
uomo possente». Queste parole, che accennavano alle conquiste di
Carlomagno, commossero a ira siffattamente que' Sassoni, che i più
impetuosi fra loro correvano già alle siepi vicine a strapparne pali per
battere il pio missionario, il quale scampò quasi per miracolo di mano
a quella tempestosa assemblea. Quando Dio fece insorgere in modo,
si può dire, miracoloso, un capo di nome Butone, che parlò in questi
termini: «O voi, uomini tutti di senno, non vi ricordate dei tanti messi
venuti a noi da' Normanni e dagli Schiavoni, e da noi sempre accolti
con onore e regalati? E perchè vorrem noi ora cacciare
ignominiosamente il messo di Dio?» Le quali sagge e pacifiche
parole calmarono la torba in tempesta, e Levino potè così sparger tra
i Sassoni i primi germi della predicazione cristiana [163].
Il pensare ad una durevol pace co' Franchi punto non si affaceva
coll'indole delle fiere e vagabonde tribù che occupavano le terre del
Veser, benchè già ridotte a tributo da Pipino, a cui favore erasi
dichiarata la vittoria in più scontri. I Sassoni vesfalici principalmente,
che erano i più vicini alle terre di Francia, insorsero spesso a
molestare i conti e i difensori delle marche che proteggevano le
frontiere, e cogliendo il tempo che Carlomagno trovavasi lontano, si
precipitavano sul Reno, ed anche oltre i limiti della Mosella, non
senza profittar delle discordie surte fra quello e il fratel suo
Carlomanno, per francarsi del tributo ad essi imposto da Pipino. La
prima guerra sassonica ebbe principio all'esaltazione di Carlo al trono
di tutta la nazione dei Franchi; perchè appunto egli trovavasi a
Vormazia, dove erasi congregato un parlamento di leudi e conti a
gridarlo re e riconoscerlo, quando fu dal parlamento stesso risoluta
la guerra contro le tribù che continuamente molestavano la quiete
della Francia orientale.
Il poeta sassone, che tenne dietro con grande diligenza alla vita di
Carlomagno, ci descrive la prima di queste guerre, e poichè egli
apparteneva per patria alle nazioni del Norte, e per la stanza sua in
mezzo ai monasteri or della Neustria ed or dell'Austrasia, conservar
potè le impressioni e le rimembranze dell'antica terra sassone,
lascierò che parli egli stesso di questa breve spedizione dei Franchi:
«Re Carlo (così egli), convocato in Vormazia un congresso generale
de' suoi signori, decretò, d'accordo con loro, di muover guerra ai
Sassoni, però che quantunque la terra di questi popoli tocchi quella
dei Franchi, sì che i confini non sono ancor tra loro bene distinti,
quanto più stretta era la vicinanza loro, e tanti più erano i motivi di
discordia tra i due paesi, da cui con vicenda continua traevasi, sulla
vicina frontiera, la strage, l'incendio, il saccheggio. Ben altro che
mostrarsi degni di portare il soave giogo di Cristo, i Sassoni, in balìa
a tutta la foga della salvatica loro natura, e alla rozzezza delle menti
loro, ancor vivevan sotto l'imperio dell'errore e del demonio. I
Franchi, all'incontro, cristiani da lungo tempo e difensori ferventi
della fede cattolica, dominavano sur una gran quantità di popoli, col
cui sussidio appunto, e soprattutto col potere di Dio, del quale
scrupolosamente osservavano i comandamenti, si confidavano
sottometter quella nazione. Simili alle membra di un corpo che
fossero qua e là sparse, e non congiunte a formarlo, in vece
d'ubbidire ad un re che solo fosse a capo del governo e della milizia,
i Sassoni erano divisi in varii piccioli stati, e aveano quasi altrettanti
capi quanti villaggi. Pur tuttavia le regioni da essi abitate partivansi
in tre parti distinte, e i popoli che le occupavano, erano un giorno
rinomati pel valor loro, ma di presente d'essi non riman più che il
nome, ed il valor se n'è andato. Quelli della parte occidentale aveano
loro confini presso il Reno, e chiamavansi Vesfalii; gli Osterlindi,
Osterlingi od Ostvali abitavano il levante, infestati alla frontiera dai
perfidi Schiavoni. Gli Angarii, finalmente, la terza popolazione dei
Sassoni, occupano lo spazio compreso fra i due antedetti paesi, e co'
lor meridionali confini fronteggiano le terre di Francia, intantochè
verso settentrione il territorio loro si stende fino all'Oceano. Tali sono
i popoli che Carlo erasi deliberato di guerreggiare, e però senza por
tempo in mezzo, corse con tutte le forze dei Franchi a predare ed
ardere il loro paese. Prese, cammin facendo, una rocca, da quei
Barbari chiamata Eresburgo [164], fortificata dalla natura e più ancora
dall'arte, ed ivi stesso atterrato un idolo, adorato da loro sotto il
nome d'Irminsul, che era una colonna squisitamente lavorata e tutta
carica d'ornamenti [165], il re pose il suo campo vicinissimo a questo
luogo. I lunghi calori della state senza pioggie, ardevano le
campagne; le fonti asciutte altro non contenevano che arida polvere,
e la sete già cominciava a travagliare il campo del re, quando
l'Altissimo, in rimunerazione d'aver distrutto quell'idolo profano,
mostrò il poter suo, sgorgar facendo di bel meriggio,
improvvisamente dall'arido letto d'un vicin torrente, una fonte che
bastò ai bisogni dell'esercito [166]. —
Quest'irruzione oltre il Reno precedette la guerra contro Desiderio, re
de' Longobardi, e la ruina di questa dinastia. Vero è che durante la
guerra di Lombardia, le forze dei Franchi non poterono tutte esser
adoperate contro la Sassonia, ma pure questa fu sempre il maggior
campo delle imprese di Carlomagno, e par ch'ei se ne compiacesse,
chè quel paese rammemorava ai Franchi la prima loro origine, e le
due nazioni si rassomigliavano in più d'una fattezza. Domati per un
momento, i Sassoni ripigliarono le armi tosto che videro il re
affaccendato oltre monti; abilissimi per istinto a coglier le buone
occasioni, essi varcavano il Reno, e si precipitavano sopra i suoi
confini, ogni volta che sapessero aver egli da fare altrove; mentre
pagavano puntualmente i loro tributi, di armenti, di lane, di danaro
quando il sapevano alla sua corte di Magonza, di Vormazia, di
Colonia o di Aix. E di che avean eglino infatti a temere quand'ei
trovavasi insiem co' suoi paladini al di là delle Alpi o de' Pirenei?
Onde allora tumultuariamente correvano a vendicarsi in libertà e ad
abbeverare i loro cavalli nelle acque del Reno. «Mentre il re stava in
faccende in Italia,» dice il poeta cronista da me più sopra citato, «i
Sassoni tornaron sulle frontiere dei Franchi, e vennero a predare un
borgo chiamato Hassi, ponendolo tutto a ferro e fuoco, spinti a tali
eccessi dalla lontananza del re e dal pensiero di vendicarsi così delle
perdite fatte lor sostenere dai Franchi, e di porsi in condizione di non
averne a sostenere più mai. S'innoltraron pure fino a Frideslar, ed ivi
fecero lor potere d'appiccare il fuoco a una chiesa, che il martire
Bonifazio, diletto sacerdote di Cristo, ci aveva edificata; ma vedendo
riuscir vana ogni opera loro, furono ad un tratto colti da tanto
terrore, che si misero a fuggir verso la patria loro, senz'essere a ciò
costretti dalle armi nemiche, ma solo per divino potere. Intanto
Carlomagno presa Pavia, e avute in soggezione tutte l'altre città,
tornò nel paese de' padri suoi, conducendo seco Desiderio, e fece
entrar a un medesimo tempo tre eserciti sulle terre dei Sassoni,
empiendole di rapine, di sangue e di ruine; poi convocato a Carisio
un congrego dei grandi e nobili franchi, ivi, fra le altre deliberazioni
intorno alle cose e ai bisogni dello stato, fu preso di fare a' Sassoni
guerra perpetua, certi oramai che con loro non potevasi aver più
pace; onde Carlomagno deliberò di non volerli più lasciar quieti un
sol istante, finchè abbandonato il culto degli idoli, non fossero
divenuti cristiani; o altrimenti tutti fino all'ultimo distruggerli. O santa
misericordia di Dio che tutti ci vuoi salvi! L'Eterno, che avea
conosciuto come niuna cosa del mondo avrebbe potuto ammollir le
dure cervici di costoro, a scuoter la naturale caparbietà loro, ed a
costringerli a sottomettersi al dolce giogo di Cristo, diè loro per
maestro e dottore il gran Carlo, il quale, domandoli con l'armi e con
le ragioni, li fece così quasi a forza, entrar nella via della salute».
Si vede qui che nell'animo del poeta s'è cancellata la natura del
Sassone antico, e ch'ei dimentica la prima patria, rammorbidato
oramai e devoto al pari d'un Neustro. Poi, pur sempre servendo alla
politica di Carlomagno, il cronista del monastero prosegue:
«Quest'util disegno fu da fatti straordinari favoreggiato; poichè
entrato il re nel territorio nemico, guidando il fiore della gioventù,
che avea convocato a Duria, s'impadronì tosto d'Eresburgo e
Sigisburgo, lasciandovi presidio, e continuò il suo cammino fin al
Visurgo appiè del monte Brunesberga [167]. Quivi raccoltasi una gran
massa di popolo, voleva contendergli il passo: inutili sforzi! al primo
scontro quella densa turba è sgominata, e moltissimi cadono uccisi.
Di quivi re Carlo si conduce nel paese degli Osterlindi; Hesso, un de'
loro principali signori, accompagnato da quasi tutto il popolo,
prostrasi supplichevole dinanzi a lui, e consegnando gli ostaggi
addimandati, gli giura eterna ubbidienza. Intanto quei che Carlo
avea lasciato a Lisbacco, presso il Visurgo, vollero essere oppressi da
un tradimento dei nemici. Era l'ora del tramonto, quando i soldati
tornando da foraggiare, s'incontraron nei Sassoni che
s'accompagnaron con loro chiamandoli amici, e coprendo sotto
questo nome, l'animo di fieri nemici. Essi accomunan la fatica coi
Franchi, gli aiutano portare i pesanti fasci d'erba onde son carichi, e
con le loro cortesie vie più accrescono la confidenza che avevasi in
loro. Finalmente, Franchi e Sassoni entran tutti insieme nel campo;
ma non sì tosto i primi cominciano a chiuder gli occhi al sonno, i
crudeli loro nemici si levan tutt'a un tratto, e fanno orribile scempio
di quelle povere disarmate ed assonnate genti. Se non che alcuni de'
Franchi, scosso il grave letargo, danno di piglio alle armi, e
cominciano ad opporsi vittoriosamente al nemico che viene in breve
cacciato dal campo. Al primo annunzio che n'ebbe il re, fu tale il suo
affrettarsi per correr co' suoi soldati sul luogo del combattimento,
ch'ei fu ancora in tempo di calar sui Sassoni, e di farne macello.»
I Sassoni formavano dunque un accozzamento di picciole tribù sotto
mille diversi capi, in virtù dello stesso principio e della stessa
consuetudine che ad essi avea fatto crear l'ettarchia in Inghilterra,
chè ogni popolo ha il suggello della sua propria natura, e la porta
seco anche nelle sue trasmigrazioni. In mezzo a questi oscuri
regoletti, un capo s'era innalzato di più maschia, più sublime, più
vigorosa tempra, e chiamavansi Vittichindo, celebre nelle cronache e
nelle ballate del Nord. Dove nasceva egli quest'uom valente? qual
era l'origin sua? Lo stesso avvien dì Vittichindo che di Carlomagno;
niun sa dir la città che gli diede i natali. Il nome suo, essenzialmente
germanico, veniva da due parole dell'antico idioma sassone With-
Kind (il figliuol bianco) o a dir più proprio, il giovin biondo dalle belle
forme. Alcune fra le leggende alemanne il fanno figliuolo di
Vernechingo re o capo delle tribù sassoni stanziate tra il Reno e
l'Elba, e certo al veder la grandissima autorità da lui esercitata nelle
deliberazioni di quei popoli bellicosi egli doveva essere uscito da
qualche grande schiatta, però che i privilegi di famiglia regnavano
con grand'ordine appo i popoli tramontani. Ogni volta che Vittichindo
appariva tra i Sassoni, essi pigliavano le armi per la patria, quasi
ricordasse loro l'antico Ermanno, l'Arminio degli Annali di Roma, quel
forte difensore della libertà germanica. Ermanno e Vittichindo, due
nomi che suonano ancora ogni volta che l'Alemagna insorge per la
integrità sua, o la sua libertà! Il dio Irminsul medesimo, quel
monumento di cui sì spesso favellano i cronisti di Francia, altro forse
non era che il simbolo dell'Ermanno germanico, il vincitor di Varo,
che protegger parea con la sua memoria i gloriosi sforzi dei
Sassoni [168].
Le discordie e le gelosie delle tribù favorivano le imprese di
Carlomagno contro i Sassoni; il quale com'ebbe finita la guerra coi
Longobardi, e si fu cinto della corona di ferro, calò con maggior forza
che mai sulle popolazioni che abitavano le rive del Veser, inoltrandosi
i Franchi vittoriosamente sino a quelle dell'Oder. In questa rapida
conquista ci si fa incontro un capo di nome Esso o Elgi, il quale
capitanava i Vesfalii. Forse che a costui debban l'origine e il nome
loro gli Essiani o Assiani, quel popolo sì valoroso? Questa tribù venne
ad offerire ostaggi per pegno di sua fede a Carlo, dopo di che, dalle
rive dell'Oder egli tornossene rattamente in Vesfalia, dove pure i
popoli gli danno pegni di fede, e si obbligano a pagargli tributo
d'armenti, di lana, e a lasciargli il reddito d'alcune miniere d'argento
e di rame: sì che credendo, almen per poco, sottomessi que' popoli,
se ne va, nè sì tosto se n'è andato, che piglian di nuovo le armi, e gli
ostaggi più non bastano; ma vinti in una nuova invasione, corrono in
frotta, sulle rive della Lippa a prestar omaggio al vincitore; il quale
rimette in piedi e fortifica il castello d'Eresburgo, posto a tener in
dovere i Sassoni, come quel di Fronsacco a reprimere gli Aquitani.
I Franchi tenevano in obbedienza ogni popolo vassallo con torri
merlate, ond'è che tutta quella terra è ancor seminata di queste
rovine del medio evo. Su quelle bertesche, ora coperte dal musco e
corrose dal rovaio, sorgevano un tempo fieri e superbi uomini di
guerra, e su quelle pietre spezzate viveva, or fa dieci secoli, una
generazione di largo petto che si abbeverava dei vini del Reno e
della Mosella nella tazza del convito, e in cima a quella torre logorata
dagli anni piangea forse qualche nobil donzella di Svevia, sposa
prima diletta, poi ripudiata dall'implacabil Barone. Ma il tempo ha
tutto calpestato con lo struggitore suo piede, e ormai più non s'ode
colà se non il vento che fischia per mezzo a quelle fenditure, come
un organo toccato dalia morte ad animar la fantastica ronda dei
conti antichi, usciti per poco dalle tombe loro.
Dopo aver vinto i Sassoni, Carlomagno indusse i capi loro ad
abbracciare il cristianesimo, giogo morale che afforzar doveva la sua
sovrana signoria. Tutto inteso a vederne la fine, piantò nella vernata
gli alloggiamenti suoi in un luogo che prese il nome di Heerstal, che
suona campo di guerra, e ivi tenne la sua corte plenaria fino a
primavera. Indi un editto suo reale intimato avendo una dieta di
leudi, conti e vescovi a Paderborna, alcune tribù sassoni v'accorrono
per rinnovare il giuramento loro di fedeltà, ma non il fiero
Vittichindo, che fuggitosi fra i Danesi, è ito a cercare un rifugio nella
Giutlandia, dove accampano alcune tribù alleate dei Sassoni;
Vittichindo, l'eroe della gente veramente germanica. In mezzo a
queste guerre del Reno, dell'Elba e del Veser, tre popolazioni
muovono con comune accordo di resistenza contro Carlomagno, e
sono i Sassoni, i Danesi e i Frisoni, che tutti mostrano di appartenere
al medesimo sangue, alla medesima causa, e di mano in mano che
egli incalza i loro avanzi gli uni sugli altri, essi popoli si concentrano
nella Scandinavia fino alla reazione de' Normanni, che a vendicar poi
verranno i loro maggiori sull'impero dei deboli successori di
Carlomagno. Le leggende dicono che Vittichindo ebbe per moglie
Geva, sorella d'un capo danese dello Sleswich, che nella lingua
franca nomasi Sigifredo e nella danese Sivardo. Una parte dei
Sassoni seguì il loro capo Vittichindo appo i Danesi, mentre l'altra
venne per trattare con Carlomagno alla dieta di Paderborna; e dopo
lunghi parlamenti, a lui questi si soggettarono, conservando per
patto molte franchigie sotto la dominazione dei Franchi. Essi
serbarono, a simiglianza de' Longobardi, le leggi loro, le radunanze
dei capi nei campi di guerra, e soggettati a tributo, altro non fecero
che un atto di vassallaggio, acconsentendo insieme alla
propagazione della religion cristiana in mezzo alle tende e città
loro [169], onde a' vescovi e preti fu libero lo scorrer le città e borghi
per annunziarvi la verità della fede. Per ultimo fu conceduto che tutti
que' capi delle tribù sassoni, che sottomettersi non volessero al
trattato conchiuso con Carlomagno, potessero ritirarsi dove lor
meglio paresse o piacesse. Tale si era la regola generale di quelle
tribù erranti: anzichè sottoporsi al giogo esse fuggivano, però che il
suolo per esse non costituiva altrimenti il domicilio, ma in ogni luogo
dove piantar potessero la tenda ivi era la patria loro. Laonde
parecchi di quei Sassoni andarono ad unirsi con Vittichindo in
Danimarca.
Nè appena son corsi due anni dal parlamento di Paderborna, che
veggiam quest'ultimo sollevar di nuovo i Sassoni, e condurre i Danesi
insiem con le tribù riparatesi nella Giudlandia; d'onde ei muove in
gran forze, ricevuto a grandi acclamazioni dalle antiche tribù
soggette a Carlomagno, e si avanza vittorioso fino al Reno,
distruggendo le borgate dei Franchi ch'ei trova sul suo cammino,
atterrando i castelli e le torri poste a vedetta, ed ardendo i segni
militari della dominazione di Carlomagno, intento a que' giorni nella
spedizione di Spagna. Ordinava questi in un capitolare di ributtar col
terrore e con la forza quelle masse di gente; onde tutti i possessori
de' terreni, le guardie dei confini ed i leudi dovean pigliar le armi, e
questa leva de' Franchi arrestò per poco le depredazioni dei Sassoni
sul Reno, e la mossa del vittorioso Vittichindo. Arriva quindi fra breve
il gran Carlo medesimo, disperde gl'invasori, pianta di nuovo i suoi
alloggiamenti nel campo di Heerstal, e vi passa l'inverno per quindi
scagliarsi addosso a' Vesfalii. Nulla più resiste a questo fortissimo
uomo, a questo re giganteo, la cui sola parola porta lo spavento per
ogni dove; parecchie di quelle tribù corrono a dimandargli la pace,
ed egli si fa consegnar da esse gli statichi, come era uso; ma non
vuol trattar più spartitamente con una o più popolazioni, bensì
chiede che i Sassoni vengano tutti ad un parlamento per trattar le
condizioni della pace; Vittichindo, sempre irremovibile, non vuol
assistere, vedendo l'umiliazione della sua patria, a questo congresso,
e ritirasi una seconda volta in Danimarca.
Durante l'inverno, Carlo raccoglie tutte le sue forze ad Heerstal,
alloggiamento suo prediletto, ed ivi, in fronte di sì grosso esercito —
che niun resister gli potrebbe, impone senza colpo di spada ai
Sassoni le sue leggi. L'atto che nacque dal parlamento quivi da lui
convocato, si è quello che reca il titolo: De partibus Saxoniæ,
costituzione vera della Sassonia. I vescovi che in quantità
intervennero al detto parlamento, si fecero a predicar ivi nel campo
stesso, ed i Sassoni ricevettero in gran folla il battesimo. Aveva il re
provato il metodo de' tributi con lasciare independente ogni
vassallaggio, ma essendogli male riuscito, stipulava ora che i Sassoni
sarebbero quindi innanzi governati da conti della nazion franca; onde
sottomessi così ad un ordinamento comune, ad essi rapita veniva
l'independenza loro natia. Tutti ubbidir dovevano a questi conti, e
chiunque manomettesse o ingiuriasse i delegati regi, sarebbe in pro
del fisco spodestato delle sue terre; nè più i Sassoni tener
potrebbero nè adunanze nè diete, se non previo il beneplacito del re
e alla presenza di commissarii da lui disegnati.
A quest'ordinamento di polizia militare, Carlomagno aggiunse alcuni
articoli risguardanti specialmente il cristianesimo. Edificar doveansi in
certi luoghi del paese de' Sassoni diverse chiese, le quali aveano ad
esser sacre, e più sacre ancora dei templi dell'idolatria; chi uccidesse
un prete cristiano o sagrificasse vittime umane alle antiche deità
della patria, fosse punito di morte; e dovendo il battesimo esser
quindi innanzi il segno dell'ubbidienza, quelli fra i Sassoni che si
nascondessero per sottrarsi al santo lavacro della Chiesa, o
mangiassero carni nei giorni di magro, sarebbero tenuti per ribelli e
come tali dannati a morte. Il tornare all'antica religione del Norte,
era pur segno di ribellione. Ogni pena tuttavia redimer potevasi con
la penitenza ecclesiastica, però che a quei tempi la legge cristiana va
pur sempre confusa col governo politico.
A questo periodo della conquista e suggezione delle tribù sassoni, si
riferisce in Germania l'instituzione degli otto vescovati di Brema,
Verden, Minden, Alberstat, Hildesheim, Paderborna, Munster ed
Osnabruch, sedi cristiane che divennero indi sorgente di civiltà e di
sapere per l'Alemagna. Dalla predicazione cattolica ebbe fondamento
la dominazione dei Carolingi in Sassonia. Al parlamento d'Orleim i
Sassoni passarono dal sistema di vassallaggio independente alla
costituzione per contadi e vescovadi, nè furon più solamente vassalli,
ma una parte del gran tutto sottomesso al governo dei conti e dei
vescovi. Così abbiam già tre periodi in questa storia della conquista
dei Sassoni; 1.º il vassallagio per tribù; 2.º l'aderimento alla
predicazione cristiana; 3.º la costituzione uniforme per contadi e
vescovadi, e la sommessione all'ordinamento amministrativo del re.
Questo governo dei conti e dei vescovi riuscì, in sulle prime,
odiosissimo ai Sassoni; i primi amministravano la giustizia, e
governavano in nome di Carlomagno; i secondi si travagliavano
d'ampliar l'autorità della Chiesa e di sottomettere le barbare nazioni
ai giogo della religione, cose tutte che a distrugger miravano la
libertà delle popolazioni germaniche. La presenza di Carlomagno, e il
terror del suo nome potean solo conservar la dominazione dei
Franchi colà, ed egli costretto di correr continuamente l'Europa, dalla
Spagna all'Italia, dalle Alpi ai Pirenei, non potea sempre aver l'occhio
sulle terre germaniche, onde i Sassoni più d'una volta profittaron di
quest'assenza del sovrano, per ripigliare le armi. Eccoli dunque di
nuovo sollevati, recarsi in massa sulle rive del Reno, e scuotere il
giogo dei conti e dei vescovi.
A grande inquietudine mosse l'animo di Carlomagno questa presa
d'armi universale, che avvenne all'occasione dell'invocar che fecero i
conti franchi la fedeltà dei Sassoni per respinger l'irruzione dei popoli
slavi. Vittichindo ricomparve allora tra' suoi, e disse loro: «Ecco
giunto il momento di vendicarvi de' vostri oppressori.» I Sassoni lo
seguono, si raccolgono appiè d'un alto monte sul fianco destro
dell'esercito di Carlomagno, capitanato dai tre conti maggiori
Adalgiso, Geilone e Volrado, e quando questi arrivaron sul Veser,
anzichè trovarvi i Sassoni in loro aiuto, li vider apparecchiati a
scagliarsi su loro. Il conte Teoderico, accorso dal Reno, non esitava
intanto a cominciar la guerra contro i fedifraghi Sassoni stessi, e la
zuffa fu sanguinosa. Il gran Carlo non v'era; i Sassoni, pieni di astio
contro i conti, diedero dentro con gran forza, ed in breve quasi tutti i
capitani de' Franchi furono uccisi sul campo, gli altri messi in volta,
ed i Sassoni intuonaron l'inno della vittoria di Vittichindo, ributtando
gli oppressori fino al Reno. Carlo accorse indi tosto per vendicare
l'affronto dell'armi sue, con fitto in mente il pensiero che i Sassoni
non fossero altrimenti nemici da combattere, ma sì popoli ribelli da
sterminare. Venne dunque a tener la sua dieta a Paderborna, e citati
dinanzi al campale suo parlamento i principali fra i Sassoni, dimandò
loro perchè avessero rotta la guerra, perchè ribellati si fossero contro
i conti? Tutti ad una voce risposero: Aver ubbidito ai voleri di
Vittichindo, ed egli solo esser colpevole di quella ribellione. — Ma
non per questo il re placò l'ira sua, chè anzi fece proponimento di
vendicare i suoi leudi trucidati in campo, ed i vescovi delle chiese di
fresco edificate, martoriati o cacciati da Vittichindo.
I Sassoni aveano infranta la legge di vassallaggio, dunque eran
ribelli: Carlomagno ordinò quindi un grande esempio, e ad imitazione
di tutti gli altri conquistatori, non esitò punto a versar fiumi di
sangue, onde lasciar lunghe orme di terrore e di sommessione. Si
fece dare in mano tutti i capi e gli uomini più ardimentosi della
nazione, e comparve in mezzo a loro, con la spada in mano, girando
sovr'essi il corrucciato suo sguardo, a guisa di un gigante che scuota
la sua clava sopra i vinti; poi dal suo campo di Ferden, a riva
dell'Aller, comandò che tutti i Sassoni ribelli avessero mozzo il capo;
le cronache ne sommano il numero a quattro mila cinquecento; fu
una beccheria che durò tutto un giorno. Terribile rappresaglia dei
conti e vescovi uccisi dai Sassoni, e dell'aver inseguito i Franchi fin
sul territorio loro; ma era pur forza muover terrore in que' popoli, e
Carlomagno si trovò costretto a colpirli con la tremenda sua
spada [170].
Se non che il sangue di questi supplizii punto non valse a spegnere
l'astio dei Sassoni, ed altre tribù pigliaron le armi, nè appena era
domata questa, insorgeva quella; le erano popolazioni gelose,
indipendenti, tutte situate a' confini di genti naturalmente nimiche di
Carlomagno; i Danesi, gli Slavi, i Frisoni, istigati dai Sassoni pigliavan
le armi al primo segnale per far causa comune co' nemici degli
Austrasii; guerra infinita di popoli e di razze. Ma le genti di Carlo
aveano veramente il primato militare, nè i Sassoni mai vennero a
campal giornata se non per essere vinti e sconfitti; nessuna rilevante
vittoria ottennero essi mai contro a Carlomagno, cui essi temevano
come un Dio; parendo loro aver sempre addosso quella sua mazza
ferrata.
Intanto Carlomagno, fatta sua dimora d'una delle germaniche sue
ville, attende a soggiogar per sempre i Sassoni, riedifica la fortezza
d'Eresburgo, e tiene in mezzo a' suoi guerrieri corte plenaria a
Paderborna; e ad ogni tratto spedisce grosse schiere di Franchi a
guastar ben oltre le terre de' Sassoni, ed a piantarvi accampamenti
alla foggia de' Romani. Ma vedendo di questo modo non aver più
fine la guerra, deliberossi di rivolgersi dirittamente allo stesso
Vittichindo per trattare con lui a tu per tu della pace. Vittichindo ed
Albione, i due capi di maggior grido tra i Sassoni, dimandarono
salvocondotto, e vennero a trovar Carlomagno nella sede sua di
Paderborna, accoltivi a grande onore, festeggiati dai conti, e
catechizzati dai vescovi. Carlomagno profferse a Vittichindo il titolo di
duca di Sassonia, e gli onori della sua corte, purchè abbracciasse il
cristianesimo, segno di soggezione appo i Sassoni, essendochè un
giogo era per essi la religione dei Franchi, e giogo spesso
odiosissimo. Vittichindo accettò la profferta, e con lui altri più capi di
quella nazione ricevettero il battesimo. Grande vittoria fu questa, e il
termine, a così dir, della salvatica indipendenza di quelle tribù. Prive
del valoroso capo che le guidava alla guerra esse oramai più non
s'avventurarono che a spartate sollevazioni, le quali furono anche
tosto compresse dalla ferrea mano di Carlomagno.
Divenuto fedel vassallo a quest'ultimo, Vittichindo lasciò al tutto le
armi, ed andò a ricoverarsi in un monastero. Quasi tutti i più nobili
lignaggi della Germania discender vollero da questo ceppo; chi non
potea dirsi della schiatta di Carlomagno, gloriavasi d'aver Vittichindo
per antenato, chè un prod'uomo ognuno il vorrebbe per suo
progenitore. La stirpe che più ragion d'ogn'altra potea gloriarsi
d'essere uscita da Vittichindo, quella fu di Capeto, recando infatti le
cronache che Roberto il Forte, il poderoso conte di Parigi, fu
pronipote del Sassone glorioso [171]; chè fra que' battagliatori v'era
sempre, come a dire, una misteriosa catena, che univa gli uni cogli
altri, di gloria in gloria, di forza in forza, e bello certamente era l'aver
principio da Vittichindo. Il quale, fatto quindi piissimo, fu onorato per
santo e nominato nelle antifone, cantico d'onore e panteone del
medio evo. Ad esempio di lui, gli altri Sassoni convertiti, si danno
sinceramente al cristianesimo.
La rinomanza di Vittichindo, e la gloria della spedizione di Sassonia,
doveano naturalmente somministrare ampio soggetto alle canzoni
eroiche; infatti sotto il titolo della canzone di Guiteclino di Sassonia,
un trovatore di nome Giovanni Bodel, nativo di Arras, compose in
sull'entrar del secolo XIII un intero poema epico sopra Guiteclino ed i
Sassoni, che ritrae de' tempi feudali, i più vivi e coloriti di quel
periodo di confusione in cui i tracotanti baroni comandavano ai re.
Eccovi lo spirito di questa canzone eroica. «I Sassoni minacciano
l'impero de' Franchi, ci vogliono dunque aiuti, sussidii, modi a far la
guerra, onde Carlomagno dimanda quattro denari ai suoi baroni
urepi o urepedi (hurepés) [172] dell'Angiò, della Bretagna e della
Neustria; gli Scozzesi, gl'Inglesi, gli Alemanni e i Bavari pagano
questo tributo, e togli qua che i baroni urepi di Carlomagno non
vogliono pagare, dicendo che si fa per avvilirli, che addio alle
immunità loro se fossero sottoposti a un tributo. Che fanno dunque i
superbi feudatari? Pigliano il partito di chiudere quattro denari nel
pennone d'ogni lancia, poi vengono così innanzi a Carlomagno, alla
sua corte plenaria d'Aquisgrana, e gli dicono: «Imperatore, vien tu
stesso a prendere, se tanto ardisci, il tributo». Qui il poeta gode di
abbassar Carlomagno, e segue a raccontar come al sopravvenir dei
suoi baroni, ei si fa incontro ad essi a piè nudi, senza corona in
fronte, e rinunzia all'imposta promettendo di non mai più dimandar
loro tributo alcuno. Ecco pertanto la libertà feudale in tutta
l'ampiezza sua; il barone deve il suo corpo, ma non il danaro mai; il
pagamento del denaro è solo un dovere pel villano, e per l'uomo di
podestà, cioè in poter d'altrui.
Carlomagno ed i suoi baroni muovono indi da Aquisgrana per la
guerra di Sassonia, e qui mille descrizioni di combattimenti; un
abbassar di lance, un mescolarsi di pennoni e il duca Guiteclino è
ucciso in battaglia. Qui pure s'intrecciano gli amori di Berardo e
d'Elisandra, di Baldovino e della regina Sibilla; le crociate hanno
siffattamente riscaldate le fantasie, che si trovan per ogni dove le
rimembranze di Gerusalemme. Ma ecco i fratelli di Guiteclino che
insorgono a vendicar la sua morte, e atterrano Berardo e Baldovino,
niuno resiste ai colpi loro, e qui un'altra rimembranza viene a
collocarsi nella mente del poeta; quella dell'invasion dei Normanni e
degli Ungri al secolo decimo: la stessa confusione, solo che vi è in
ogni parte celebrato il nome di Vittichindo. La guerra dei Sassoni, fu
la grande impresa del regno di Carlomagno, ed ebbe ad esser
soggetto di poema come Roncisvalle, e come ogn'altro tema che
ricordasse le grandi gesta militari.
Il modo che tenne Carlomagno nel terzo periodo delle sue guerre
sassoniche, fu più efficace che non il suo primo ordinamento del
vassallaggio. Veduto che le popolazioni erranti non si affezionano al
suolo, ei fa trasportar le principali famiglie sassoni nell'interno della
Francia, e il paese loro fu dato ad altri popoli (gli Obotriti) a
Carlomagno più ubbidienti e fedeli. Così le famiglie sassoni più
riottose ed audaci, tramutate in Francia, ebbero in retaggio le terre
del fisco, o furono cacciate nei monasteri e condannate alle solitudini
del deserto; ond'è che sotto Lodovico Pio troviam di queste cotali
famiglie nelle badie, e ardenti religiosi ed eziandio santi di origine
sassone [173], e cronisti e poeti che attendono a scriver gli annali del
paese.
Se la guerra sassonica fu la più crudele, la più sanguinosa che mai
avesse a sostener Carlomagno, essa rende pur testimonio della
grandezza e della fermezza sua, della forza e della destrezza ch'ei vi
pose; ma era un'opera di conquista, che dovea col tempo trar seco
la sua reazione. Avea Carlomagno rincacciate, stipate le popolazioni
nel Nord, nella Danimarca, nel Giudland; e da chi fu rovesciato
l'impero suo? Da quelle popolazioni medesime che vennero alla volta
loro ad assalire i Franchi. La storia del mondo è azione e reazione; i
conquistatori cacciano le nazioni, e queste ritornano più forti a
spezzar trono e spada di coloro che sognaron l'impero universale del
mondo!
 CAPITOLO XI.
CONQUISTE DI CARLOMAGNO IN ISPAGNA. —
ROTTA DI RONCISVALLE.

La Spagna e i Saracini dopo la battaglia di Poitiers. —

Corrispondenza di Pipino coi califfi. — Gli emiri di
Catalogna, di Navarra e d'Aragona. — Gli antichi
cristiani. — Discordie civili. — Gli emiri alla corte
plenaria di Paderborna. — Carlomagno delibera di
conquistare la Spagna. — Convocazione delle milizie —
Le due irruzioni per mezzo ai Pirenei. — Assedii di
Barcellona e di Saragozza. — Ritorno dell'esercito. —
Rotta di Roncisvalle. — I Guasconi e il duca Lupo. —
Lugubre suono di questa rotta. — La canzone di
Roncisvalle. — Tracce del passaggio de' Franchi ne'
Pirenei. — I corpi de' martiri. — La cappella. — La rupe
e la spada d'Orlando — Romanza spagnuola di Alda la
bella, sposa di don Orlando.

732 — 778.

Le spedizioni di Carlomagno furono, sin qui, in Germania e in

Lombardia; il Reno, l'Oder, le Alpi, il Po, avean veduto le lance dei
Franchi, folte come le messi estive agitate dai venti [174]; la corona di
ferro dei Longobardi ornava la fronte del re dei Franchi; le terre
d'Italia erano partite fra i suoi duchi e conti e leudi, e la Germania
acclamava il re dalla gigantesca statura che conduceva i Franchi
d'Austrasia e di Neustria alla conquista e al dominio della Sassonia e
della Baviera. Già fin dal primo istante della sua esaltazione avea
Carlomagno compiuto il soggiogamento dell'Aquitania, e la
Guascogna ubbidiva alla grande famiglia de' suoi vassalli; a' Pirenei il
nome suo era in grido, com'esser dovea quello del pronipote di Carlo
Martello, e formidate v'erano la potenza e la forza di questo coronato
capitano, benchè ancor veduto non avessero sventolar colà le sue
bandiere. Ma ben presto il suono del corno stava per assordar que'
forri e quelle valli, e una spedizione già era pronta a varcar quelle
alpi dirupate. Or qual cagione mai traeva tanta selva di lance in
mezzo alle città della Spagna? Come avvien egli che i Saracini da
conquistatori stanno per divenir conquistati? Qual memoria restava
di quella sanguinosa irruzione, che Carlo Martello, l'avolo di
Carlomagno, arrestava nelle pianure di Poitiers?
Questa terribil giornata di Tours o di Poitiers, fu termine alle
conquiste degl'Infedeli al di là de' Pirenei: la vittoria di Carlo
Martello, era venuta a raccendere l'invilito coraggio de' cristiani in
mezzo all'abbattimento generale degli animi e alle paure sparse pel
durare d'un secolo dalle rapide e maravigliose vittorie di quei
Barbari, e tanto bastò a mutar la condizione rispettiva dei popoli.
Quella sanguinosa disfatta dell'islamismo diede un irresistibile
impulso ai conti, ai duchi, alle intiere popolazioni della Gallia
meridionale, e i cristiani quasi tutti si levarono per una poderosa
crociata nella Guienna e Settimania. Fin dal regno di Pipino più non
v'erano se non alcune colonie spartate di Saracini nella Provenza e
nell'Aquitania, e quando Abd-Almalek, o Addamelecco bandì la
guerra santa, gl'Infedeli non aveano in mano più che la sola città di
Narbona. Tutta la potenza degli emiri s'era concentrata in Spagna, e
nei monti durava tuttavia un'antica schiatta di cristiani, maschia
popolazione, che s'era già liberata del giogo de' Saracini. Coperta di
pelli ferine o d'armature fabbricate negli antri delle rupi o in qualche
solitaria borgata, quella valorosa schiatta di Leone e di Castiglia
scendeva di quando in quando dall'inaccessibil suo ricetto per
molestare i Saracini delle città e delle campagne. In mezzo a quella
lunga giogaia di monti che si stende dalle Asturie fino alla Catalogna,
viveva una maschia e forte nidiata, che dovea coll'andar del tempo
cacciar i Mori dalla soggiogata Spagna, e piantar sulle francate città
lo stendardo della croce.
Oltre di che la Spagna non era già sottomessa ad una sola signoria,
chè non bastando ai Saracini, vincitori dei Visigoti, d'essersi separati
dal califfato di Bagdad, e dalla podestà del Commendator dei
credenti, intestine discordie regnavan anco nella penisola fra città e
città, e quasi ogni provincia aveva il suo emiro [175], e in mezzo alla
guerra civile, gli uni invocavano il braccio dei conti cristiani e delle
popolazioni visigote, potenti ancora sotto il vescovo loro a Cordova o
a Toledo; gli altri ricorrevano per aiuto agli antichi Castigliani ed agli
Asturiani delle montagne. Già fino a' tempi del regno di Pipino alcune
Ambascerie degli emiri di Spagna eran venute a visitare il re di
Francia nelle sue corti plenarie, ed egli mentre dava loro udienza,
ponevasi pure in corrispondenza coi califfi di Bagdad, ricevendone
ricchi presenti, e mandando loro in contraccambio cani da caccia usi
correre il cignale delle Ardenne e della Turingia. È cosa
incontrastabile che Pipino ebbe pratiche politiche col califfo
Almanzor [176] e che alcuni conti de' Franchi dimorarono per tre anni
a Bagdad, donde poi toccarono, sbarcando a Marsiglia, la città del
traffico.
L'ordinamento delle provincie meridionali, qual Carlomagno ebbe a
compierlo, piantava sulla frontiera di Spagna due grandi vassalli
militari della corona di Francia, ed erano i duchi dei Guasconi e degli
Aquitani, i quali Guasconi, per la loro dimora rimpetto a' Pirenei si
trovavano continuamente in commercio coi Saraceni, così come i
duchi loro con gli emiri, e mescolavano spesso i sangui loro; indarno
i concilii vietavano questa comunanza di nozze, che più d'una
fanciulla cristiana vedeasi andare sposa ad un miscredente, e più
d'una nera saracina di Barcellona, di Cordova, di Granata o di Toledo
pigliarsi a marito un figlio della Guascogna o dell'Aquitania. I Saracini
aveano moschee nelle città meridionali a Narbona ed Arli, e i cristiani
aveano chiese e fin vescovi a Siviglia; praticavan gli uni cogli altri pel
commercio, per l'industria, per le arti; le antiche animosità s'eran
venute cancellando, e bene spesso era più facil trovar nimicizie e
gelosie fra emiro ed emiro, o fra conte e conte, che astii veri d'una
credenza contro l'altra.
I re Franchi seppero giovarsi di queste discordie per vantaggiar le
loro spedizioni e conquiste in quel paese. Nel tempo che Carlomagno
teneva una dieta in Paderborna attorniato da conti e vescovi, vide
venire a lui alcuni emiri o alcaldi saracini, avvolti in larghe vesti,
come a que' dì usavano al di là de' Pirenei, il più ricco dei quali
chiamavasi Soleyman Ebu-Jaktan-Alarabi, o Mofras-Ebu-Alarabi,
governatore, come dicevano, di Saragozza. Venivano questi emiri da
lontani paesi, per prestar fede ed omaggio a Carlomagno,
profferendo di consegnargli le chiavi di essa Saragozza e di Valenza
ch'essi aveano in poter loro come vassali d'Adelramo. Carlomagno
rimase meravigliato alla vista di quegli emiri, e la superbia de' conti
ne fu lusingata; la conquista ch'essi offrivano tale era da solleticar
l'appetito de' Franchi, e Carlo accettò fede ed omaggio da quei
Saracini. Laonde in quella medesima corte plenaria, Abiatar,
governatore di Huesca e l'emiro Ebn-Alarabi, si dichiaravan vassalli
della corona di Francia, e si obbligavano a consegnare i quattro
passaggi dei Pirenei, di Barcellona cioè, di Puicerda, di Pamplona e di
Tolosa, donde il suo esercito avrebbe potuto allargarsi fino alla
Stretto e liberare i cristiani della Penisola. Oh come cangiati s'erano i
tempi! Un secolo appena era trascorso dal dì che il conte Giuliano
aveva aperto la Spagna alle conquiste degli Arabi, e già gli emiri
davano in mano i Pirenei ad un esercito di Franchi! Il qual esercito
trovar dovea spalla in una massa ragguardevole della popolazione. A
primavera tutto sarebbe presto per una spedizione oltre i Pirenei, e
gli emiri traditori se ne tornavano a Saragozza e a Barcellona, ivi
attendendo l'effetto delle promesse del gran Carlo, d'ora innanzi loro
alto signore.
Gli apparecchi di questa guerra furono grandissimi: tutti i conti
possessori di terre fiscali, convocati per bando reale, doveano tenersi
pronti a marciare. Il grande accorgimento di Carlo quello era di calar
sempre sui nemici con forze talmente formidabili, che gli avviluppava
prima che si fossero ordinati a resistergli; così avea fatto contro i
Longobardi, quando le sue schiere disceser dall'Alpi con la rapidità
d'un torrente, così a forza d'uomini avea vinto i Sassoni, e così
preparavasi a far ora nella spedizione in Ispagna, congregando tutta
la sua gente, non solo della Neustria, dell'Austrasia e della Borgogna,
ma sì pure chiamando i suoi vassalli di Baviera e di Germania, insiem
coi conti della Provenza e della Settimania. I Longobardi appena
erano soggiogati, e nondimeno una schiera dei loro univasi
all'esercito, presto a varcare i Pirenei. A simiglianza degli altri grandi
conquistatori, Carlomagno adoperava i popoli domati a domar l'altre
nazioni, alla foggia dei Romani. Non sì tosto primavera comincia a
metter le foglie ed i fiori, che già, come narrano i romanzieri, si vede
il gran re alla sua villa di Casseneuil, nel contado di Agen, dove
celebra la Pasqua; poi visita la Guascogna e la Settimania per esser
sicuro che le mura son forti e salde le torri. L'esercito suo è diviso in
due schiere, l'una delle quali, destinata ad invader la Catalogna pel
passo di Perpignano, dovea muover da Narbona, proceder lunghesso
il mare fino a Girona e a Barcellona e far alto all'Ebro; l'altra calar dai
Pirenei per la via della Navarra, e precipitarsi sovra Pamplona, la
chiave dei monti, e di questa seconda schiera, Carlomagno avea
riserbato il comando a sè stesso, col fiore de' suoi conti e paladini, e
per più rinforzarsi dovea passar per mezzo all'alpestre paese de'
Guasconi, forti e torosi balestrieri, che conducevano gli armenti su
per quelle rupi. Giunto all'Ebro, avrebbe poi visto se gli conveniva di
proseguir la conquista fino allo Stretto.
Amendue le schiere o spedizioni furono simultaneamente condotte
con l'usata vigoria di Carlomagno. L'esercito che mosse da Narbona
componevasi di Longobardi e d'Austrasii guidati dal conte Bernardo,
fortissimo paladino, che gran riputazione erasi acquistata nel
passaggio dell'Alpi, e sottomessa Girona e Barcellona con tutte l'altre
terre fino all'Ebro, per una mossa militare a cerchio, venne a
congiungersi con Carlomagno dinanzi a Pamplona. L'assedio di
questa piazza fu lunghissimo e fierissimo; vinta che l'ebbero i
Franchi, vennero a campeggiar Saragozza, per aver con essa tutta la
fronte dell'Ebro. Dopo vigorosa resistenza i Saracini chiesero i patti;
si offrirono statichi ed omaggi al re, il cui esercito, dominatore e
vittorioso, si traeva dietro gli alcaidi e gli altri Infedeli già debellati.
Tutto il paese che si stende dai Pirenei all'Elbro, fu soggiogato, e
Carlomagno l'ordinò alla forma delle marche militari sulle frontiere, il
che val quanto dire ch'ei pose suoi conti e leudi nelle città a
difenderle. Da questo momento i Pirenei più non servono omai di
confine alle sue possessioni; ma ben l'Ebro diventa frontiera sua, e
Pamplona e Saragozza sono gli antemurali della fronte sua militare.
Ordinata ch'egli ebbe così la sua conquista, ripigliò il cammino verso
Francia, traendosi dietro carra piene di ricchezze, e mule cariche di
spoglie, e gli emiri saracini che seguivano il cocchio del vincitore. Le
folte lance marciavano in massa, e la scorta di battaglia era sì
coperta di ferro, che nessuna punta l'avrebbe potuta toccare, e
Saracini e Guasconi sarebber del pari venuti a rompersi contro quelle
corazze e usberghi di Sassonia, di Lombardia, d'Austrasia e di
Neustria. Alla coda poi dell'esercito, e come schiera spartata, seguiva
un retroguardo composto di prodi cavalieri condotti dal conte
Orlando, valoroso guardiano delle spiaggie di Bretagna. Partitisi da
Pamplona, procedevano tutti in gran sicurtà, per mezzo a quelle
strette, a que' monti, a quegli scoscesi dirupi e precipizi che formano
il varco da Francia in Ispagna, e Orlando, gli uni addosso agli altri, li
guidava con perizia di ottimo capitano. Avevan essi ad attraversare il
paese de' Guasconi, popolo di arditi e rozzi valligiani; i Guasconi e
Navarresi ritraevano della durezza de' monti loro, e sapevano con
nerboruto braccio maneggiar l'arco e la freccia, e popoli pastori e
bellicosi com'erano, non temean punto d'affrontarsi cogli uomini del
Nord. E non vivean forse anch'essi in mezzo alle nevi e alle
ghiacciaie?
Ora è da saper che in quel tempo i Guasconi aveano appunto per
loro duca Lupo, nipote per figlio di quell'Unnaldo, che le carte
antiche dicono uscito della schiatta merovingica. E' non si vuol
perder d'occhio mai quest'odio naturale che i duchi d'Aquitania
portavano a Carlomagno. Procedea questo dall'esser eglino i
discendenti d'un lignaggio proscritto ed erede del trono di Clodoveo;
e Carlomagno n'avea fatti impiccar due o tre sotto pretesto che
fossero rei di ribellione e sedizione, ma più ancora per ispegnere i
Merovei. Che se pur Lupo ha ottenuto le terre di Guascogna, come
vassallo di Carlomagno, egli ha tuttavia serbato in cuore i lunghi astii
di famiglia contro di lui, e comanda ad una robusta popolazione che
ha in odio la razza dei Franchi; vede Lupo con ispavento questa
dominazione degli uomini del Norte stendersi già fin sopra la
Spagna; i Pirenei non son più confini, e benchè egli sia cristiano,
ama piuttosto di conservare il commercio suo cogli alcaidi di
Pamplona, di Saragozza, di Valenza che sottomettersi a Carlomagno.
I Guasconi videro passare, senz'ardirsi di toccarle, le innumerevoli
masse della cavalleria franca, e le lance che luccicavano in cima dei
Pirenei; ma qui è una retroguardia sola, separata, che conduce un
ricco bottino atto a solleticar l'ingordigia di quei poveri montanari,
abitatori di caverne e di rupi, onde composta com'è di poche lance
guidate dal conte Orlando e da qualch'altro paladino, vien
d'improvviso assalita fra que' burroni, e Lupo di Guascogna si fa
partecipe di questo repentino assalto di cristiani contro a
cristiani [177]. Al passo appunto di Roncisvalle, dove le rocce pendono
sospese sul tuo capo quasi trinciate dalla durindana d'Orlando, i
Guasconi arrestarono il retroguardo di Carlomagno. In vano i
paladini si difesero valorosamente, in vano Orlando eccheggiar fece il
suono dell'eburneo suo corno per quelle profonde valli, in vano la
poderosa sua spada ne spezzò i macigni, tutti que' prodi, oppressi
dal numero, perirono nelle terribili gole de' Pirenei, e la dolorosa
memoria n'è pietosamente conservata nelle croniche, e riempie tutto
il medio evo. La rotta di Roncisvalle è scritta in tutti i monumenti
della cavalleria; i trovatori la cantavano nelle corti plenarie a muover
l'esercito a vendetta contro gl'Infedeli, perchè a questi
principalmente attribuivasi il tradimento ed il macello della cavalleria
cristiana; le matrone e le donzelle piangevano a quel racconto, e i
cantori avean caro di ripetere in versi lugubri la catastrofe d'Orlando
e d'Oliviero suo cugino morti a Roncisvalle [178].
Da per tutto tu trovi queste tradizioni popolari; i romanzi le
raccontano, e nelle stesse Cronache di San Dionigi è inserita la
supposta relazione di Turpino sulla morte di Orlando e dei paladini
del gran Carlo [179]. Ma i prodi cavalieri non recitavano altrimenti,
prima di combattere, le pie e divote esortazioni di Turpino, nè i versi
che «Tagliaferro assai bene cantava andando di gran passo alla
battaglia d'Hastings,» e nè tampoco le canzoni guerriere intorno a
Carlomagno, Orlando ed i suoi vassalli che morirono a Roncisvalle;
ben altri poemi ebbero quei tempi sulla catastrofe de' Pirenei, che
oltre alla cronaca di Turpino, venivano per ogni dove nelle gran corti
dalla cavalleria recitati, e ripetuti nei racconti del tempo di Filippo
Augusto. Carlomagno, Orlando, Oliviero ed i suoi vassalli, furono
pure argomento ad una gran canzone eroica, prediletta lettura del
medio evo, che comincia:

Carles, li reis, nostre emperiere magne, ecc. [180]

La quale canzone eroica intorno ai casi di Roncisvalle è uno dei

maggiori poemi di cavalleria che ancor ci rimangano di quei tempi
antichi, e comechè mista di favolosi episodi, almen ci prova, insieme
con la Cronaca di San Dionigi, come luttuosa era la memoria della
disfatta di Roncisvalle; uno fu questo dei maggiori disastri della
cristiana cavalleria, e quindi ne fu serbata la ricordanza attraverso
dei secoli. I trovatori del secolo XIII composero una compiuta azione
drammatica sulla morte di Carlomagno, nè dicono altrimenti che i
Paladini di Carlomagno morirono per mano dei montanari Guasconi,
guidati da Lupo, cristiani come loro; sarebbe stato un affligger
troppo i fedeli, ad essi raccontar dovendosi come tanti valorosi conti,
erano periti sotto i colpi di perfidi e traditori cattolici, onde voller
piuttosto attribuire la morte d'Orlando ai miscredenti e Saraceni, ed
alla fellonia di Ganellone da Maganza. Tornando poi alla storia vera
di questo fatal disastro della cavalleria, dir si dee essere stati i
Guasconi e Lupo duce loro, quelli che ne' Pirenei furono addosso alla
retroguardia di Carlomagno, e questo è sì vero che le croniche stesse
raccontano il supplizio di Lupo, che fu impiccato come fellone e
sleale per aver tradito l'oste dei Franchi, e un diploma di Carlo il
Calvo ricorda il nero tradimento della razza meridionale, e scaglia
eterna maledizione su Lupo di Guascogna, il quale ben si meritò il
nome di Lupo per la sua perfidia verso i paladini di Francia.
Anche nelle valli de' Pirenei durò per lungo tempo questa dolorosa
memoria di Roncisvalle, ed un canto dl que' montanari in lingua
basca celebra la vittoria dei loro antenati sui guerrieri dì
Carlomagno [181]; esso è come dire l'espressione dei sentimenti e
degli odii di quella popolazione contro gli uomini del Norte che
venivano a turbare la pace de' Pirenei. Ivi non è alcun lamento per
gli uccisi paladini, non compianto per Orlando, ma solo la cara
memoria della vendetta contro que' guerrieri che abbandonarono il
Reno e la Mosella per venir a piombare sull'Ebro. Ecco quel canto
antico, selvaggio in uno e sublime. «Un grido sorse dal monti, e il
pastore dimanda: Chi va là, chi mi vuole? E il cane, che appiè
dormiva del suo padrone, si sveglia, ed empie la valle de' suoi latrati.
È il sordo mormorio d'un'oste che si avanza, a cui rispondono i nostri
dalla vetta dei monti soffiando nei loro corni bovini. Vengono!
vengono! o che selva di lance! quante bandiere! o che lampi
mandano le armi loro! Quanti sono! Contali bene, figliuolo: venti e
migliaia d'altri ancora. Orsù uniamo le nerborute nostre braccia,
strappiamo questi massi, gittiamoli dalla cima dei monti sui loro capi,
schiacciamoli, ammazziamoli. E che vengono a far questi uomini del
Norte nelle nostre montagne? le montagne sono fatte da Dio a
frenare il corso degli uomini. — E i massi rotolano, il sangue scorre:
oh quante ossa peste! oh che mare dl sangue! Fuggite, fuggite, voi
che avete ancor lena e un cavallo!.... Fuggi, re Carlo, con le tue
piume nere e con la rossa tua cappa; il tuo nipote, il primo de' tuoi
prodi, il tuo caro Orlando è laggiù steso morto. Fuggono, fuggono!
Tutto è finito; e voi, montanari tutti, forbite le vostre frecce, e
riponetele insieme col vostro corno di bue; a notte le aquile verranno
a divorar quelle peste carni, e tutte quell'ossa biancheggeranno in
eterno!»
Niun rincrescimento si desta in que' valligiani, chè essi punto non
sceverano il sangue cristiano dal sangue saracino; nè trovan l'uno
più nobile o più puro dell'altro; gli uomini del Norte son venuti a
turbare i loro pascoli, a ingombrar le loro valli, a scuoter le loro
montagne, ed essi fan rotolar su loro que' massi: è l'espressione
d'un odio di cuore, e godono al pensiero di veder l'aquile alpine