LESSON 1: LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Properties of Language:
Language is: [C A R S G D] / [C A R S P D]
1. Communicative – most obvious feature, most remarkable
- Communicate with other people who share our language

2. Arbitrarily Symbolic –
- Arbitrary relationship between a symbol & what it represents (idea, thing)
*words are symbols that arbitrarily represent something else
*referent – thing or concept in the real world that a word refers to
2 principles underlying word meanings:
a. Principle of Conventionality – meanings of words are determined by conventions
*conventions – a meaning upon which people agree
b. Principle of Contrast – different words have different meanings

3. Regularly Structured – has a structure

*patterned arrangements of symbols = meanings

4. Structured at Multiple Levels – analyzed at more than one level

Sounds => Words => Sentences => Larger units of language (paragraph, book)

5. Generative / Productive – language users produce novel utterances

- Ability to produce language creatively

6. Dynamic – constantly evolves

- Evolutionary nature of language

The Basic Components of Words:

*Language can be broken down into smaller units.
Phone – smallest unit of speech sound
- A single vocal sound (ex. Click of tongue)
Phoneme – smallest unit of speech sound that can be used to distinguish one utterance in a given language
from another
- Can change meaning in a language (consonant & vowels)
Phonemics – study of phonemes
- Study of how to produce or combine speech sounds or to represent them with written symbols
*Morphemes – semantic context
2 Forms of Morphemes: 2 Types of Morphemes:
1. Root Word – core elements 1. Content – convey meaning of the sentence
2. Affixes – prefix, suffix 2. Function – “the”, adds detail to the morpheme
*lexicon – collection of morphemes that a person knows

ARAGON, A.M. 
The Basic Components of Sentences:
*A sentence comprises at least two parts – a noun phrase and a verb phrase.
1. Noun Phrase
- contains at least one noun (often the subject of the sentence) and includes all the relevant descriptors
of the noun (like “big” or “fast”).
A noun phrase consists of a noun and all of its modifiers (modifiers can include adjectives, articles,
participles, or possessive nouns and pronouns).

2. Verb Phrase (predicate)

- contains at least one verb and whatever the verb acts on.
A verb phrase is the main verb together with all the accompanying helping verbs, such as the verbs to be and
to have.
In simple words, it is when verbs are combined with linking verbs, like is, can, must, will, has

Syntax - way in which we put words together to form sentences

- structure of language
*syntax is the typical order of the sentence
Ex. She went home. – simple sentence with the subject-verb-object.
- Subject – She, Verb – went, Direct Object – home

Semantics - the study of meaning in a language

Semantics is how words and phrases convey information and how this information is interpreted.
Semantics include the study of the relationship between words and how different people interpret their
meaning.
Ex. The word “blue” may be interpreted as the color for other people while it may mean sadness for others.

Discourse - verbal or written communication between people that goes beyond a single sentence.
- help us understand the flow of ideas in a conversation.

Methods for Studying Language Acquisition:

2 Methods:
1. Production Method
A. Transcribing & Recording Speech
B. Videotaping

2. Comprehensive Method
A. Habituation Studies (sounds)
B. Preference Tasks (pictures, words)
C. Parental Reports (journal)

ARAGON, A.M. 
LESSON 2: LANGUAGE AND INTELLIGENCE
Language and Thought:
*One of the most interesting areas in the study of language is the relationship between language and the
thinking of the human mind (Harris, 2003).
*Different languages comprise different lexicons.
*The syntactical structures of languages differ too.
*Order of subject, verb, and object differs across languages.

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:

Linguistic Relativity – or “Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis”
- Assertion that speakers of different languages have differing cognitive systems
*These differing cognitive systems influence the ways in which people think.
*Edward Sapir & Benjamin Lee Whorf
*Linguistic Determinism – “language determines the way people think and feel”
*According to the Sapir-Whorf view, misunderstandings may result from the fact that other languages parse
words differently than others.
*Language – cognition that makes us human

Theories of Language and Intelligence:

1. Behaviorism – B.F Skinner
- Language development by environmental influence
*Children learn language based on behaviorist reinforcement principles by associating words with meanings.
2. Universal Grammar – Noam Chomsky
- Language development is an innate ability
*Children already have the ability to form sentences/understand grammar.

Process of Spoken Language:

Stages:
1. Planning – brain constructs words & sentences that turn thought into understandable form
*Broca’s Area – Inferior frontal cortex
- if damaged = difficulty forming words (fragmented)

2. Phoneme Association – ensures smooth & accurate speech

*Supplementary Motor Cortex

3. Speech Production – process by which a thought in the brain is converted into auditory form
- Premotor cortex & Motor cortex
*left hemisphere (regardless if righthanded or lefthanded)

ARAGON, A.M. 
Regions in the Brain involved in Comprehension:
1. Superior Temporal Sulcus - distinguishes sound

2. Wernicke’s Area – understands meaning behind the speech

- Speech processing occurs here
- If damaged = speech has no logical sense

LESSON 3: INDIVIDUAL AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN LANGUAGE USE

Factors Causing Individual Differences:
Individual Differences – variation/deviations among individuals in regard to a single characteristic or number
of characteristics
- Differences that distinguish one individual from another
Main Causes of Individual Differences:
1. Hereditary (Nature)
- Genetic endowment which decide the path of progress and development of an individual
- Contributes to sex, intelligence, other abilities

2. Environment (Nurture)
- Plays a key role in individual differences
- Includes family set up, peer group, economic status, education

*Individual Differences play a crucial role in language learning & usage especially among children.

Pragmatics and Sociolinguistics:

Pragmatics – study of how people use language
- Includes sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics – socio = Latin “socius”, meaning society
- linguistics = Latin “lingua”, meaning language/tongue
*contextual cues – can cause people to change use of language (verbal/nonverbal)
*common ground – shared base / mutual understanding, creates connection between people
- gestures and vocal inflections can help establish common ground

Proxemics:
One aspect of nonverbal communication is personal space.
Personal Space – distance between people in a conversation or other interaction
Proxemics - study of interpersonal distance or its opposite, proximity; relative distancing & positioning
- Coined by Edward T. Hall in the 1960s

ARAGON, A.M. 
4 Main Zones or Distance:
1. Intimate Zone – space is around 0 - 18 inches (1.5 fet)
- Reserved for close relationships (family, close friends, partners)
- Allows for personal conversation & physical touch

2. Personal Zone – space is around 18 inches – 4 feet

- Maintained among friends & acquaintances
- Allows for comfortable conversation without the pressure of intimacy

3. Social Zone – space is around 4 – 12 feet

- Common in formal settings (require a degree of professionalism)
- Creates a barrier that maintains a respectful space

4. Public Zone – space is around 12 feet and above

- For public speaking/addressing larger groups
- Creates a clear divide between the speaker and audience

Negation in Language:
Negation – linguistic construct used to express denial, rejection, or absence of something
- Allows us to express what is not true or does not exist
Main Points:
1. Forms of Negation:
A. Lexical Negation – using words like “no” or “never”
B. Grammatical Negation – altering sentence structure, adding “not”
C. Negative Affixes – prefixes or suffixes in words, “un”, “im”, “in”, “dis”, “non”

2. Negation in Different Languages

*role of cultural differences in how negation is employed

3. Cultural Influence on Negation

*cultural factors: communication styles, social norms play a significant role in negation
*Asian – indirect communication may reduce the explicit use of negation
*Western – allow for more direct forms of negation
Negation in Asia (factors):
A. Prioritize politeness
B. Cultural modesty

LESSON 4: RESEARCHES IN LANGUAGE AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Psycholinguistics:
Psycholinguistics – how linguistic patterns impact thoughts (how language influence the mind)
- How language and psychology affect each other
*Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

ARAGON, A.M. 
Article 1:
Supporting Viewpoints:
1. Increased Stress & Anxiety
A. Pressure to perform – fear of failure
B. Test anxiety – performance is lower than actual potentials

2. Narrow Focus on Success Metrics

A. Emphasis on grades

3. Negative Impact on Self-Esteem

A. Labeling – “high-achievers”, “low-achievers” = identity issues

4. Limited Learning of Critical Thinking

A. Rote learning – memorization through repetition rather than exploring more
B. Discourages risk-taking

5. Physical & Mental Health Issues

A. Sleep Deprivation

6. Long-Term Effects on Mental Health

A. Coping Mechanisms – resort to unhealthy coping mechanisms like procrastination, avoidance, self-
isolation

7. Social Isolation
A. Disrupted Social Life – isolation from peers that leads to loneliness

Article 2:
Machines – A.I.
Babies – learning
3 Starting Point to Develop A.I. from Cognitive Science:
1. Series of Domain-Specific Knowledge
- Allow us to interact with particular facets of human life

2. Set of Learning Mechanisms

- Adapt emotions and feelings

3. Readiness for Language

“How do we build better machines?” – We need to understand A.I. for A.I to understand us.
“Build better babies.”

ARAGON, A.M. 
Recent Researches:
Language Acquisition
- Memory, attention, motivation plays a role on how we use language
*memory – facilitates holding and manipulation (STM, LTM)
*attention – focus on relevant language input (selective attention, divided attention)
*motivation – engagement, influenced by intrinsic factors & extrinsic factors
- Cognitive factors help us process, store information.

ARAGON, A.M. 
LESSON 1: PROBLEM-SOLVING 2 Complementary Strategies in Problem-Solving:
Definition, Purpose of Problem-Solving: (a) divergent and (b) convergent thinking
The Problem-Solving Cycle – identifying problem & A. DIVERGENT THINKING
generating solutions
- In divergent thinking, you try to generate a
3 Purposes of Problem-Solving: diverse assortment of possible alternative solutions
to a problem.
1. Aims to overcome obstacles
2. Aims to answer a problem or question *Divergent Thinking is basically the process of
3. Builds resilience creating multiple ideas or solutions to a problem
you are trying to solve.
Significance of Problem-Solving in Groups:
4 TYPES OF DIVERGENT THINKING:
1. Reduce possibility of bias
2. More perspective 1. Fluency Ability to develop large
3. More creative numbers of ideas
Individually (under stress): 2. Flexibility Ability to produce ideas in
numerous categories
1. Identify
2. Brainstorm solutions 3. Originality Ability to produce unusual or
3. Evaluate your options unique ideas
4. Act on the best options
4. Elaboration Ability to adapt abstract ideas
Steps in Problem-Solving: into realistic solutions
(consider the importance of flexibility)
1. Problem identification B. CONVERGENT THINKING
- “do we actually have a problem?”
2. Problem definition & representation - Once you have considered a variety of
- “what exactly is our problem?” possibilities, you must engage in convergent
3. Strategy formulation thinking.
- may involve analysis *Convergent thinking is the process of narrowing
- combining elements for a solution down the multiple possibilities to converge on a
*synthesis – thinking about multiple solutions single best answer
- putting together various elements to arrange *this strategy focuses on reaching one well-defined
into something useful solution to a problem
4. Organization of information
- How various pieces of information fit
together Obstacles and Aids in Problem Solving:
5. Resource allocation
Problem-Solving
- Time, effort, money
6. Monitoring - a fundamental cognitive process
- “am I on track as I proceed to solve the - allows individuals to navigate challenges
problem?” and find solutions.
7. Evaluation
- “did I solve the problem correctly?” *However, various factors can hinder this process,
while others can facilitate it.

ARAGON, A.M. 
Obstacles to Problem Solving: LESSON 2: REASONING
1. Mental Sets Purpose, Significance of Reasoning:
- cognitive bias that restricts an
Reasoning
individual to using established problem-
solving strategies - allows us to understand behavior
- based on experiences - to have ideas about the world
- process of drawing conclusions from
*When individuals become accustomed to a
principles and evidence
specific method of approaching problems, they
might apply the same strategies even when they are Purposes of Reasoning:
not suitable for the current situation
1. Drawing conclusions
2. Entrenchment - helps us make sense of evidence or rules
- individuals become so deeply ingrained 2. Connecting known information
in their ways of thinking that they are - lets us discover new ideas from what we
unable to consider alternative already know
approaches 3. Evaluating conclusions
3. Fixation - ensures our reasoning is solid before we
- inability to see an issue from a new believe something
perspective, which can lead to stymied
problem-solving. Significance of Reasoning:

Aids to Problem Solving: 1. Organizing thoughts

- arrange ideas so they’re easier to
*Transfer understand and explain
2. Enhancing problem-solving
- influence that previous experiences have on the
- guides us in solving problems by
learning and application of new skills or knowledge
structuring our thinking process
- can be categorized as positive or negative 3. Reducing uncertainty
- assists in predicting outcomes, reducing
1. Positive Transfer
anxiety, and boosting confidence in
- occurs when previous knowledge aids in
decisions
the solving of new problems
4. Supporting critical thinking
2. Negative Transfer
- develops our ability to analyze
- occurs when existing knowledge or skills
information, check facts, and apply
interfere with the learning or
logical thinking in various situations
application of new information
3. Incubation
- process by which a problem is set aside
Deductive Reasoning:
for a period, allowing subconscious
processes to work on it Deductive Reasoning
- often lead to sudden insights
- process of logical reasoning
- setting the premise
- based on logical propositions
*proposition – an assertion which may be either
true or false
- “top-down” approach (general to
specific)

ARAGON, A.M. 
Types of Deductive Arguments: LESSON 3: DECISION-MAKING
1. Syllogism Classical Decision Theory:
- A classic form
Classical Decision Theory
*major premise – general statement
- Earliest models of how people make
*minor premise – specific statement connected to decisions
general statement - Focuses on how Individuals make choices
based on rationality and complete
Example:
information
Major premise: - No emotions
- ease of developing and swing
- All mammals are warm-blooded mathematical models of human
Minor premise: behavior
- Made by economists – used economically
- A cat is a mammal, therefore, it is
warm-blooded *While Classical decision theory is ideal, it's not
2. Hypothetical Syllogism very useful in practice because it assumes
- Have conditional statements unrealistic conditions.
- “if… then…” *The theory employs as optimizing strategy that
Example: If it rains, the ground will get wet. If the seeks the best alternative.
ground is wet, the plants will grow. The Model of Economic Man and Woman
Therefore, if it rains, then the plants will grow. - among the early models of decision
3. Disjunctive Syllogism making in 20th century
- Have options either A/B THE MODEL ASSUME 3 THINGS:
- Mutually exclusive alternatives
1) Decision makers are fully informed regarding all
Example: You are either short or tall. You are not possible options for their decisions and of all
tall so, therefore, you are short. possible outcomes of their decision options.
2) They are infinitely sensitive to the subtle
Inductive Reasoning: distinctions among decision options.

Inductive Reasoning 3) They are fully were rational in regard to their

choice of options.
- We will never reach a logically certain
conclusion (only assumptions)
- Relies on patterns and trends ASSUMPTION OF INFINITE SENSITIVITY
- “bottom-up” approach (specific to - people can evaluate the difference
general) between two outcomes, no matter how
- Basis for empirical research subtle the distinctions.
ASSUMPTION OF RATIONALITY
- people make their choices to maximize
something of valve, whatever that
something would be.

ARAGON, A.M. 
Subjective Expected Utility Theory: Groupthink:
Subjective Expected Utility Theory (SEU Theory) Groupthink
-decision making model that suggests - One of the disadvantages of group
people to: decision-making
1. maximize pleasure (positive utility) - Phenomenon characterized by
2. minimize pain (negative utility) premature decision-making that is a
result of group members attempting to
2 Key Components:
avoid conflict
1. Subjective Utility
Conditions that lead to groupthink:
- Calculation based on the individual’s
judged weightings of utility (value), 1. An isolated, cohesive, and homogenous
rather than objective criteria group is empowered to make decisions
2. Subjective Probability 2. Objective and impartial leadership is
- Calculation based on the individual’s absent, within the group or outside
estimates of likelihood, rather than on 3. High levels of stress impinge on the group
objective statistical computations decision-making process
*The difference between this model and the *anxiety – another cause of groupthink
former is that here the ratings and weights are
6 Symptoms of Groupthink (Janis 1971)
subjective, whereas in the former model they are
supposedly objective. 1. Closemindedness
2. Rationalization
3. Squelching of dissent
Group Decision-Making: 4. Formation of a “mind guard”
5. Feeling invulnerable
Group Decision-Making
6. Feeling unanimous
- Collaborative process where a group of
people work together to make a decision
LESSON 4: COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY
*groupthink – phenomenon that occurs that impairs
the quality of decisions made Definition, Purpose, Significance of Cognitive
Flexibility:
Characteristics of Group Decision-Making:
Cognitive Flexibility
1. The group is small (< = effective)
2. It has open communication - Ability to change what you are thinking
3. Members share a common mind-set about, how you are thinking about it,
4. Members identify with the group and even what you think about it
5. Members agree on acceptable group - Required in multiple ways throughout
behavior the school day
Benefits of Group Decision-Making: *cognitive control – ability to switch ways of
thinking, either automatically or deliberately, in
1. Can enhance effectiveness in problem-
situations requiring flexibility
solving
2. Increase resources & ideas - requires the ability to resist the impulse to
3. Improve group memory over individual perseverate and keep thinking in a previously
memory active but no longer appropriate manner
Tips to enhance better cognitive flexibility:
1. Represent the content in more than one way
when teaching new concept or skills
ARAGON, A.M. 
 2. Use lots of cueing to prepare students for
transitions
3. Provide an itinerary (written plans)
4. Continue using ACTIVATE (wow sponsored)

When Cognitive Flexibility is a strength:

- Handle transitions easily
- Can shift between subjects and tasks in
stride
- May have success in tasks that require
them to apply learning in one arena to
problem solving in another context
Tips to maintain better cognitive flexibility:
1. Challenge students with interdisciplinary
assignments or projects
2. Use them in peer tutoring strategies

ARAGON, A.M. 