Asiriyar Academy

Crash Course
Logical Reasoning
NTA UGC NET /JRF/PHD
 Unit VI-Logical Reasoning

• Understanding the structure of arguments:

Argument forms, the structure of categorical propositions, mood and figure,
formal and informal fallacies, uses of language, connotations, and denotations
of terms, the classical square of opposition
• Evaluating and distinguishing deductive and inductive reasoning
• Analogies
• Venn diagram: Simple and multiple uses for establishing the validity of
arguments
• Indian Logic: Means of knowledge
• Pramanas: Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference), Upamana
(Comparison), Shabda (Verbal testimony), Arthapatti (Implication) and
Anupalabddhi (Non-apprehension)
• Structure and kinds of Anumana (inference), Vyapti (invariable relation),
Hetvabhasas (fallacies of inference)
Logical Reasoning

Western
Indian Logic
Logic
 Western Logic
Arguments
An argument is a group of statements including one or more premises
and one and only one conclusion.

Example
Premises
All cats are mammals
A tiger is a cat
Conclusion:
So a tiger is a mammal
Types of Reasoning

1.Inductive Reasoning
2.Deductive Reasoning
3.Abductive Reasoning
 Deductive Reasoning
 A deductive argument is a type of reasoning where the conclusion logically follows from the
premises.
 It aims to provide conclusive evidence or proof for the truth of the conclusion.
 In deductive reasoning, if the premises are true, then the conclusion must also be true.
 Deductive arguments are characterized by their validity, which means that the conclusion
necessarily follows from the premises.
 It works from the more general to more specific
 Top - Down approach
 It follows more certainty

Example
Premise 1 : All men are Intelligent
Premise 2 : I am a man
Conclusion: So I am Intelligent
 Inductive Reasoning
 An inductive argument is a type of reasoning where the conclusion is based on observed
patterns, trends, or evidence.
 It aims to establish a probable or likely truth of the conclusion.
 Unlike deductive reasoning, inductive arguments do not provide absolute certainty.
 Instead, they rely on the strength of the evidence to support the conclusion.
 It moving from specific observations to broader generations and theories.
 Bottom Up approach
 It involves degree of uncertainty

Example
Premise 1 : Some vegetables contain Minerals
Premise 2 : Carrot is a Vegetable
Conclusion: Thus, All carrot contains Minerals
 Abductive Reasoning

• It starts with an observation or set of observations and then seeks the

simplest
• and most likely conclusion from the observations.
• The conclusion drawn is just a best guess, it may or may not be true.
• It is called inference of the best explanation(May be true).
Validity: It tells about the strength.
An argument is valid when,
• IF all of it's premises were true, then the conclusion must be true.
• IF all of it's premises were true, then the conclusion can't be FALSE.
• False Premise, True Conclusion.
Dogs
Premise 1- All dogs are snakes.
Premise 2- All snakes are birds. Snakes
Conclusion- All dogs are birds
Birds

Invalid Argument:
• If premises are True, but the conclusion is False.
Premise 1- All dogs are mammals Dogs
Collies
Premise 2- All collies are mammals
Mammals
Conclusion- All collies are dogs
Soundness:
Sound Argument
An argument is sound if it meets these two criteria:
(1)It is valid.
(2)Its premises are true. Whales
Premise 1: All whales are mammals
Killer whale
Premise 2: Killer whale is a whale
Conclusion: Therefore, killer whale is a mammal
Mammals
Unsound Argument

Unsound: An argument is unsound if it is invalid and/or has at least one false premises.

Premise 1: All men are married

Premise 2: Some doctors are not married
Conclusion: Some doctors are not men
Strong and cogent

Most birds can fly.

Tweety is a bird.
Therefore, Tweety can probably fly. Birds Fly
Tweety
 Stop Over
When the conclusion of an argument follows from its premises
necessarily, the argument is called:
Options:-
(A)Circular argument
(B)Deductive argument
(C)Analogical argument
(D)Inductive argument
 Stop Over
When the conclusion of an argument follows from its premises
necessarily, the argument is called:
Options:-
(A)Circular argument
(B)Deductive argument
(C)Analogical argument
(D)Inductive argument
 NTA NET
In a valid deductive argument, if the premises are true, then:
Options:-
(A)Conclusion may sometimes be true
(B)Conclusion must be true.
(C)Conclusion must be false.
(D)Conclusion can be probably true.
 Answer
In a valid deductive argument, if the premises are true, then:
Options:-
(A)Conclusion may sometimes be true
(B)Conclusion must be true.
(C)Conclusion must be false.
(D)Conclusion can be probably true.
 NTA NET
In which of the following instances, deductive argument is invalid?
Options:-
(A)When its premises are true but conclusion is false.
(B)When its premises and conclusion are all true.
(C)When its premises are false and conclusion is true.
(D)When its premises and conclusion are all false.
 Answer
In which of the following instances, deductive argument is invalid?
Options:-
(A)When its premises are true but conclusion is false.
(B)When its premises and conclusion are all true.
(C)When its premises are false and conclusion is true.
(D)When its premises and conclusion are all false.
 NTA NET
A deductive argument is invalid if:
Options:-
(A)Its premises and conclusions are all false.
(B)Its premises are all true but its conclusion is false.
(C)Its premises are all false but its conclusion is true.
(D)Its premises and conclusions are all true.
 Answer

A deductive argument is invalid if:

Options:-
(A)Its premises and conclusions are all false.
(B)Its premises are all true but its conclusion is false.
(C)Its premises are all false but its conclusion is true.
(D)Its premises and conclusions are all true.
Categorical
Proposition
• Categorical propositions express relationships between categories using a
subject and predicate connected by copula. They have four standard forms:
• “All S are P,”- A
• “No S are P,”- E
• “Some S are P,”- I
• “Some S are not P.”- O
“Proposition = Quantifier+Subject+Copula+Predicate”
Subject- First part of the proposition

Predicate - Last part of the proposition

Categorical Proposition: “Quantifier+Subject+Copula+Predicate”
Universal Affirmative-(A type)-All Rose are red
Universal Negative (E type)- No rose is red
Particular Affirmative (I type)-Some rose are red
Particular Negative (O type)- Some rose are not red
Example of syllogism
All boys are men
All men are fathers
Conclusion: All boys are fathers
 Golden Rules of syllogism

1. Every deduction should contain exactly three terms

2. If one of the premises is negative then the conclusion must be negative
3. If one of the premises is particular then the conclusion must be particular
4. If both premises are particular then no conclusion
5. If both premises are negative then no conclusion
6. A term that is not distributed in the premises cannot be distributed in the
conclusion
 NTA NET 19
All Judges are fair minded' is an example of proposition.
(A) Universal affirmative
(B) Universal negative
(C) Particular affirmative
(D) Particular negative
 Answer
All Judges are fair minded' is an example of proposition.
(A) Universal affirmative
(B) Universal negative
(C) Particular affirmative
(D) Particular negative
 NTA NET AUG24

Which of the following is correct in the context of syllogism?

A) With two negative premise, affirmative conclusion can be drawn
B) Predicate of the conclusion is the minor term.
C) Middle term must be distributed at least once in the premises
D) With two universal premises, particular conclusion can be drawn
E) The term distributed in the conclusion must be distributed in the premises.
Choose the most appropriate answer from the options given below.
[1] B and C Only
[2] A and C Only
[3] D and E Only
[4] C and E Only
 NTA NET AUG24

Which of the following is correct in the context of syllogism?

A) With two negative premise, affirmative conclusion can be drawn
B) Predicate of the conclusion is the minor term.
C) Middle term must be distributed at least once in the premises
D) With two universal premises, particular conclusion can be drawn
E) The term distributed in the conclusion must be distributed in the premises.
Choose the most appropriate answer from the options given below.
[1] B and C Only
[2] A and C Only
[3] D and E Only
[4] C and E Only
NTA NET 2018
 Venn diagram Approach
• Example : All men are Handsome
Handsome

Men
Some doctors are fools
Ram is a doctor

Conclusions:
a. Ram is a fool
b. Some fools are doctors
 NTA NET
Given below are two premises (A and B). Four conclusions are drawn from them. Select the
code that states validly drawn conclusion(s) (taking the premises individually or jointly).
Premises:
(A)Most of the dancers are physically fit.
(B)Most of the singers are dancers.
Conclusions:
(a)Most of the singers are physically fit.
(b)Most of the dancers are singers.
(c)Most of the physically fit persons are dancers.
(d)Most of the physically fit persons are singers. Code:
(1).(a) and (b)
(2).(b) and (c)
(3). (c) and (d)
(4). (d) and (a)
 Answer
Given below are two premises (A and B). Four conclusions are drawn from them. Select the
code that states validly drawn conclusion(s) (taking the premises individually or jointly).
Premises:
(A)Most of the dancers are physically fit.
(B)Most of the singers are dancers.
Conclusions:
(a)Most of the singers are physically fit.
(b)Most of the dancers are singers.
(c)Most of the physically fit persons are dancers.
(d)Most of the physically fit persons are singers. Code:
(1).(a) and (b)
(2).(b) and (c)
(3). (c) and (d)
(4). (d) and (a)
 NTA NET 2018
Ques: Which one of the following statements is not correct in the context of Venn diagram
method?

(1)It is a method of testing the validity of arguments.

(2)It represents both the premises of a syllogism in one diagram.
(3)It requires two overlapping circles for the two premises of a standard- form categorical
syllogism.
(4)It can be used to represent classes as well as propositions.
 NTA NET 2018
Ques: Which one of the following statements is not correct in the context of Venn diagram
method?

(1)It is a method of testing the validity of arguments.

(2)It represents both the premises of a syllogism in one diagram.
(3)It requires two overlapping circles for the two premises of a standard- form
categorical syllogism.
(4)It can be used to represent classes as well as propositions.
 NTA NET 2018
Given below are two premises (i) and (ii). Four conclusions are drawn from them (Taking singly or together).
Premises:
(i)Some prisoners are dacoits.
(ii)Some dacoits are murderers.

Conclusions:
(a)Some prisoners are murderers.
(b)All prisoners are murderers.
(c)Some dacoits are prisoners.
(d)Some murderers are dacoits.
Select the code that states the validity drawn conclusions:

Options:-
(A)Only (b) and (c)
(B)Only (c) and (d)
(C)Only (b) and (d)
(D)Only (a) and (d)
 Answer
Given below are two premises (i) and (ii). Four conclusions are drawn from them (Taking
singly or together).
Premises:
(i)Some prisoners are dacoits.
(ii)Some dacoits are murderers.

Conclusions:
(a)Some prisoners are murderers.
(b)All prisoners are murderers.
(c)Some dacoits are prisoners.
(d)Some murderers are dacoits.
Select the code that states the validity drawn conclusions:
Options:-
(A)Only (b) and (c)
(B)Only (c) and (d)
(C)Only (b) and (d)
(D)Only (a) and (d)
 Analogy
In Western logic, an analogy is a comparison between two things that
are similar in some way, and is used to draw conclusions
Ex: “Writing on paper is similar to writing on the board” (Key words: Similar, like that, just as,

like, compared)
 Identify the correct reasoning in the following argument:
"An English women lecturing Americans on semicolons is a little like an American
lecturing the French on sauces".

Options:-
(A) Hypothetical
(B) Deductive
(C) Analogical
(D) Inductive
 Identify the correct reasoning in the following argument:
"An English women lecturing Americans on semicolons is a little like an
American lecturing the French on sauces".

Options:-
(A) Hypothetical
(B) Deductive
(C) Analogical
(D) Inductive
Identify the reasoning in the following argument:
"A person without a goal is like a computer without a program".
Options:-
(A)Hypothetical
(B)Analogical
(C)Inductive
(D)Deductive
 Answer
Identify the reasoning in the following argument:
"A person without a goal is like a computer without a program".
Options:-
(A)Hypothetical
(B)Analogical
(C)Inductive
(D)Deductive
 NTA NET AUG 24

Identify the pattern of the Argument in the following "Habits are like a cable. We
weave a strand of it everyday and soon it cannot be broken."
(1) Causal Argument
(2) Argument from Analogy
(3)Argument from Authority
(4) Argument from Definition
Options
1.1
2.2
3.3
4.4
 NTA NET AUG 24

Identify the pattern of the Argument in the following "Habits are like a cable. We
weave a strand of it everyday and soon it cannot be broken."
(1) Causal Argument
(2) Argument from Analogy
(3)Argument from Authority
(4) Argument from Definition
Options
1.1
2.2
3.3
4.4
Square of opposition
 NTA Net 19
In which of the following propositions, both can be true simultaneously
but cannot be false simultaneously?
(A) Contrary
(B) Contradiction
(C) Sub contrary
(D) Subaltern
 Answer
In which of the following propositions, both can be true simultaneously
but cannot be false simultaneously?
(A) Contrary
(B) Contradiction
(C) Sub contrary
(D) Subaltern
 NTA NET Aug 24

If the statement "Some birds are not mammals" is given as true, which of the following
statements can be immediately inferred to be false?
1. Some mammals are not birds.
2. Some birds are mammals.
3. No birds are mammals.
4. All birds are mammals.
Options:
1.1
2.2
3.3
4.4
 NTA NET Aug 24

If the statement "Some birds are not mammals" is given as true, which of the following
statements can be immediately inferred to be false?
1. Some mammals are not birds.
2. Some birds are mammals.
3. No birds are mammals.
4. All birds are mammals.
Options:
1.1
2.2
3.3
4.4
 NTA NET
Which one of the following propositions is a contrary to "All poets are
dreamers"?
(A)Some poets are dreamers
(B)Some poets are not dreamers
(C)No poets are dreamers
(D)No dreamers are poets
 Answer
Which one of the following propositions is a contrary to "All poets are
dreamers"?
(A)Some poets are dreamers
(B)Some poets are not dreamers
(C)No poets are dreamers
(D)No dreamers are poets
 NTA NET 19
If proposition "some milk is curd” is taken to be true, then which of the
following propositions can be false?
(A)No milk is curd.
(B)All milk is curd.
(C)Some curd is milk.
(D)Some milk is not curd.
 Answer
If proposition "some milk is curd” is taken to be true, then which of the
following propositions can be false?
(A)No milk is curd.
(B)All milk is curd.
(C)Some curd is milk.
(D)Some milk is not curd.
 NTA NET 2018
If the proposition 'domestic animals are hardly ferocious' is taken to be false,
which of the following proposition/propositions can be claimed to be certainly
true? Select the correct code:
Propositions:
(a)All domestic animals are ferocious.
(b)Most of the domestic animals are ferocious.
(c)No domestic animal is ferocious.
(d) Some domestic animals are non-ferocious.
Code:
(1)(a) and (b)
(2)(a) only
(3)(c) and (d)
(4)(b) only
 Answer
If the proposition 'domestic animals are hardly ferocious' is taken to be false,
which of the following proposition/propositions can be claimed to be certainly
true? Select the correct code:
Propositions:
(a)All domestic animals are ferocious.
(b)Most of the domestic animals are ferocious.
(c)No domestic animal is ferocious.
(d) Some domestic animals are non-ferocious.
Code:
(1)(a) and (b)
(2)(a) only
(3)(c) and (d)
(4)(b) only
 NTA NET 2018
Among the following, there are two statements which can't be true together, but
can be false together. Select the code that represents them:
Statements:-
(a)All bats are mammals.
(b)Some bats are mammals.
(c)Some bats are not mammals.
(d)No bats are mammals.
Options:-
(A) (b) and (c)
(B) (a) and (b)
(C) (a) and (c)
(D) (a) and (d)
 NTA NET 2018
Among the following, there are two statements which can't be true together, but
can be false together. Select the code that represents them:
Statements:-
(a)All bats are mammals.
(b)Some bats are mammals.
(c)Some bats are not mammals.
(d)No bats are mammals.
Options:-
(A) (b) and (c)
(B) (a) and (b)
(C) (a) and (c)
(D) (a) and (d)
 NTA NET 21

List 1. Proposition in Square of Opposition List 2. Resultant

A. If 'A' is False 1. 'E' is False; 'I' is True

B. If 'E' is False 2. 'A' is false E' is True

C. If 'I' is False 3. 'A' and 'O' are Undetermined

D. If 'O' is False 4. 'E' and 'I' are Undetermined

Choose the correct answer from the options given below

1.A-1 B-2 C-3 D-4

2.A-2 B-4 C-1 D-3
3.A-3 B-2 C-1 D-4
4. A-4 B-3 C-2 D-1
 Answer
List 1. Proposition in Square of Opposition List 2. Resultant
A. If 'A' is False 1. 'E' is False; 'I' is True

B. If 'E' is False 2. 'A' is False E' is True

C. If 'I' is False 3. 'A' and 'O' are Undetermined

D. If 'O' is False 4. 'E' and 'I' are Undetermined

Choose the correct answer from the options given below

1.A-1 B-2 C-3 D-4

2.A-2 B-4 C-1 D-3
3.A-3 B-2 C-1 D-4
4. A-4 B-3 C-2 D-1
Quality & Quantity
 Moods and figures
1. All mammals are animals.(P1)
2. All dogsare mammals.(P2)
3. Therefore, all dogs are animals.(Conclusion)

Let us take this example and find out the mood and figure. For that we find out
major Term Minor Term and Middle term.

Animal – Predicate of conclusion is Major term

Dogs – Subject of conclusion is Minor Term
Mammals – Not present in the conclusion is Middle term

MOOD is AAA
Consider the following argument:

Major Premise: No squares are rectangles

Minor Premise: All rectangles are circles
Conclusion: Some circles are not squares

What is the Mood of the above proposition?

1.A I E
2.A E 0
3. EAO
4.E A I
 Answer
Consider the following argument:

Major Premise: No squares are rectangles

Minor Premise: All rectangles are circles
Conclusion: Some circles are not squares
What is the Mood of the above proposition?

1.A I E
2.A E 0
3. EAO
4.E A I
 Question
In the figure of categorical syllogism, Quantity and Quality of a proposition
determine:

1. Validity of Syllogism
2. Mood of the Syllogism
3. Figure of the Syllogism
4. Fallacy of the Syllogism
 Answer
In the figure of categorical syllogism, Quantity and Quality of a proposition
determine:

1. Validity of Syllogism
2. Mood of the Syllogism
3. Figure of the Syllogism
4. Fallacy of the Syllogism
 FIGURE
The figure in a categorical syllogism refers to the placement of the middle term
in the two premises. Figures help to categorize syllogisms based on their
structure, enabling a structured approach to evaluating their validity.
 NTA NET

No nuclear powered submarines are commercial vessels,

All nuclear powered submarines are warships ,
so no warships are commercial vessels.
• 1. EAE - IV
• 2. AEE - II
• 3. EAE - III
• 4. EEA-II
 Answer

No nuclear powered submarines are commercial vessels,

All nuclear powered submarines are warships ,
so no warships are commercial vessels.
• 1. EAE - IV
• 2. AEE - II
• 3. EAE - III
• 4. EEA-II
 Question

Find the mood and figure of the proposition

No A are B
ALL C are B
NO A are C

Options:
1.EAE -3
2.EAE - 2
3.EAE - 1
4.EAE - 4
 Answer

Find the mood and figure of the proposition

No A are B
ALL C are B
NO A are C

Options:
1.EAE -3
2.EAE - 2
3.EAE - 1
4.EAE - 4
 Workout
Find the mood and figure of the proposition

some B are A
All B are C
Some A are C
Options:
1.IAI - 3
2.IAI - 2
3.IAI - 1
4. IAI - 1
 Answer
Find the mood and figure of the proposition

some B are A
All B are C
Some A are C
Options:
1.IAI - 3
2.IAI - 2
3.IAI - 1
4. IAI - 1
 NTA NET DEC 19
Which one of the following is true with respect to the first figure of categorical syllogism?

Options:
1. The middle term is the subject of the major premise and the predicate of the minor premise
2. The middle term is the predicate of the major premise and subject of the minor premise
3. The middle term is the subject of the major premise and the predicate of the conclusion
4. The middle term is the subject of the minor premise and the predicate of the conclusion
 NTA NET DEC 19
Which one of the following is true with respect to the first figure of categorical syllogism?

Options:
1. The middle term is the subject of the major premise and the predicate of the minor
premise
2. The middle term is the predicate of the major premise and subject of the minor premise
3. The middle term is the subject of the major premise and the predicate of the conclusion
4. The middle term is the subject of the minor premise and the predicate of the conclusion
 Logically equivalent
Checking whether the statements are equivalent in meaning.
• Converse –Converting or interchanging the subject to predicate and predicate to
subject.
• Obverse –Version Change(All to No,some to some not..) and compliment the predicate.
• Contrapositive –Convert and Compliment both subject and predicate.

Type Converse Obverse Contrapositive

A No Yes Yes
E Yes Yes No
I Yes Yes No
O No Yes Yes
 Logically equivalent

Which of the following statements is contrapositive of "All whales are

mammals"?
1.Some whales are mammals.
2.All non-mammals are non-whales.
3.Some mammals are whales.
4.All mammals are whales.
 Logically equivalent

Which of the following statements is contrapositive of "All whales are

mammals"?
1.Some whales are mammals.
2.All non-mammals are non-whales.
3.Some mammals are whales.
4.All mammals are whales.
 NTA NET 23
Which of the following statements is logically equivalent to the
statement "All philosophers are realists"?
1. No Philosopher are non-realist
2. No realists are non-philosphers
3. No non-philosopher are non-realists
4. No non-realists are non- philosophers
 NTA NET 23
Which of the following statements is logically equivalent to the
statement "All philosophers are realists"?
1. No Philosopher are non-realist
2. No realists are non-philosphers
3. No non-philosopher are non-realists
4. No non-realists are non- philosophers
Which of the following statements are logically equivalent?
A. No S is P
B. No P is S
C. All S are non-P
D. All non-P are non-S
E.No S is non-P
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
1.A, C and D only
2.A, B and C only
3.B, C and D only
4.A, B, C and D only
Which of the following statements are logically equivalent?
A. No S is P
B. No P is S
C. All S are non-P
D. All non-P are non-S
E.No S is non-P
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
1.A, C and D only
2.A, B and C only
3.B, C and D only
4.A, B, C and D only
 Fallacy is an error in reasoning.

Formal Fallacy Informal Fallacy

Formal Fallacy
• Detectable by an examination of the FORM or Structure of argument
Informal Fallacies
• Detectable by an examination of the CONTENT of the argument itself
 Syllogism
• An argument consisting of three statements:
TWO premises and ONE conclusion
• A syllogism consisting of three categorical propositions, and containing
THREE DISTINCT TERMS, each of which appears in exactly two of the three
propositions.

All mammals are creatures that have hair. –Major Premise

All dogs are mammals. –Minor Premise
Therefore, all dogs are creatures that have hair.

Major Term: The predicate term of the conclusion ("creatures that have hair"
Minor Term: The subject term of the conclusion ("dogs")
Middle Term: The term that does NOT appear in the conclusion ("mammals”)
 Types of Formal fallacies
1. Fallacy of Four Terms
2. Undistributed middle
3. Illicit major
4. Illicit minor
5. Fallacy of Exclusive Premises
6. A negative premises requires a NEGATIVE CONCLUSION.
• Drawing affirmative conclusion from negative premises
• Drawing negative conclusion from positive premises
7.Existential Fallacy
1.FALLACY OF FOUR TERMS.
If more than three terms or less than three terms are involved, the
syllogism becomes invalid and commits a fallacy that is called the
FALLACY OF FOUR TERMS.

Example:
Plato is the teacher of Aristotle.
Socrates is the teacher of Plato.
Therefore, Socrates is the teacher of Aristotle.
 2.Undistributed middle
A formal fallacy in a categorical syllogism where the middle
term, or the term that does not appear in the conclusion, is not
distributed to the other two terms.

P1:All Russians are Revolutionists.

P2: All Antarctictites are Revolutionists.
Conclusion: All Antarctictites are Russians.
 Workout

All cats are animals.

All dogs are animals.
Therefore, all dogs are cats.

1. Existential Fallacy
2. Fallacy of Four Terms
3. Fallacy of the Exclusive Premises.
4. Fallacy of the Undistributed Middle Term
 Workout Answer

All cats are animals.

All dogs are animals.
Therefore, all dogs are cats.

1. Existential Fallacy
2. Fallacy of Four Terms
3. Fallacy of the Exclusive Premises.
4. Fallacy of the Undistributed Middle Term
 3.Illicit major
Any form of a categorical syllogism in which the major term is
distributed in the conclusion, but not in the major premise.

P1: All hotdogs are fast food.

P2: No hamburgers are hotdogs.
C: Therefore, no hamburgers are fast food.
Some birds are not beautiful creatures.
All dogs are beautiful creatures.
Therefore, no dogs are birds.
Options:
A. Fallacy of Exclusive Premises
B. Fallacy of the Illicit Process of Major Term
C. Fallacy of the Illicit Process of Minor Term
D.Fallacy of the Undistributed Middle Term
Some birds are not beautiful creatures.
All dogs are beautiful creatures.
Therefore, no dogs are birds.
Options:
A. Fallacy of Exclusive Premises
B.Fallacy of the Illicit Process of Major Term
C. Fallacy of the Illicit Process of Minor Term
D.Fallacy of the Undistributed Middle Term
 4.Illicit Minor

Any form of a categorical syllogism in which the minor term is

distributed in the conclusion, but not in the minor premise.

P1: All Catholics are Christian.

P2: All Christians are Jesus lovers.
C: Therefore, all Jesus lovers are Catholic.
 Workout
Identify the fallacy committed in the argument
Some spaniels are not good hunters.
All spaniels are gentle dogs.
Therefore, no gentle dogs are good hunters.
Options:
1. Fallacy of Exclusive Premises
2. Fallacy of Four Terms
3. Fallacy of Illicit Major
4. Fallacy of Illicit Minor
 WorkoutAnswer

Identify the fallacy committed in the argument

Some spaniels are not good hunters.

All spaniels are gentle dogs.
Therefore, no gentle dogs are good hunters.
Options:
1. Fallacy of Exclusive Premises
2. Fallacy of Four Terms
 5.Exclusive premises(EOO)
A standard form categorical syllogism that has two negative
premises either in the form of "no X are Y" or "some X are
not Y".
P1: No animals are insects.
P2: Some insects are not dogs.
C: Therefore, some dogs are not animals.
 Workout
Identify the fallacy committed in the argument.

No tragic actors are idiots

Some comedians are not idiots
so some comedians are not tragic actors.
Options:
1. Existential Fallacy
2. Fallacy of Exclusive Premises
3. Fallacy of the illicit Process of Major Term
4. Fallacy of the illicit Process of Minor Term
Identify the fallacy committed in the argument.

No tragic actors are idiots

Some comedians are not idiots
so some comedians are not tragic actors.
Options:
1. Existential Fallacy
2. Fallacy of Exclusive Premises
3. Fallacy of the illicit Process of Major Term
4. Fallacy of the illicit Process of Minor Term
6.Drawing an affirmative conclusion from a negative premise or
Drawing a negative conclusion from affirmative premises

Example 1:
All crows are birds.
Some wolves are not crows.
Some wolves are birds.
Example 2:
All triangles are three-angled polygons.
All three-angled polygons are three-sided polygons.
Some three-sided polygons are not triangles.
 7.Existential Fallacy

A formal logical fallacy, which is committed when a categorical

syllogism employs two universal premises (“all”) to arrive at a particular
(“some”) conclusion.
Example:
All mammals are animals.
All tigers are mammals.
Some tigers are animals.
 Workout
Identify the fallacy committed in the argument.
All household pets are domestic animals
No unicorns are domestic animals.
Therefore, some unicorns are not household pets.
1. Fallacy of Illicit Minor
2. Fallacy of Illicit Major
3. Fallacy of Four terms
4. Existential fallacy
 Workout Answer
Identify the fallacy committed in the argument.
All household pets are domestic animals
No unicorns are domestic animals.
Therefore, some unicorns are not household pets.
1.Fallacy of Illicit Minor
2.Fallacy of Illicit Major
3.Fallacy of Four terms
4.Existential fallacy
 Workout

Identify the fallacy committed in the argument

No tragic actors are idiots

some comedians are not idiots,
some comedians are not tragic actors.

1. Existential Fallacy
2. Fallacy of Exclusive Premises
3. Fallacy of the illicit Major Term
4. Fallacy of Process of Minor Term
 Workout Answer

Identify the fallacy committed in the argument

No tragic actors are idiots

some comedians are not idiots,
some comedians are not tragic actors.

1. Existential Fallacy
2. Fallacy of Exclusive Premises
3. Fallacy of the illicit Major Term
4. Fallacy of Process of Minor Term
 NTA NET AUG 24

What can be inferred correctly from the following?

"No musicians are Greeks.
All traders are Musicians.
Therefore, no traders are Greeks"
(A) It represents figure II of the syllogistic argument
(B) It is an EAE mood
(C) The term 'Greeks' is the major term
(D) The minor term of the conclusion is distributed
(E) The middle term is undistributed

Choose the correct answer from the options given below:

(1) (A), (B) and (C) only
(2) (B), (C) and (D) only
(3) (D) and (E) only
(4)(A), (C) and (E) only
 NTA NET AUG 24

What can be inferred correctly from the following?

"No musicians are Greeks.
All traders are Musicians.
Therefore, no traders are Greeks"
(A) It represents figure II of the syllogistic argument
(B) It is an EAE mood
(C) The term 'Greeks' is the major term
(D) The minor term of the conclusion is distributed
(E) The middle term is undistributed

Choose the correct answer from the options given below:

(1) (A), (B) and (C) only
(2) (B), (C) and (D) only
(3) (D) and (E) only
(4)(A), (C) and (E) only
 Informal Fallacy

Informal Fallacies
• Detectable by an examination of the CONTENT of the argument itself
Argument ad Verecundiam:
Another name – Appeal to Authority
Irrelevant expertise – the argument appeals to an authority on an issue
outside the field of expertise that the expert holds

Argument ad populum(Band Wagon)

Another name – Appeal to Public and Popularity
This is the fallacy of trying to prove something by showing that the
public agrees with you
All Informal Fallacy with keywords
 NTA NET

Mr. X is penniless. Therefore, he should be preferred for admission to

college". This reasoning represents which kind of fallacy?
1.Ad hominem
2. Ad Misericodiam
3. Ad Baculum
4. Ad ignoratiam
 NTA NET

Mr. X is penniless. Therefore, he should be preferred for admission to

college". This reasoning represents which kind of fallacy?
1.Ad hominem
2. Ad Misericodiam
3. Ad Baculum
4. Ad ignoratiam
 NTA NET

"Everyone believes that there is a soul. Therefore, you should also believe
it." This inference commits which kind of fallacy?
(a) Ad hominem
(b) Ad populum
(c) Fallacy of Accident
(d) Fallacy of Ambiguity
 NTA NET

"Everyone believes that there is a soul. Therefore, you should also believe
it." This inference commits which kind of fallacy?
(a) Ad hominem
(b) Ad populum
(c) Fallacy of Accident
(d) Fallacy of Ambiguity
 NTA NET

"God is great because He does great things.” This inference commits which kind of fallacy?
(a) Ad hominem
(b) Fallacy of Composition
(c) Fallacy of Division
(d) Pettito principii
 NTA NET

"God is great because He does great things.” This inference commits which kind of fallacy?
(a) Ad hominem
(b) Fallacy of Composition
(c) Fallacy of Division
(d) Pettito principii
 NTA NET 19
A fallacy in which an opponent's position is depicted as being more extreme or
unreasonable than is justified by what was actually asserted is called
(A) Argumentum ad Baculum
(B) The Red Herring
(C) Argumentum ad Hominem
(D) Straw Man
 NTA NET 19
A fallacy in which an opponent's position is depicted as being more extreme or
unreasonable than is justified by what was actually asserted is called
(A) Argumentum ad Baculum
(B) The Red Herring
(C) Argumentum ad Hominem
(D) Straw Man
 Denotation and Connotation
Denotation refers to the literal or dictionary meaning of a word, Not emotions
or feelings are associated with the word.
Ex: Cake is a sweet food made by mixing flour, eggs, butter, sugar, etc. together
and baking the mixture in the oven.
Denotation refers to the Extension the terms

Connotation refers to cultural or emotional associations implied by word

beyond its literal meaning.A word's emotional meaning; suggestions and
associations that are connected to a word. Words can be positive, negative, or
neutral. Words can also connote specific feelings or emotions.

Ex: The cake is a symbol of love and affection that we have with our loved ones.
connotation refers to the intension the term
 Workout

connotative words have

1.Literal meaning
2.Cultural meaning
3.Common meaning
4.Clear meaning
connotative words have
1.Literal meaning
2.Cultural meaning
3.Common meaning
4.Clear meaning
 Workout

Consider the following statements and choose the correct answer from the codes
given below,
Statement I: Connotation implies the abstract meaning or intent of a term
Statement II: Denotation signifies the explicit or direct objects or set of objects a
term refers to

1.Both Statement I and Statement II are true

2.Statement I is correct but Statement II is incorrect
3.Statement I is incorrect but Statement II is correct
4.Both Statement I and Statement II are incorrect
 Answer

Consider the following statements and choose the correct answer from the codes
given below,
Statement I: Connotation implies the abstract meaning or intent of a term
Statement II: Denotation signifies the explicit or direct objects or set of objects a
term refers to

1.Both Statement I and Statement II are true

2.Statement I is correct but Statement II is incorrect
3.Statement I is incorrect but Statement II is correct
4.Both Statement I and Statement II are incorrect
 Workout

The collection of all the objects to which a term may correctly be applied is
called:
(A) The intension of that term
(B) Connotation of that term
(C) The extension of that term
(D) Denotation of that term
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:

1.(A) and (B) only

2.(B) and (C) only
3.(A) and (D) only
4.(C) and (D) only
The collection of all the objects to which a term may correctly be applied is
called:
(A) The intension of that term
(B) Connotation of that term
(C) The extension of that term
(D) Denotation of that term
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:

1.(A) and (B) only

2.(B) and (C) only
3.(A) and (D) only
4.(C) and (D) only
•Decreasing Denotation/Extension=Increasing Connotation/Intension
[DD=IC]
•Increasing Denotation/Extension=Decreasing Connotation/Intension
[ID=DC]
 NTA NET AUG 24
Which of the following is arranged is order of increasing connotation?
1. Cow, bovine, mammal, vertebrate, animal
2. Mammal, vertebrate, bovine, animal, cow
3. Vertebrate, animal, mammal, bovine, cow
4. Animal, vertebrate, mammal, cow.
 NTA NET AUG 24

Which of the following is arranged is order of increasing connotation?

1. Cow, bovine, mammal, vertebrate, animal
2. Mammal, vertebrate, bovine, animal, cow
3. Vertebrate, animal, mammal, bovine, cow
4. Animal, vertebrate, mammal, cow.
 NTA NET
Which of the following is arranged in order of increasing denotation?
1. Cow, bovine, mammal, vertebrate, animal
2. Mammal, Vertebrate, bovine, animal, cow
3. Vertebrate, animal, mammal, bovine, cow
4. Animal, Vertebrate, mammal, bovine, cow
Which of the following is arranged in order of increasing denotation?
1. Cow, bovine, mammal, vertebrate, animal
2. Mammal, Vertebrate, bovine, animal, cow
3. Vertebrate, animal, mammal, bovine, cow
4. Animal, Vertebrate, mammal, bovine, cow
Indian Logic
Syllabus
Pramana refers MEANS OF Knowledge.

In Indian philosophies, pramana are the way which can lead to

knowledge and serve as core concepts in Indian Epistemology.

Pramana – Source of Knowledge

Pramata – subject
Prameya – object
Prama – The resultant of valid knowledge
Four Means of Knowledge
1. Pratyaksa( Perception)
• Implies direct, immediate cognition.
• It is of two types: external and internal.
• External is described as arising from the interaction of five senses and
worldly objects; cognition of sense objects, namely - sound, touch,
form, taste, and smell.
•Internal perception means the direct & immediate cognition of pain,
pleasure, love, hate, anger, knowledge or ignorance of various
objects, etc. in & by our minds.
Elements of Perception
Pratyaksha is of two kinds,
1. Anubhava: Direct perception
2. Smriti: Remembered perception

Some schools make a further distinction between in indiscriminate perception

(nirvikalpaka), the object is perceived without its distinguishing features.
Discriminate perception (savikalpaka), in which the distinguishing features are both
observed and recognized.
2. Anumana (Inference)
• Inference depends on knowledge obtained through perception.
•Described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more
observations and previous truths by applying reason.
•We see smoke on the hill, we infer there is fire (new conclusion), as
we have seen wherever there is smoke there is a fire in our kitchen
(previous truth).
• The inference is conditionally true if sapaksha (positive examples as
evidence) are present, and if vipaksha (negative examples as counter-
evidence) are absent.
This is remembered as PHUUN
So Here in Nyaya we have
5 proposition and 3 terms.

Major term- sadhya(Fire)

Minor term- paksa(Hill)
Middle term- Hetu(smoke)
Characteristics of Hetu
• Vyapti(invariable relation) is a Sanskrit term used in Indian logic,
particularly in the Nyaya school. It refers to the necessary relation between
a cause (Hetu) and its effect (sadhya). In simpler terms, it means the
invariable concomitance of the cause and effect.

• Vyapti(invariable relation)between middle term and the major term

3. Upamana (Analogy and Comparison)
•The process by which the knowledge of A's similarity to B is gained
from the perception of B's similarity to A, which has been seen
elsewhere.
•Some Hindu schools consider it a proper or valid means of
knowledge.
4. Sabda (Verbal Testimony/Relying on word)
• Testimony of past or present reliable experts.
•This means of gaining proper knowledge is either spoken or written,
but through Sabda (words).
•The reliability of the source is important, and legitimate knowledge
can only come from the Sabda of reliable sources.
5. Arthāpatti (Postulation, Assumption/Derivation from circumstances)
• One of the most common examples in ancient Hindu texts
for arthapatti is, that if "Devadatta is fat" and "Devadatta does not eat
in day", then the following must be true: "Devadatta eats in the
night".
•This form of postulation and deriving from circumstances is a means
to discovery, proper insight, and knowledge.

6. Anupalabdi (Non-perception, Negative Proof)

• Proof of knowledge from negation or absence of a thing.
•If something can be observed as non-existent or impossible, then
one knows more than what one did without such means.
•Example: In a college, Mr. A has not attended any lecture today. So it
must mean that he went to watch a movie.
PRAMANA IN ENGLISH MEANING
Pratyaksha Perception "Understand and make sense of the world through our senses (seeing,
hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling)"

Anumana Inference "Logical conclusion based on evidence or reasoning"

Upamana Comparison "Understand something new by comparing it to ,something already

known"

Shabda Verbal testimony "Gaining knowledge by listening to and believing reliable sources"
Arthapathi Implication "Assumption made to explain something. Educated guess to resolve
a logical problem“
Anupalabdhi Non-apprehension "Knowledge gained through the absence or non-
perception of something“.
The term 'Paksa' according to the classical Indian school of logic refers
to which of the following terms in the process of inference‘

1.Major term
2. Undefined term
3.Minor term
4.Middle term
The term 'Paksa' according to the classical Indian school of logic refers
to which of the following terms in the process of inference‘

1.Major term
2. Undefined term
3.Minor term
4.Middle term
 NTA NET AUG 24

Which of the following statement is correct?

1. Nyaya syllogism has four premises.
2. Nyaya syllogism has three terms.
3. Nyaya syllogism has three propositions and four terms.
4. Nyaya syllogism has five propositions and five terms.
 NTA NET AUG 24

Which of the following statement is correct?

1. Nyaya syllogism has four premises.
2. Nyaya syllogism has three terms.
3. Nyaya syllogism has three propositions and four terms.
4. Nyaya syllogism has five propositions and five terms.
 NTA NET 19
Which of the following pramanas is used by classical Indian school of
logic to prove the existence of God?
(A) Arthapatti (postulation)
(B) Upamana (comparison)
(C) Pratyaksa (Perception)
(D) Inference (Anumana)
Answer
Which of the following pramanas is used by classical Indian school of
logic to prove the existence of God?
(A) Arthapatti (postulation)
(B) Upamana (comparison)
(C) Pratyaksa (Perception)
(D) Inference (Anumana)
 NTA NET 19
The distinction between Savikalpaka (determinate) and Nirvikalpaka
(indeterminate) is made with respect to which of the following
pramanas?
(A) Anumana (inference)
(B) Pratyaksa (Perception)
(C) Arthapatti (postulation)
(D) Upamana (comparison)
Answer
The distinction between Savikalpaka (determinate) and Nirvikalpaka
(indeterminate) is made with respect to which of the following
pramanas?
(A) Anumana (inference)
(B) Pratyaksa (Perception)
(C) Arthapatti (postulation)
(D) Upamana (comparison)
 NTA NET 19
The term "Paksa” according to classical Indian school of logic refers to
which of the following
terms in the process of inference?
(A) Major term
(B) Undefined term
(C) Minor term
(D) Middle term
Answer
The term "Paksa” according to classical Indian school of logic refers to
which of the following
terms in the process of inference?
(A) Major term
(B) Undefined term
(C) Minor term
(D) Middle term
 NTA NET
Consider the following with reference to the Indian School of logic
(a) It is related to form of the argument only
(b) It is related to the content of the argument only
(c) It is related to perceptual knowledge alone
(d)It is related to presenting analogies alone
Choose your answer from the following options:
(A) a only
(B) b only
(C) Both a and b
(D) Both c and d
Answer
Consider the following with reference to the Indian School of logic
(a) It is related to form of the argument only
(b) It is related to the content of the argument only
(c) It is related to perceptual knowledge alone
(d)It is related to presenting analogies alone
Choose your answer from the following options:
(A) a only
(B) b only
(C) Both a and b
(D) Both c and d
THANK YOU ALL