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CH 08 Example A

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35 views114 pages

CH 08 Example A

Uploaded by

alan92828
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8
Internal Incompressible
Viscous Flow

1
Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow
• Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces are called internal
flows. Thus internal flows include many important and practical
flows such as those through pipes, ducts, nozzles, diffusers, sudden
contractions and expansions, valves, and fittings.
• Internal flows may be laminar or turbulent. Some laminar flow
cases may be solved analytically. In the case of turbulent flow,
analytical solutions are not possible, and we must rely heavily on
semi-empirical theories and on experimental data. The nature of
laminar and turbulent flows was discussed in Section 2.6. For
internal flows, the flow regime (laminar or turbulent) is primarily a
function of the Reynolds number.

2
• In this chapter we will only consider incompressible flows; hence we
will study the flow of liquids as well as gases that have negligible
heat transfer and for which the Mach number M < 0.3; a value of M
= 0.3 in air corresponds to a speed of approximately 100 m/s.
Following a brief introduction, this chapter is divided into the parts:
➢ Part A: Part A discusses fully developed laminar flow of a
Newtonian fluid between parallel plates and in a pipe. These two
cases can be studied analytically.
➢ Part B: Part B is about laminar and turbulent flows in pipes
and ducts. The laminar flow analysis follows from Part A; the
turbulent flow (which is the most common) is too complex to
be analyzed, so experimental data will be used to develop
solution techniques.
➢ Part C: Part C is a discussion of
methods of flow measurement.

3
Main Topics
➢ Entrance Region
➢ Fully Developed Laminar Flow Between Infinite
Parallel Plates
➢ Fully Developed Laminar Flow in a Pipe
➢ Turbulent Velocity Profiles in Fully Developed
Pipe Flow
➢ Energy Considerations in Pipe Flow
➢ Calculation of Head Loss
➢ Solution of Pipe Flow Problems
➢ Flow Measurement

4
Laminar

Generally, in a pipe, the flow field is laminar when Re  2300.

Turbulent 5
8.1 Entrance Region
• Figure 8.1 illustrates laminar flow in the entrance region of a
circular pipe. The flow has uniform velocity U0 at the pipe
entrance. Because of the no-slip condition at the wall, we know that
the velocity at the wall must be zero along the entire length of the
pipe. A boundary layer (Section 2.6) develops along the walls on
the channel.
• The solid surface exerts a retarding shear force on the flow; thus
the speed of the fluid in the neighborhood of the surface is reduced.
At successive sections along the pipe in this entry region, the effect
of the solid surface is felt farther out into the flow.

6
➢ For incompressible flow, mass conservation requires that, as the
speed close to the wall is reduced, the speed in the central
frictionless region of the pipe must increase slightly to compensate;
for this inviscid central region, then, the pressure (as indicated by
the Bernoulli equation) must also drop somewhat.
➢ Sufficiently far from the pipe entrance, the boundary layer
developing on the pipe wall reaches the pipe centerline and the flow
becomes entirely viscous. The velocity profile shape then changes
slightly after tic inviscid core disappears. When the profile shape no
longer changes with increasing distance x. the flow is called fully
developed. The distance downstream from the entrance to the
location at which fully developed flow begins is called entrance
length.

7
u(x, r) u(r)

For laminar flow (Re < 2,300)

(8.1)

& ➔

or nearly 140 pipe diameters.


8
8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow
Between Infinite Parallel Plates
• Both Plates Stationary

(8.5)

Transformation of Coordinates (8.7)


9
Basic equation
gx = 0 Steady flow

(4.18a)

Fully developed (u same → no change in momentum)


➔ (8.2)

10
(8.3)
➔ dFL + dFR + dFB + dFT = 0 ➔

𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝜏𝑦𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 =𝑓 𝑥 & = 𝑓(𝑦) ➔
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑦

 dy ➔

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 (2.15)

➔  ➔ (8.4)

➔ (8.5) Parabolic velocity profile


11
Parabolic velocity profile

• Shear Stress Distribution

➔ (8.6a)

• Volume Flow Rate

l : width

➔ (8.6b)
12
• Flow Rate as a Function of Pressure Drop

➔ (8.6c)

• Average Velocities

➔ (8.6d)

• Maximum Velocities

(8.5)

➔ (8.6e)

13
Transformation of Coordinates
Denote the coordinates with origin at the channel centerline as x, y’.
The boundary conditions are u=0 at y’= a/2.
Substitute y = y’+a/2 into Eq. 8.5, get

(8.5)

(8.7)

14
Problem 8.17
In section 8.2 we derived the velocity profile between parallel plates
(Eq. 8.5) by using a differential control volume. Instead, following the
procedure we used in Example 5.9, derive Eq. 8.5 by starting with the
Navier-Stokes equations (Eqs. 5.27). Be sure to state all assumptions.
Given: Navier-Stokes Equations
(8.5)
Find: Derivation of Eq. 8.5
Solution:The Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible flow
are

15
The following assumptions have been applied:
(1) Steady flow (given).
(2) Incompressible flow; ρ = constant.
(3) No flow or variation of properties in the z direction; w= 0 and ∂/∂z = 0.
(4) Fully developed flow, so no properties except pressure p vary in the x direction;
∂/∂x = 0.
(5) See analysis below.
(6) No body force in the x direction;
gx = 0.

Assumption (1) eliminates time variations in any fluid property. Assumption (2)
eliminates space variations in density. Assumption (3) states that there is no z
component of velocity and no property variations in the z direction. All terms in
the z component of the Navier–Stokes equation cancel. After assumption (4) is
applied, the continuity equation reduces to ∂v/∂y = 0. Assumptions (3) and (4)
also indicate that ∂v/∂z = 0 and ∂v/∂x = 0. Therefore v must be constant. Since v is
zero at the solid surface, then v must be zero everywhere. The fact that v = 0
reduces the Navier–Stokes equations further, as indicated by (5).
16
Hence for the y direction

which indicates a hydrostatic variation of pressure.


In the x direction, after assumption (6) we obtain

Integrating twice

To evaluate the constants, c1 and c2, we must apply the boundary conditions.
At y = 0, u = 0. Consequently, c2 = 0. At y = a, u = 0.
Hence

which gives

and finally
17
Example 8.1

A hydraulic system operates at a gage


pressure of 20 MPa and 55oC. The
hydraulic fluid is SAE 10W oil. A control
valve consists of a piston 25 mm in
diameter, fitted to a cylinder with a mean
radial clearance of 0.005 mm. Determine
the leakage flow rate if the gage pressure
on the low-pressure side of the piston is
1.0 MPa. The piston is 15 mm long.

18
Example 8.1
Given: Flow of hydraulic oil between piston and cylinder, as
shown. Fluid is SAE 10W at 55oC.
Find: Leakage flow

Solution: The gap width is very small, so


the flow may be modeled as flow
between parallel plates. Equation 8.6c
may be applied.
Governing equations:

19
Assumptions:
1 Laminar flow.
2 Steady flow.
3 Incompressible flow.
4 Fully developed flow.
(Note L/a = 15/0.005 = 3000)

20
21
Home Works
8.7 A fluid flows steadily between two parallel plates. The flow
is fully developed and laminar. The distance between the plates
is h.
(a) Derive an equation for the shear stress as a function of y. Sketch
this function.
(b) For μ = 1.15 Ns/m2, p/x = −58 Pa/m, and h = 1.3 mm,
calculate the maximum shear stress, in Pa.

8.8 Oil is confined in a 100 mm diameter cylinder


by a piston having a radial clearance of 0.025 mm
and a length of 50 mm. A steady force of 20,000 N
is applied to the piston. Assume the properties of
SAE 30 oil at 49oC. Estimate the rate at which oil
leaks past the piston.

22
Home Works
8.24 Two immiscible fluids are contained between infinite parallel
plates. The plates are separated by distance 2h, and the two fluid
layers are of equal thickness h = 5 mm. The dynamic viscosity of
the upper fluid is four times that of the lower fluid, which is lower =
0.1 Ns/m2. If the plates are stationary and the applied pressure
gradient is -50 kPa/m, find the velocity at the interface. What is the
maximum velocity of the flow? Plot the velocity distribution.

23
Fully Developed Laminar Flow
Between Infinite Parallel Plates
Upper Plate Moving with Constant Speed, U

24
Since only boundary conditions have changed, there is no need to repeat
the entire analysis.

(8.4)

➔ (8.8)

25
Upper Plate Moving with Constant Speed, U

• Shear Stress Distribution

➔ (8.9a)

• Volume Flow Rate

➔ (8.9b)

26
• Average Velocities

(8.9c)

• Maximum Velocities

27
Upper Plate Moving with Constant Speed, U

(8.8)

linear parabolic
reverse flow

For p/x=0, the velocity varies


linear with y. This linear profile
is called a Couette flow.

Re  1500 → become turbulent (for p/x=0)

28
Example 8.2

A crankshaft journal bearing in an automobile engine is lubricated


by SAE 30 oil at 99oC. The bearing diameter is 76 mm, the
diametral clearance is 0.0635 mm, and the shaft rotates at 3600
rpm; it is 31.8 mm long. The bearing is under no load, so the
clearance is symmetric. Determine the torque required to turn the
journal and the power dissipated.

29
Given: Journal bearing, as shown. Note that the gap width, a, is
half the diameteral clearance. Lubricant is SAE 30 oil at 99oC.
Speed is 3600 rpm.
Find: (a) Torque, T.
(b) Power dissipated.

Solution: Torque on the journal is caused by viscous shear in


the oil film. The gap width is small, so the flow may be
modeled as flow between infinite parallel plates:

30
Eq. (8.9a) ➔

Assumptions:
1 Laminar flow.
2 Steady flow.
3 Incompressible flow.
4 Fully developed flow
5 Infinite width (L/a = 31.8/0.03175 = 1000, so this is a
reasonable assumption).
6 p/x = 0 (flow is symmetric in the actual bearing at no
load).
Then

31
32
Assume, as an approximation, the specific gravity of SAE 30 oil is
the same as that of SAE 10W oil. From Table A.2, Appendix A, SG =
0.92. Thus

33
Example 8.3

A viscous, incompressible, Newtonian liquid


flows in steady, laminar flow down a vertical
wall. The thickness,  of the liquid film is
constant. Since the liquid-free surface is
exposed to atmospheric pressure, there is no
pressure gradient. For this gravity-driven flow,
apply the momentum equation to differential
control volume dx dy dz to derive the velocity
distribution in the liquid film.

Gravity-driven flow
34
Example 8.3
Given: Fully developed laminar flow of incompressible, Newtonian
liquid down a vertical wall; thickness, , of the liquid film is
constant and p/ x = 0.
Find: Expression for the velocity distribution in the film

35
Solution: The x component of the momentum equation for a
control volume is

(4.18a)

Under the conditions given we are dealing with a steady,


incompressible, fully developed laminar flow.

For steady flow,

For fully developed flow,

Thus the momentum equation for the present case reduces to

36
The body force, FBx, is given by

The only surface forces acting on the differential


control volume are shear forces on the vertical
surfaces. (Since we have a free-surface flow, with
straight streamlines, the pressure is atmospheric
throughout; no net pressure forces act on the control
volume.) If the shear stress at the center of the
differential control volume is yx, then,

and

37
The direction of the shear stress vectors is taken consistent with the
sign convention of Section 2.3. Thus on the left face, a minus y
surface, yxL acts upward, and on the right face, a plus y surface,
yxR acts downward.
The surface forces are obtained by multiplying each shear stress by
the area over which it acts.

38

39

40
41
Notes
1. This problem is a special case ( = 90o) of the inclined plate flow
analyzed in Example 5.9 that we solved using the Navier –
Stokes equations.
2. This problem and Example 5.9 demonstrate that use of the
differential control volume approach or the Navier – Stokes
equations leads to the same result.

3. This problem would be to start with two-dimensional rectangular


coordinate form of the Navier – Stokes equations (Eqs 5.27; see
Problem 8.44); that instead we will use a differential control
volume. 42
Example 5.9
ANALYSIS OF FULLY DEVELOPED LAMINAR
FLOW DOWN AN INCLINED PLANE SURFACE
A liquid flows down an inclined plane surface in a steady, fully
developed laminar film of thickness h. Simplify the continuity and
Navier-Stokes equations to model this flow field. Obtain
expressions for the liquid velocity profile, the shear stress
distribution, the volume flow rate, and the average velocity. Relate
the liquid film thickness to the volume flow rate per unit depth of
surface normal to the flow. Calculate the volume flow rate in a film
of water h = 1 mm thick, flowing on a surface b = 1 m wide,
inclined at  = 15o to the horizontal.

43
Given: Liquid flow down an inclined plane surface in a steady,
fully developed laminar film of thickness h.
Find: (a) Continuity and Navier-Stokes equations simplified to
model this flow field.
(b) Velocity profile.
(c) Shear stress distribution.
(d) Volume flow rate per unit depth of surface normal
to diagram.
(e) Average flow velocity.

44
Find: (f) Film thickness in terms of volume flow rate per unit depth
of surface normal to diagram.
(g) Volume flow rate in a film of water 1 mm thick on a
surface 1 m wide, inclined at 15o to the horizontal.

Solution: The geometry and coordinate system used to model the


flow field are shown. (It is convenient to align one coordinate
with the flow down the plane surface.)

45
The governing equations written for incompressible flow with
constant viscosity are:

46
The terms canceled to simplify the basic equations are keyed by
number to the assumptions listed below. The assumptions are
discussed in the order in which they are applied to simplify the
equations.
Assumptions:
1. Steady flow (given).
2. Incompressible flow;  = constant.
3. No flow or variation of properties in the z direction;

4. Fully developed flow, so no properties vary in the x direction;

Assumption 1 eliminates time variations in any fluid property.


Assumption 2 eliminates space variations in density.

47
Assumption 3 states that there is no z component of velocity and no
property variations in the z direction. All terms in the z component
of the Navier-Stokes equation cancel.

After assumption 4 is applied, the continuity equation reduces to


Assumptions 3 and 4 also indicate that
Therefore v must be constant. Since v is zero at the solid surface,
then v must be zero everywhere.
The fact that v = 0 reduces the Navier-Stokes equations further, as
indicated by (5) in Eqs. 5.27a and 5.27b. The final simplified
equations are:
Fully developed

48
(3)

(4)

u(y=0) = 0 into Eq(4)

➔ c2=0
49
From Eq.3 at y = h

50
The shear stress in the fluid reaches its maximum value at the wall
(y = 0); as we expect, it is zero at the free surface (y = h). At the
wall the shear stress yx is positive but the surface normal for the
fluid is in the negative y direction; hence the shear force acts in the
negative x direction, and just balances the x component of the body
force acting on the fluid.

51
The volume flow rate is

where b is the surface width in the z direction.

Substituting,

52
53
Home Works
8.44 In Example 8.3 we derived the velocity profile for laminar flow
on a vertical wall by using a differential control volume. Instead,
following the procedure we used in Example 5.9, derive the velocity
profile by starting with the Navior-Stokes equations (Eqs 5.27). Be
sure to state all assumptions.

8.34 The velocity profile for fully developed flow of carbon


tetrachloride at 15oC between parallel plates (gap a = 1.25 mm),
with the upper plate moving, is given by Eq. 8.8. Assuming a volume
flow rate per unit depth is 3.15 × 10−4 m3/sec/m for zero pressure
gradient, find U. Evaluate the shear stress on the lower plate. Would the
volume flow rate increase or decrease with a mild adverse pressure
gradient? Calculate the pressure gradient that will give zero shear stress
at y/a = 0.25. Plot the velocity distribution and the shear stress
distribution for this case.

54
Problem 8.44
The Navier-Stokes equations are (using the coordinates of
Example 8.3, so that x is vertical, y is horizontal)

(5.27a) ➔
55
8.3 Fully Developed Laminar Flow in a Pipe

The flow is axisymmetric and is in


cylindrical coordinates.

56
8.3 Fully Developed Laminar Flow in a Pipe
gx=0

(4.18a) Steady flow


➔ (8.2)


𝜕𝑝 𝑑(𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑥 )
➔ =𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑟)
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑟 57

➔ (8.10)

(8.11)

BC:

58
8.3 Fully Developed Laminar Flow
in a Pipe
• Velocity Distribution • Shear Stress Distribution

(8.12) (8.13a)

• Volume Flow Rate • Flow Rate as a Function of


Pressure Drop
(8.13b)
(8.13c)

Q  D4 ➔ doubling D increasing Q by a factor of 16


• Average Velocity • Maximum Velocity

(8.13d)
(8.13e)59
The velocity profile
The velocity profile Eq. 8.12 may be written in terms of the maximum
(centerline) velocity U as

𝑢 𝑟 2
=1− (8.14)
𝑈 𝑅

(8.12)

60
Example 8.4

A simple and accurate viscometer can be made from a length of


capillary tubing. If the flow rate and pressure drop are measured, and
the tube geometry is known, the viscosity of a Newtonian liquid can
be computed from Eq. 8.13c. A test of a certain liquid in a capillary
viscometer gave the following data:
Flow rate: 880 mm3/s Tube length: 1m
Tube diameter: 0.50 mm Pressure drop: 1.0 MPa
Determine the viscosity of the liquid.

61
Example 8.4

62
63
Note: This problem is a little oversimplified. To design a
capillary viscometer the entrance length, liquid temperature,
and kinetic energy of the flowing liquid would all need to be
considered.
64
Viscometer
2.60 A concentric cylinder viscometer is driven by a falling mass
M connected by a cord and pulley to the inner cylinder, as shown.
The liquid to be tested fills the annular gap of width a and height H.
After a brief starting transient, the mass falls at constant speed Vm.
Develop an algebraic expression for the viscosity of tile liquid in
the device in terms of M, g, Vm, r, R, a, and H. Evaluate the
viscosity of the liquid using :
M = 0.20 kg r = 50mm
R = 100 mm a = 0.40 mm
H = 60 mm Vm = 60 mm/s

65
Viscometer
2.67 The cone and plate viscometer shown is an instrument used
frequently to characterize non-Newtonian fluids. It consists of a
flat plate and a rotating cone with a very obtuse angle (typically 
is less than 0.5 degrees). The apex of the cone just touches tile plate
surface and tile liquid to be tested fills tile narrow gap formed by
the cone and plate. Derive an expression for tile shear rate in tile
liquid that fills the gap in terms of the geometry of the system.
Evaluate the torque or the driven cone in terms of the shear stress
and geometry of the system.

66
Home Works
8.53 Consider fully developed laminar flow in the annulus between
two concentric pipes. The outer pipe is stationary, and the inner pipe
moves in the x direction with speed V. Assume the axial pressure
gradient is zero (p/x=0). Obtain a general expression for the shear
stress,  , as a function of the radius, r, in terms of a constant, C1.
Obtain a general expression for the velocity profile, u(r), in terms of
two constants, C1 and C2. Obtain expressions for C1 and C2.

67
Home Works
8.62 The classic Poiseuille flow (Eq. 8.12), is for no-slip
conditions at the walls. If the fluid is a gas, and when the mean free
path, (the average distance a molecule travels before collision with
another molecule), is comparable to the length-scale L of the flow,
slip will occur at the walls, and the flow rate and velocity will be
increased for a given pressure gradient. In Eq. 8.11, c1 will still be
zero, but c2 must satisfy the slip condition u = l u/r at r = R.
Derive the velocity profile and flow rate of the gas flow in a
micro- or nanotube which has such a slip velocity on the wall.
Calculate the flow rate when R = 10 m,  = 1.8410-5 Ns/m2, the
mean free path l = 68 nm, and – p/x = 1.0106 Pa/m.

(8.12)
(8.11)
68
Part B Flow in Pipes and Ducts
In this section we will be interested in determine the factors
that affect the pressure in an incompressible fluid as it flows in
a pipe or duct.
The Bernoulli equation from Chapter 6

(6.8)

1. Steady Flow
2. No Friction
3. Flow Along a Streamline
4. Incompressible Flow

69
(6.8)
In reality, flows in pipes and ducts experience significant friction
and are often turbulent, so the Bernoulli equation does not apply (it
doesn't even make sence to use V; instead we will use 𝑉, ത to
represent tile average velocity at a section along the pipe). We will
learn that, in effect, friction effects lead to a continual reduction in
the value of the Bernoulli constant of Eq. 6.8 (this represents a
"loss" of mechanical energy). We have already seen that, in
contrast to the Bernoulli equation, for laminar flow there is a
pressure drop even for a horizontal, constant diameter pipe; in this
section we will see that turbulent flows experience an even larger
pressure drop. We will need to replace the Bernoulli equation with
an energy equation that incorporates the effects of friction.
In summary, we can state that three factors tend to reduce the
pressure in a pipe flow: a decrease in pipe area, an upward slope,
and friction. For now on, we will focus on the pressure loss due to
friction and so will analyze pipes that are of constant area and that
are horizontal. 70
Rearranging Eq. 8.13c to solve for the pressure drop p
128𝜇𝐿𝑄
∆𝑝 =
𝜋𝐷4

We would like to develop a simple expression that applies for


turblent flows but we will see that this is not possible analytical;
instead, we will develop expressions based on a combination of
theoretical and experimental approaches.
Before proceeding, we note that it is conventional to break losses
due to friction into two categories: major losses, which are losses
due to friction in the constant-area sections of the pipe; and minor
losses (sometimes larger than "major" losses) which are losses due
to valves, elbows, and so on (and we will treat the pressure drop at
the entrance region as a minor loss term).

(8.13c)
71
8.4 Shear Stress Distribution in
Fully Developed Pipe Flow
In Section 8.3 we showed that a force balance between friction and
pressure forces leads to Eq. 8.10:

(8.10)
Because we cannot have infinite stress
at the centerline, c1 must be zero, so

(8.13a) (8.15)

It indicates that for both laminar and turbulent fully developed flows
the shear stress varies linearly across the pipe.
The stress on the wall is given by
(8.16)
72
• For laminar flow we used our familiar stress equation xy =  du/dr
in Eq. 8.15 to eventually obtain the laminar velocity distribution.
This led to a set usable equations, Eqs. 8.13, for obtain various flow
characteristics; e.g., Eq. 8.13c gave a relationship for the flow rate
Q, a result first obtained experimentally by Jean Louis Poiseuille.
• Unfortunately there is no equivalent stress equation for turbulent
flow, so we cannot replicate the laminar flow analysis to derive
turbulent equivalents of Eqs. 8.13.

• Turbulent flow is represent at each point by the time-mean


velocity 𝑢ഥ plus randomly fluctuating velocity components u' and v'
in the x and y directions. This components continuously transfer
momentum between adjacent fluid layers tending to reduce any
velocity gradient present. This effect shows as an apparent stress
and called the Reynolds stress. This stress is given by −𝜌𝑢′ 𝑣′,
where the overbar indicates a time average. Hence, we find
𝑑𝑢ത
τ = 𝜏𝑙𝑎𝑚 + 𝜏𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 = 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑢′𝑣′ (8.17)
𝑑𝑦
73
The Developed of the Boundary Layer for Flow
over a Flat Plate, and the different Flow Regimes

𝑑 𝑢ത
τ = 𝜏𝑙𝑎𝑚 + 𝜏𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 = 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑢′𝑣′ (8.17)
𝑑𝑦

𝜏𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 = −𝜌𝑢′𝑣′ Reynolds stress


74
8.5 Turbulent Velocity Profiles in
Fully Developed Pipe Flow
𝑑𝑢ത
τ = 𝜏𝑙𝑎𝑚 + 𝜏𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 = 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑢′𝑣′ (8.17)
𝑑𝑦
Dividing Eq. 8.17 by  gives
𝜏 𝑑𝑢ത
=𝜈 − 𝑢′𝑣′ (8.18) Fig 8.9
𝜌 𝑑𝑦
𝜏𝑤 1Τ2
friction velocity: Τ𝜌 is denoted by u*
u* is a constant for a given flow. (8.19)

• viscous sublayer

𝑢
ത 𝑦𝑢
𝑢+ = ∗ = = 𝑦+ (8.19)
𝑢 𝜈
𝑦=𝑅−𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑦 + ≤ 5~7 75
yu*/ > 30
(8.20)

0  y+  5~7 best-fit straight line


viscous sublayer

(8.19) The region between y+ = 5~7 and y+ =30


Transition region or buffer layer

(semilogarithmic)

76
𝑢ത 𝑦𝑢 ∗ 𝑦 =𝑅−𝑟
yu*/ > 30 ∗
= 2.5 ln + 5.0 (8.20)
𝑢 𝜈
If Eq. 8.20 is evaluated at the centerline (y = R and u = U) and the
general expression of Eq. 8.20 is substracted from the equation
evaluated at the centerline, we obtain 𝑢ത 𝑟 1/𝑛
= 1−
𝑈 𝑅
𝑈 − 𝑢ത 𝑅

= 2.5 ln (8.21)
𝑢 𝑦
Eq. 8.21 , referred to as the defect law,
shows that the velocity defect is a function
of the distance ratio only and dose not
depend on the viscousity of the fluid. 𝑢 𝑟 2
=1−
1/𝑛 1/𝑛 𝑈 𝑅
𝑢ത 𝑦 𝑟 (8.14)
= = 1− (8.22)
𝑈 𝑅 𝑅
(power-law equation)
n varies with the Reynolds number. 77
Note:The power-law profile gives an infinite velocity gradient
at the wall and hence cannot be used in calculations of
wall shear stress. It is not applicable close to the wall
(y/R < 0.04).
For ReU > 2104 , n with Reynolds number for fully developed
flow in smooth pipes is given by
𝑛 = −1.7 + 1.8 log𝑅𝑒 (8.23)
𝑈
The ratio of the average velocity to the centerline velocity is
calculated for the power-law profile of Eq. 8.22 assuming the
profiles to be valid from wall to centerline.
𝑉ത 2𝑛2
= (8.24)
𝑈 (𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
One-seventh power profile for fully developed turbulent flow
𝑢ത 𝑦 1/7 𝑟 1/7
= = 1−
𝑈 𝑅 𝑅
78
pow-law equation
𝑢ത 𝑦 1/𝑛 𝑟 1/𝑛
= = 1−
𝑈 𝑅 𝑅
(8.22)
𝑢 𝑟 2
=1−
𝑈 𝑅

𝑑𝑢ത
τ = 𝜏𝑙𝑎𝑚 + 𝜏𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 = 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑢′𝑣′
𝑑𝑦
(8.17)

The turbulent velocity profile has a much steeper slope near the
wall. This is consistent with our discussion leading to Eq. 8.17 ⎯
the fluctuating velocity components u’ and v’ continuously
transfer momentum between adjacent fluid layers, tending to
reduce the velocity gradient.
79
6.5 Energy Grade Line and
Hydraulic Grade Line
Energy Equation
(6.16a)

H is the total head of the flow; it measures the total


mechanical energy in units of meters or feet.
Energy Grade Line (EGL)

EGL= (6.16b)

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

HGL= (6.16c)
80
Energy Grade Line and
Hydraulic Grade Line

EGL – HGL=

(6.16d)

EGL=

HGL=
81
8.6 Energy Considerations in
Pipe Flow
Steady flow through a reducing elbow
Assumptions:
(1) 𝑊ሶ 𝑠 = 0, 𝑊ሶ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0
(2) 𝑊ሶ 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 0 (the velocity is zero at the walls of the elbow)
(3) Steady flow.
(4) Incompressible flow.
(5) Internal energy and pressure uniform across section  and .
Energy Equation
𝑉2
𝑒=𝑢+ + 𝑔𝑧
2

(4.56)

82
Reduces to
𝑝2 𝑝1
𝑄ሶ = 𝑚ሶ 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + 𝑚ሶ − + 𝑚𝑔
ሶ 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝜌 𝜌
(8.25)
𝑉2 2 𝑉1 2
+න 𝜌𝑉2 𝑑𝐴2 − න 𝜌𝑉1 𝑑𝐴1
𝐴2 2 𝐴1 2

Note that we have not assumed the velocity to be uniform at


section 1 and 2, since we know that for viscous flows the
velocity at a cross-section cannot be uniform. However, it is
convenient to introduce the average velocity into Eq. 8.25 so
that we can eliminate the integrals. To do this, we define a
kinetic energy coefficient.

83
kinetic energy coefficient 
𝑉2 𝑉ത 2 𝑉ത 2
න 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝐴 = 𝛼 න 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝐴 = α𝑚ሶ (8.26a)
𝐴 2 𝐴 2 2

➔ (8.26b)

We can think of  as a correction factor that allows us to use the


average velocity in the energy equation to compute the kinetic energy
at a cross section.
For laminar flow in a pipe flow,  = 2.
For turbulent flow in a pipe flow, substituting the power-law velocity
profile of Eq. 8.22 into Eq. 8.26b, get
3
𝑈 2𝑛2
𝛼= (8.27)
𝑉ത (3 + 𝑛)(3 + 2𝑛)
84
Energy Equation 8.25 can be written

Dividing by the mass flow rate gives


2 2
𝛿𝑄 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑉ഥ1 𝑉2
= 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + − + 𝑔𝑧2 − 𝑔𝑧1 + 𝛼1 −𝛼2
𝑑𝑚 𝜌 𝜌 2 2

Rearranging this equation, we write


2 2
𝑝1 ഥ
𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2 𝛿𝑄
+ 𝛼1 + 𝑔𝑧1 − + 𝛼2 + 𝑔𝑧2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 − (8.28)
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝑑𝑚

In Eq. 8.28, the term


𝑝 𝑉ത 2
+𝛼 + 𝑔𝑧
𝜌 2
represents the mechanical energy per unit mass at a cross section.
85
Head Loss
The term u2 - u1 - Q/dm is equal to the difference in mechanical
energy per unit mass between sections  and . It represents
the (irreversible) conversion of mechanical energy at section 
to  unwanted thermal energy (u2 - u1) and loss of energy via
heat transfer (- Q/dm ). We identify this group of terms as the
total energy loss per unit mass and designate it by the symbol
hlT . Then

(8.29)

(8.30)

2 2
𝑝1 𝑉ഥ1 𝑝2 𝑉2 𝛿𝑄
+ 𝛼1 + 𝑔𝑧1 − + 𝛼2 + 𝑔𝑧2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 −
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 𝑑𝑚 86
Notes: Head Loss hlT or HlT=hlT /g

• The dimensions of energy per unit mass hlT is FL/M


are equivalent to dimensions of L2/t2.
• The dimension of energy per unit weight HlT=hlT /g is
(L2/t2)(t2/L) = L.

hlT= major loss + minor loss = hl + hlm

87
8.7 Calculation of Head Loss
Major Losses: Friction Factor
For fully developed flow through a constant-area pipe, hlm= 0 ,
2 2
𝑉 𝑉
and 𝛼1 1 = 𝛼2 2 ; Eq. 8.29 reduces to
2 2
𝑝1 − 𝑝2
= 𝑔(𝑧1 −𝑧2 ) + 𝒉𝒍 (8.31)
𝜌
If the pipe is horizontal, then , z1= z2 , and
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ∆𝑝
= = 𝒉𝒍 (8.32)
𝜌 𝜌
Thus the major head loss can be expressed as the pressure
loss for fully developed flow through a horizontal pipe of
constant area.

= hl + hlm (8.29)
88
Major Losses
A. Laminal Flow
For fully developed flow in a horizontal pipe, from Eq. 8.13c

128𝜇𝐿𝑄 128𝜇𝐿𝑉ത 𝜋𝐷2 /4 𝐿 𝜇𝑉ത


∆𝑝 = 4
= 4
= 32
𝜋𝐷 𝜋𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
Substituting in Eq. 8.32 gives

𝐿 𝜇 𝑉ത 𝐿 𝑉ത 2 𝜇 64 𝐿 𝑉ത 2
ℎ𝑙 = 32 = 64 = (8.33)
𝐷 𝜌𝐷 𝐷 2 ത
𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝑅𝑒 𝐷 2

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ∆𝑝
(8.13c) = = 𝒉𝒍 (8.32)
𝜌 𝜌
89
Major Losses
B. Turbulent Flow
e : roughness
From dimensional analysis

→ →

The unknow function, 2(Re, e/D), is defined as the friction


factor, f.
𝑒
𝒇 ≡ 𝜙2 𝑅𝑒,
𝐷


𝐿 𝑉ത 2 𝐿 𝑉ത 2
ℎ𝑙 = 𝒇 (8.34) 𝐻𝑙 = 𝒇 (8.35)
𝐷 2 𝐷 2𝑔
The friction factor, f , is determined experimentally.
90
Friction factor for fully developed flow in circular pipes

e /D

Re
Moddy chart
91
Table 8.1 Roughness e

All of the e values given in Table 8.1 are for new pipes, in relative
good condition. Over long periods of service, cause e/D to increase
by factors of 5 to 10 for old pipes.
92
Calculation of Head Loss
• Laminar Friction Factor
(8.36)

• Turbulent Friction Factor

(8.37)

For turbulent flow in smooth pipes, the Blasius correction, valid


for Re 105, is 0.316
𝑓 = 0.25 (8.38)
𝑅𝑒
𝜈 0.25
➔ wall shear stress 𝜏𝑤 = 0.0332𝜌𝑉ത 2 (8.39)
𝑅𝑉ത 93
Minor Losses
Examples: Inlets and Exits; Enlargements and Contractions; Pipe
Bends; Valves and Fittings.

• Minor Loss: Loss Coefficient, K (8.40a)

• Minor Loss: Equivalent Length, Le (8.40b)


(for straight pipe)
94
Inlets and Exits
• A poorly designed inlet to a pipe can cause appreciable
head loss.
• If the inlet has sharp corners, flow seperation occurs at the
corners, and a vena contracta is formed.
• The fluid must accelerate locally to pass through the
reduced flow area at the vena contracta. Losses in
mechanical energy result from the unconfined mixing as
the flow stream decelerates again to fill the pipe.

Reentrant Square-edged Rounded


95
Flow separation and vena contracta
in sharp edged entrance to tube

96
Table 8.2 Minor loss coefficient K for pipe entrance
(8.40a)

The loss coefficient is reduced significantly when the inlet is


rounded even slightly. For a well-rounded inlet (r/D  0.15)
the entrance loss coefficient is almost negligible.
97
kinetic energy coefficient 

• The kinetic energy per unit mass, 𝜶𝑉ത 2 /2 , is


completely dissipated by mixing when flow
discharge from a duct into a large reservoir or
plenum chamber. The situation corresponds to
flow through an abrupt expansion with AR =
0.

• The minor loss coefficient thus equals , which as we saw in the


previous section we usually set to 1 for turbulent flow.
• No improvement in minor loss coefficient for an exit is possible;
however, addition of a diffuser can reduce 𝑉ത 2 /2 and therefore hlm
considerably (see Example 8.10).

𝑉2 𝑉ത 2 𝑉ത 2
න 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝐴 = 𝛼 න 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝐴 = α𝑚ሶ
𝐴 2 𝐴 2 2 98
Fig 8.15 Loss coefficients K for flow through
sudden area change

(8.40a)

Both loss coefficients are based on the larger 𝑉ത 2 /2 . Thus


2

losses for a sudden expansion are based on 𝑉1 /2 , and those
2
for a contraction are based on 𝑉2 /2 . 99
Table 8.3

➢ Losses caused by area change can be reduced somewhat by installing


a nozzle or diffuser between the two sections of straight pipe.
➢ Note that the final column (data for the inclined angle  =180o)
aggress with data of Fig. 8.15.

100
Losses in diffusers depend on a number of geometric and flow
variables. Diffuser data most commonly are presented in terms of a
pressure recover coefficient, Cp, defined as the ratio of static
pressure to inlet dynamic pressure.
𝑝2 − 𝑝1
𝐶𝑝 ≡ (8.41)
1 2
2𝜌𝑉1

The ideal (frictionless) pressure recover coefficient, Cpi , is given


by 1
𝐶𝑝𝑖 = 1 − (8.42)
𝐴𝑅2
where AR is the area ratio.
If gravity is neglected, and 1 = 2 = 1.0, the head loss equation,
Eq. 8.29, reduces to
2 2

𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
+ − + = ℎ𝑙𝑇 = ℎ𝑙𝑚
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
101
Thus 2 2
𝑉ഥ1 𝑉2 𝑝2 − 𝑝1
ℎ𝑙𝑚 = − −
2 2 𝜌
2 2 2 2

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 ഥ
𝑉1 𝑉2
ℎ𝑙𝑚 = 1− 2 − = 1− 2 − 𝐶𝑝
2 𝑉ഥ1 1 ഥ2 2 𝑉ഥ1
𝜌𝑉
2 1
From continuity, 𝐴1 𝑉ഥ1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 , so
2 2
𝑉ഥ1 𝐴1
ℎ𝑙𝑚 = 1− − 𝐶𝑝
2 𝐴2
or
2
𝑉ഥ1 1
ℎ𝑙𝑚 = 1− − 𝐶𝑝 (relation of hlm and Cp) (8.43)
2 (𝐴𝑅)2

The frictionless result (Eq. 8.42) is obtained from Eq. 8.43 if hlm = 0.
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 1
𝐶𝑝 ≡ 1 2
(8.41) 𝐶𝑝𝑖 =1− (8.42)
𝜌𝑉
2 1
𝐴𝑅 2 102
We can combine Eqs. 8.42 and 8.43 to obtain an expression for the
head loss in terms of the actual and ideal Cp values.
2

𝑉1 (8.44)
ℎ𝑙𝑚 = 𝐶𝑝𝑖 − 𝐶𝑝
2
Since static pressure rises in the direction of flow in a diffuser, flow
may separate from the walls. For some geometries, the outlet flow
is distorted. For wide angle diffusers, vanes or splitters can be used
to suppress stall and improve pressure recovery.

2
1 ഥ
𝑉1 1
𝐶𝑝𝑖 =1− ℎ𝑙𝑚 = 1− − 𝐶𝑝
𝐴𝑅2 2 (𝐴𝑅)2
103
Fig 8.16

More tapered diffusers (small


divergence angle  or large
dimensionless length N/R1) are
more likely to approach the
ideal constant value for Cp.

104
Fig 8.17 Le for pipe bends

(8.40b)
105
Valves

106
Fittings

107
Table 8.4
Le for flow through Valves and Fittings

(fully open)

(8.40b)
108
NOTE
➢ Minor losses can be a larger fraction of the overall system loss.
Thus a system for which calculations are to be made must be
checked carefully to make sure all losses have been identified
and their magnitudes estimated.

➢ If calculations are made carefully, the results will be of


satisfactory engineering accuracy. You may expect to predict
actual loss within 10 percent.

109
Calculation of Head Loss
Pumps, Fans, and Blowers
Head of the pump Power supply Pump efficiency

(8.46) (8.47) (8.48)

When appling the energy equation (Eq. 8.29) to a pipe system, a


pump is included in the system to overcome the head loss. For
these cases we can simply include the head of the pump as a
“negative loss”.

(8.49)
110
Calculation of Head Loss
Noncircular Ducts
Hydraulic 4𝐴
𝐷ℎ ≡ (8.50)
diameter 𝑃
• A is cross-sectional area, P is wetted perimeter, the length of wall in
contact with the flowing fluid at any cross-section.
• The factor 4 is introduced so that the hydraulic diameter will equal the
duct diameter for a circular cross section.
𝜋 2
4𝐴 4 4 𝐷
𝐷ℎ = = =𝐷
𝑃 𝜋𝐷
Example: Rectangular Duct
2ℎ (ar = aspect ratio = h/b)
=
1 + 𝑎𝑟 (Square duct, ar = 1 → Dh = h)
111
Home Work
8.201 Derive Eq. 8.42, the pressure coefficient for a diffuser assuming
ideal (frictionless) flow.

Given: Flow through a diffuser


Find: Derivation of Eq. 8.42
1
Solution: 𝐶𝑝𝑖 = 1 −
𝐴𝑅2
Basic equations

Assumptions:
1) All the assumptions of the Bernoulli equation
2) Horizontal flow
3) No flow separation
112
From Bernoulli

(using continuity)

Hence

Finally

which is Eq. 8.42.

This result is not realistic as a real diffuser is very likely to have


flow separation.
113
半對數圖
半對數圖示科學及工程學常用的圖表,其中一軸是對數尺度,另一軸是
線性尺度,常用在表示指數增長的關係上,或是一個變數範圍很廣的情
形。

對數-線性的半對數圖 線性-對數的半對數圖
所有y =  a x 形式的函數在半對數圖中都會變成直線,將等號兩
側取對數,可得 loga y = x + loga 
為一直線,斜率為,和y軸的截距為loga 。 Return
114

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