MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF

TECHNICAL EDUCATION

The Shetkari Shikshan Mandal’s

BHIVARABAI SAWANT COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, POLYTECHNIC,
NARHE, PUNE -41

MICRO PROJECT
Academic Year: 2023-24

TITLE OF PROJECT

Prepare A Report On A Fault Scenario Simulation In A

Feeder

Program: Electrical Engineering Program Code: EE-6I

Course: MEE Code: 22625

1
 MAHARASHTRA STATE

BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Certificate
This is to certify that Mr. Amar Namdev Akhade Roll No. 13 of SIXTH
Semester of Diploma in Electrical Engineering of Institute, TSSM’s
BSCOER POLYTECHNIC (Institute Code:1606) has completed the Micro
Project satisfactorily in Subject:– EEC(22625) for the Academic Year 2023-
2024 as prescribed in the curriculum.

6333
Place: Narhe Enrollment No: 2116060160

Date: / /2024 Exam. Seat No: 268635

Subject Teacher Head of the Department Principal

2
 GROUP DETAILS

Sr. Name of group Roll Enrollment

Seat No.
No. members No. No.

Sayali Santosh
1 Kapade 22 2216060033

Name of Guide Prof. Sutar.P.N

INDEX
3
SR. CONTENT PAGE
NO. NO.
1. Introduction 5-7

2. Low voltage (L.V.) distribution system 8

3. Disadvantages 9-11

4. Underground cables and overhead 12-15

lines

5. Types of insulators 16-26

From this project output we are using

the Fault Scenario Simulation in a
6. Feeder.
27
Below link is the simulation of Fault
Scenario Simulation in a Feeder

7. Weekly Progress Report 28

8. ANNEXURE II 29

4
Introduction
Feeders are line conductors which connect the stations to the areas to be fed by those
stations. So when there is a fault in a feeder, there will be a surge in a current. So for the
safety against such faults, circuit breakers are used. These conditions can be viewed in the
work station with the help of DCS.

Let us see feeders and circuit breakers in detail :

Transmission and distribution of electrical power

By transmission and distribution of electrical power is meant its conveyance from the
central station where it is generated to the places where it is demanded by the consumers
(like pumping stations, residential and commercial buildings, mills, factories etc.)

 The maximum generated voltage in advanced countries is 33kV while that in India
is 11kV.
 The amount of power that has to be transmitted through transmission lines is
very large and of this power is transmitted at 11kV (or 33kV) the line
current and power loss would be very large. Therefore this voltage is stepped
up to a higher value by using step up transformers located in sub-stations.
 The transmission voltages in India are 400 kV, 220 kV and 132 kV.
 The transmission lines and feeders are 3-phase 3-wire circuits.
 The distributors are 3-phase 4-wire circuits because a neutral wire is necessary to
supply the single-phase loads of domestic and commercial consumers
 The transmission network is commonly known as Grid.

Electric supply system:

An electric supply system comprises of the following three principle components:

Power station.
Transmission lines.
Distribution lines.

The electrical system is broadly classified as follows:

D.C. or A.C. system.

Overhead or underground system. The overhead system is less expensive than the
underground one. In our country this system is mostly adopted for transmission and
distribution of power.

5
 By transmission and distribution of electrical power is meant its conveyance from the
central station where it is generated to the places where it is demanded by the consumers
(like pumping stations, residential and commercial buildings, mills, factories etc.)

The maximum generated voltage in advanced countries is 33kV while that in India is
11kV.
The amount of power that has to be transmitted through transmission lines is very large
and of this power is transmitted at 11kV (or 33kV) the line current and power loss would
be very large. Therefore this voltage is stepped up to a higher value by using step up
transformers located in sub-stations.
The transmission voltages in India are 400 kV, 220 kV and 132 kV.

The transmission lines and feeders are 3-phase 3-wire circuits.

The above figure shows a typical layout of power system between generation and use of
electric power

6
The various components are discussed below:

1. Generating station (GS): In generating station electric power is produced by 3-

phase alternators operating in parallel. The normal generation voltage is 11kv (it may be
6.6kV or even 33kV in some cases). This voltage is stepped upto 132kV (or more) with
the help of 3-phase transformers. Generally the transmission is carried at
66kV, 132kV, 220kV or 400kV.

7
 2. Note : Whereas the use of high voltage leads to several advantages including saving of
conductor material and high transmission efficiency, on the other hand, introduces
insulation problems and increases cost of switchgear and transformer equipment.

3. Primary transmission: In this type of transmission, the electric power at 132kV is

supplied to the other system by

3-phase 3-wire overhead system.

4. Secondary transmission: The primary transmission line terminates at the receiving

station (RS) where the voltage is reduced to 33kV by step down transformers. From
this station, the electric power is transmitted at 33kV to large consumers by 3-phase, 3-
wire overhead system, and this forms the secondary transmission.

5. Primary distribution: The secondary transmission line terminates at sub-stations(SS)

where voltage is reduced from 33kV to 11kV. The 11kV(3-phase,3-wire) lines run along
the important road sides of the city. Note: The large/big consumers(having demand more
than 50kw) are normally supplied power at 11kV which they handle it individually with
their own substations.

6. Secondary distribution: The electric power available at 11kv from the primary
distribution line is delivered to distribution substations (DSS, located near the locality of
the consumers) which step down the voltage to 400V, 3-phase, 4-wire secondary
distribution. The single phase residential lighting load is connected between any phase and
neutral (230V) and 3-phase motor load is connected across 3-phase lines (400V) directly
.
7. The secondary distribution system consists of feeders, distributors and service mains
(see fig (b))

8
5|Page
• Ground return is possible.
• In DC system, only IR drop
is present and IX drop is nil.
Therefore voltage regulation
problem is much less
serious.
• The power flow through a DC
link is easily reversible and
controlled.
• In DC transmission, there is no
inductance, capacitance, phase
displacement and surge problem.
• A DC line has less corona loss.
9
• A DC line has reduced
interference with communication
circuits.
• There is no skin effect in DC,
X-section of line conductor is
therefore fully utilized.
• Because of less potential
stress and negligible dielectric
loss, underground cable can be
used.
• No stability problems.
• No synchronizing difficulties.
• In a DC system, potential
stress on the insulation is 1/√2
times that in AC system for same
working voltage,
therefore less insulation is
required in DC system.
Disadvantages

10
The high voltage DC systems have
the following disadvantages:
• DC system uses complicated
converters and DC switch gear is
expensive. Thus installation is
costly.
• Electric power cannot be
generated at high DC voltage due
to commutator problems.
• In DC system harmonics are
generated which require filters.
• Converters require
considerable reactive power.
• Converters do not have
overload capability.
AC system:
Nowadays electrical energy is
almost exclusively generated,

11
transmitted and distributed in the
form of A.C. Let us see its
advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages:-
1. In A.C. system, the electric
power can be generated at high
voltage.
2. Maintenance of substations is
easy and comparatively at a lower
cost.
3. Stepping-up and stepping
down of an A.C voltage can be
done easily and efficiently with
the help of
transformers.
Disadvantages:-
1. There is a need to synchronize
the alternators before they are put
in parallel.
12
2. Transmission line
construction is comparatively
difficult and the amount of
copper required is
comparatively
more.
3. In order to avoid corona loss
and also to provide adequate
amount of insulation in case of
overhead lines, more
spacing between the conductors is
required.
4. As a result of skin effect, the
resistance of the line is increased.
5. A.C line has capacitance,
because of which there is a
continues loss of power due to
charging current even when
the line is open.

13
The best method is to use A.C
system for generation and
distribution purpose and DC
system for transmission purpose.
By using mercury are rectifiers
and thyratrons, it is possible to
transmit electric power by DC
system, which can convert
AC into DC and vice-versa directly
at a rea⁹sonable cost. These
devices can handle 30 Megawatt
at 400V
Low voltage (L.V.) distribution system

Feeders: These are line conductors which connect the stations to the areas, to be
fed by those stations. Normally no tapping are taken from feeders. They are designed
mainly from point of their current carrying capacities.

Distributors: These are conductors from which several tappings for the supply to
the consumers are taken. They are designed from the point of view of the voltage drop
in them.

Service mains: These are the terminals which connect the consumer’s terminals to the
distributors.

Comparison between D.C. and A.C. systems of transmission and

distribution D.C. system:

14
Few advantages: The transmission of electric power by high voltage D.C. systems has
following advantages over high voltage A.C. system:

 DC systems are economical for long distance bulk power transmission by overhead
lines.
 Simple line construction.
 Greater power per conductor.
 Ground return is possible.
 In DC system, only IR drop is present and IX drop is nil. Therefore voltage
regulation problem is much less
 serious.
 The power flow through a DC link is easily reversible and controlled.
 In DC transmission, there is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and
surge problem.
 A DC line has less corona loss.
 A DC line has reduced interference with communication circuits.

 There is no skin effect in DC, X-section of line conductor is therefore fully utilized.
 Because of less potential stress and negligible dielectric loss, underground cable
can be used.
 No stability problems.
 No synchronizing difficulties.

15
  In a DC system, potential stress on the insulation is 1/√2 times that in AC system
for same working voltage, therefore less insulation is required in DC system.

Disadvantages
The high voltage DC systems have the following disadvantages:

• DC system uses complicated converters and DC switch gear is expensive. Thus

installation is costly.
• Electric power cannot be generated at high DC voltage due to commutator problems.
• In DC system harmonics are generated which require filters.
• Converters require considerable reactive power.
• Converters do not have overload capability.

AC system:
Nowadays electrical energy is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed in
the form of A.C. Let us see its
advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages:-

1. In A.C. system, the electric power can be generated at high voltage.

2. Maintenance of substations is easy and comparatively at a lower cost.
3. Stepping-up and stepping down of an A.C voltage can be done easily and
efficiently with the help of
transformers.

Disadvantages:-

1. There is a need to synchronize the alternators before they are put in parallel.
2. Transmission line construction is comparatively difficult and the amount of copper
required is comparatively more.
3. In order to avoid corona loss and also to provide adequate amount of insulation in case
of overhead lines, more spacing between the conductors is required.
4. As a result of skin effect, the resistance of the line is increased.
5. A.C line has capacitance, because of which there is a continues loss of power due to
charging current even when the line is open.

16
The best method is to use A.C system for generation and distribution purpose and DC
system for transmission purpose.
By using mercury are rectifiers and thyratrons, it is possible to transmit electric power by
DC system, which can convert
AC into DC and vice-versa directly at a rea⁹sonable cost. These devices can handle 30
Megawatt at 400V

The above figure shows a single line diagram of high voltage DC (H.V.D.C)
transmission. The generating station
generates electric power which is AC. This voltage is stepped to high voltage by the use of
step-up

transformers. This A.C

power at high voltage is fed to the mercury are rectifiers which converts AC into DC. This
high DC voltage is transmitted.
At receiving end the DC power converted to AC power using thyratrons. This AC voltage
is then

stepped down to low

voltage for distribution by using a step-down transformer.

Choice of Transmission Voltage

Whenever transmission lines are concerned there is a specific limit for the voltage to be
used, beyond which there is no economical profit. The limit is reached when the cost of
conductor, transformer, insulator, supports, switchgear, lightning arrester and the erection
cost is “minimum

17
 1.According to modern American practice (based on empirical formula) empirical line–
to-line voltage (kV) is
V=5.5√(0.62l+(3P/100))
Where,
l=Distance of transmission in km,

P=Estimated maximum KW/phase to be delivered over a single circuit.

2.Voltage in kV(line-to-line),

V=5.5√(0.62l+(kVA/150))
Where,
l=Distance of transmission in km and kVA= Total power.

Underground cables and overhead lines

Overhead lines and underground cables are the 2 ways for transmission or distribution of
electric power. Most of the time
overhead lines are used; underground cables are rarely used for the following reason:

1. Power is generally transmitted over long distances to load centres.

2. Installation costs are very high. Therefore, transmission of power over long
distances is carried out by using
overhead lines.

18
Important components of overhead lines I:

1. Conductors:- Conductors carry power from sending end station to receiving end station.
2. Supports:- These are the structures which keep the conductors at a suitable level above
the ground; they can be poles or towers, depending upon the working voltage and the place
where they are used. 3. Cross-arms:- Cross arms provide the necessary support to the
insulators.

4. Insulators:- They provide insulation to high voltage wire with the metal structure and
also provide support to the conductor. They also provide support to bus-bar conductors and
other love high voltage equipment terminals.
5. Other miscellaneous items:

Lightning arresters
Fuse
Isolating switches
Guard wire
Phase plates
Vee guards
Anticlimbing wires etc.

Conductors

The following are the characteristics that conductor used for transmission and distribution
should possess:

1. In order to withstand mechanical stress, it should have high tensile strength.

2. Low resistivity, so that it has high electrical conductivity.
3. In order to have small weight per unit volume it should have low specific gravity.
4. Low cost.

All these characteristics are not found in a single material. So, while selecting a conductor
19
 material for a particular case, a compromise is made between cost and electrical and
mechanical properties.

Material used for transmission lines

The most important leading material used for transmission lines is copper because
it has tensile strength and high
conductivity. Aluminium is also used to large extent especially with a steel core for high
voltage line. The selection of
materials depends upon the following criteria:

1. Required mechanical strength and electrical properties.

2. Cost of materials.
3. Local conditions.

List of other materials used for transmission lines are:

1. Galvanised steel materials.

2. Galvanised iron.
3. Steel core copper.
4. Cadmium copper materials etc.
5. Phosphor bronze materials etc.

Let us see few of them in brief.

Copper:-
I. Copper that has not been annealed after being drawn (Hard drawn copper)
conductor is one
of the best
conductors due to its high electrical conductivity and high tensile strength for all types of
transmission. Hard
drawing reduces electrical conductivity by a small amount but it increases the tensile
strength

20
considerably.
II. It is a homogeneous material, durability is high and has high scrap value.
III. It has a high current density so lesser X-sectional area of conductor is required.

Copper conductor having steel core are employed for long span transmission lines,
where a combination of high conductivity, small sag and minimum cross-section are
desired.

Aluminium:-

Lighter in weight as compared to copper, but has smaller conductivity and tensile strength.
Aluminium has 1.6 items the resistivity of copper. So for the same loss and length of
conductor an aluminium conductor should have 60% greater x-sectional area than that of
copper conductor. This increased X-section of aluminium exposes a greater surface to
wind pressure. So the supporting towers must be designed for greater transvers
strength. As consequences of greater sag, the use of higher towers is often required. The
sag in aluminium conductors is greater than the copper conductors. They are particularly
suitable for operation in very high ambient temperature.

Steel cored aluminium (A.C.S.R)

Aluminium has low tensile strength, as a result produce greater sag which prohibits their
use for longer spans and makes
them unsuitable for long distance transmissions. So in order to increase the tensile strength
of the aluminium conductor, it
is used with a core of galvanized steel wires. The combinational conductor thus
obtained is called as A.C.S.R. (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced)

21
Let us see few of them in brief.

Copper:-
I. Copper that has not been annealed after being drawn (Hard drawn copper)
conductor is one of the best
conductors due to its high electrical conductivity and high tensile strength for all types of
transmission. Hard
drawing reduces electrical conductivity by a small amount but it increases the tensile
strength considerably.
II. It is a homogeneous material, durability is high and has high scrap value.
III. It has a high current density so lesser X-sectional area of conductor is required.
Copper conductor having steel core are employed for long span transmission lines,
where a combination of high
conductivity, small sag and minimum cross-section are desired.

Aluminium:-

Lighter in weight as compared to copper, but has smaller conductivity and tensile strength.
Aluminium has 1.6 items the resistivity of copper. So for the same loss and length of
conductor an aluminium conductor
should have 60% greater x-sectional area than that of copper conductor. This increased X-
section of aluminium exposes a
greater surface to wind pressure. So the supporting towers must be designed for
greater transvers strength. As consequences of greater sag, the use of higher towers is
often required. The

sag in aluminium conductors is greater than the copper conductors. They are particularly
suitable for operation in very high ambient temperature.
22
Steel cored aluminium (A.C.S.R)

Aluminium has low tensile strength, as a result produce greater sag which prohibits their
use for longer spans and makes
them unsuitable for long distance transmissions. So in order to increase the tensile strength
of the aluminium conductor, it
is used with a core of galvanized steel wires. The combinational conductor thus
obtained is called as A.C.S.R.
(Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced).

A.S.C.R conductor

The above figure shows, one steel cored conductor wire surrounded by 18 wires of
aluminium. The aluminium carries
bulk of current while the steel core takes a greater percentage of mechanical stress.

• Produces small lag and therefore can be used for longer spans.
• A.C.S.R. Conductor gets deteriorated in service due to atmospheric corrosion.

Galvanised steel

 Used for extremely long spans. Because of poor conductivity and high
resistance of steel, they are not suitable for transmitting large power over a long
distance.
 Steel wire or iron wire is most advantageous for transmission of small power over a
short distance.

Cadmium copper
Sometimes copper alloyed with cadmium is used. When 1 or 2 percentage of cadmium is
added to copper it increases the tensile strength by about 40 percentages but reduces
the conductivity only by 17 percentages. Cadmium copper is expensive than copper.
Economical for a line with long spans and small cross-section.

23
Line support:-
The following are the characteristics of line supports used for transmission and distribution
of electric

power.

• Light in weight and less expensive.

• It should have high mechanical strength.
• Low maintenance cost and longer life.
These lines support can be wooden poles, steel poles, RCC poles and steel towers.

Wooden poles:
• Cheap, easily available has insulating properties and are most widely used for distribution
purpose in rural areas.
• Used for short spans, up to 60 metres.
• The portion of the poles, which is below the ground level, is impregnated with
preservative

compounds like creosite oil.

• In order to obtain high transverse strength, double pole structures like ‘A’ or ‘H’ type (fig
e) are used.
• Short life, up to 25 to 30 years

24
Steel poles

Has great mechanical strength and thus can be used for longer spans (50-80 metres), but
they are costly.
Majority of 3 types:
Rail poles
Rolled steel joints
Tabular poles
Average life more than 40 years.

R.C.C. poles

R.C.C poles possess greater mechanical strength and can be used for longer span than steel
poles(80-200 metres).
Good insulating properties and low maintenance.
They have a very long life.

25
4.Steel towers

• Wooden poles, steel poles, R.C.C. poles are used for distribution purpose at low
voltage (say 11kV), but steel
towers are invariably employed for long distance transmission at higher voltage.
• Troubles regarding lightning are minimised as each tower acts as a lightning conductor.
• Steel tower has greater mechanical strength.
• Longer life span.
• Steel towers can withstand most severe climate conditions.
• Steel towers are suitable for longer spans

26
Overhead Line Insulators

Insulators are used in order to provide safety and necessary clearance between live
transmission conductors, which are completely bare and do not have any insulated coating
over it.

Required characteristics of an insulator:-

• It should have insulation resistance to avoid current leakage to earth.

• It should have very high mechanical strength.
• It should have high dielectric strength to provide high relative permittivity. Also, it
should have high ratio of rapture strength to flash over voltage

Materials used for insulation

1. Porcelain
2. Steatite

27
3. Glass
4. Synthetic resin

Porcelain

• Most commonly used material for insulator in overhead lines.

• Porcelain is usually weak in tension and does not withstand tensile strength more than
50MN/m2
• A good porcelain insulator has compressive strength of about 7000N/m2 and dielectric
strength of 60kV/cm of
its thickness.
• Porcelain is mechanically stronger than glass.

Glass

• Mainly used for E.H.V, AC and DC systems.

• Glass insulator is cheaper than porcelain when simple shapes are considered.
• Under ordinary atmospheric conditions the glass insulator can be used up to 25kV and in
dry atmosphere, it can
be used up to 50kV.
• In H.V lines having voltage above 100kV, toughened glass is employed for insulation.

Steatite

• It is produced by mixing hydrated magnesium silicate with small portion of clay and
felspar.
• It has high insulation resistance.
• Steatite has much greater tensile and bending stress than porcelain. Thus can be used at
tension towers or when

the transmission lines take a sharp turn.

28
 Synthetic resin

• Synthetic resin is an insulator which is made up materials like rubber, silicon, resin etc.
• Synthetic resin insulator has high strength and lower weight.
• Leakage current is higher and longevity is low.
• Comparatively cheaper.
• Used in various indoor application.
• Synthetic resin insulators are extensively used for bushings.

Types of insulators

1. Pin type insulators.

2. Suspension type insulators.
3. Strain type insulators.
4. Shackle insulators.

1.Pin type insulators

A pin type insulator is designed to be mounted on a pin, which in turn is installed on cross-
arm of the pole. The insulator on the pin and electrical conductor is placed in the groove
at the top of the insulator and soft aluminium binding wire according to the material of
the conductor.

29
 • Pin type insulators made of glass are generally used for low voltages.
• Pin type insulators made of porcelain can be used up to 90kV but are rarely used on lines
above 60kv. Pin Type Insulator

Suspension type insulators

In a pin type insulator its cost is increased rapidly as the working voltage is increased.
Therefore pin type insulator is not
economical beyond 33kV. So it is as usual practice to use suspension type insulators for
voltage higher than 33kV.
A pin type insulator sits on top of the cross arm, whereas a suspension insulator
hangs from the cross arm. The line
conductor is attached to its lower end.
Few advantages of suspension type insulators over Pin type insulators are:

Usually cheaper in cost for operating voltage above 50kV.

Flexibility is increased with suspension insulators.
If line insulation needs to be increased, the additional insulators can be easily added to the
string. In case there is damage

30
in any insulator, the damaged insulator can be easily replaced.

31
Strain insulators

Strain insulators can be of pin type insulator or suspension type insulator. Strain
insulators are made use when making very long spans or corners of transmission lines.

32
Shackle insulators

Shackle insulators can be fixed to a pole directly with a bolt or to the cross arm. The line
conductor is fixed in the groove with a soft binding wire. Before, shackle insulators were
used as strain insulator, but these days they are used for low voltage distribution lines.

The reason for failure of insulators

1. Mechanical stress
2. Short circuits
3. Flash-over
4. Cracking of insulator, dust deposition, porosity of material etc.
Sag in overhead lines:
In transmission lines, the conductors are supported at the towers or poles. When the
conductor supported in this manner it
will sag or dip under its own weight and it takes the shape of catenary. The distance
between the adjacent supporting
towers is called the “span”. The difference in level between the points of supports and the
lowest points is known as sag

33
 The factors affecting the sag in overhead lines are:

Weight of the conductor: The weight of the conductor directly affects the sag. Heavier the
conductor, greater will be the sag. Span length: Sag is directly proportional to the square of
the span length, provided other conditions remain unchanged. If other conditions are
remaining the same, then the sag is inversely proportional to the working tensile strength.
Sag increases with the increase in temperature

project output we are using the Fault Scenario Simulation in a Feeder.

Below link is the simulation of Fault Scenario Simulation in a Feeder

34
 Application :-

❖ We are transfer power from one circuit to another through electromagnetic through
the
Feeder.
❖ Education purpose of student

WEEKLY PROGRESS REPORT

MICRO PROJECT

SIGNATURE OF
SR.NO. WEEK ACTIVITY PERFORMED DATE
GUIDE

1. 1st Discussion and finalization of topic

2. 2nd Preparation and submission of Abstract

3. 3rd Collection of Data

4. 4th Discussion and outline of Content

5. 5th Formulation of Content

6. 6th Editing and proof Reading of Content

7. 7th Compilation of Report and Presentation

8. 8th Seminar / Viva

9. 9th Final submission of Micro Project

35
 Sign of the student Sign of the faculty

ANEEXURE II
Academic Year: 2023-24 Name of the Faculty: Prof Sutar.P.N
Course: Maintenance of Electric Equipment Course code: 22625
Semester: Sixth

Title of the project: prepare a report on a fault scenario simulation in a

feeder

CO’s addressed by the Micro Project:

1) Follow Safe Practices to prevent accidents while using electrical equipments.

2) Maintain insulation systems of electrical equipments .

Major Learning outcomes achieved by students by doing the Project:

(a)Practical Outcome:
1) Measure the illumination output of different lamps and compare with their wattage.
2) Measure the illumination level with and without reflectors used in the various luminaries.

Marks out Marks out

of 6 for of 4 for
Roll performance performance Total
Student Name
No. in group in oral/ out of 10
activity presentation

22 Sayali Santosh Kapade

36
Signature of Faculty

37