DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

COURSE MATERIAL

FACULTY DETAILS
Name of the Faculty S. LAVANYA
Designation ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Department ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
Subject POWER SYSTEMS – I
[MODELLING AND COMPONENTS]
POWER SYSTEMS – I
[MODELLING AND COMPONENTS]

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

 Understand the concepts of power systems.

 Understand the various power system components.

 Evaluate fault currents for different types of faults.

 Understand the generation of over-voltages and insulation

coordination.
Understand basic protection schemes.

MODULE I
BASIC CONCEPTS
Evolution of Power Systems and Present-Day Scenario. Structure of a power system:
Bulk Power Grids and Micro-grids.
Generation: Conventional and Renewable Energy Sources. Distributed Energy
Resources. Energy Storage.
Transmission and Distribution Systems: Line diagrams, transmission and distribution
voltage levels and topologies (meshed and radial systems). Synchronous
Grids and Asynchronous (DC) interconnections.
Review of Three-phase systems. Analysis of simple three-phase circuits. Power Transfer
in AC circuits and Reactive Power.

POWER SYSTEM

 The power system is a network which contain generation, distribution and

transmission system. It involves process of converts one form of energy into electrical
energy. This system includes the devices connected to the system like the synchronous
generator, motor, transformer, circuit breaker, conductor, etc.

 Power system has major six components such as power plant, transformer,
transmission line, substations, distribution line, and distribution transformer. The
transformer in transmission system involves the process of step down and step up power
which has generator from power plant.
 The suitable power to the consumers from substation where the power is step down
by distribution transformer. The power from the transmission line is transfer to different
Substations

 Electricity is generated at central power stations and then transferred to loads (i.e.,
Domestic, Commercial and Industrial) through the transmission and distribution system.
A combination of all these systems is collectively known as an Electric Power System.

 A power System is a combination of central generating stations, electric power

transmission system, Distribution and utilization system.

STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM

The power system is the complex enterprise that may be subdivided into the following
sub-systems.
GENERATING SUBSTATION

 In power system at generating station, generated electrical power arrange from 11KV
to 25KV. This voltage may transfer to very large distance by step up transformer in
transmission line. The various plant in power system at generating station are nuclear
plant, thermal plant and hydro thermal plant.

 In generating station, electrical power generates by converting mechanical power,

which getup by gas turbines, fuels like gas and nuclear, coal. The major equipment in this
sation is transformer as well as generator
TRANSMISSION SUBSTATION

 The process of transmission line to supply large range of bulk power to substations
and heavy loaded consumers. It takes overhead lines to transfer power from generation
and carries to distribution substations.

 The transmission lines carry the double major functions

 It transports the energy from generating stations to bulk receiving stations.

 The bulk power is received at receiving station which is carries by transmission

system.

 It interconnects the two or more generating stations. The neighbouring substations

are also interconnected through the transmission lines.

 The voltage at transmission line is performing at larger than 66kv and is standardised
at 69kv, 115KV, 138KV, 230KV, 500KV, and 765KV, line-to-line. The transmission line
above 230KV is usually referred to as extra high voltage (EHV).

SUB-TRANSMISSION SUBSTATION

 In Sub – transmission system, the part of transmission system that link the large
voltage substation, where the power is step down and transfer to distribution substation.

 Large and bulk power consumers are directly powered by sub transmission system.
It has voltage varies from 90 KV to 138KV. In substation, the voltage at transmission line
is maintain by locating capacitor and reactor.

 The operation of the sub-transmission system is similar to that of a distribution

system. Its differ from a distribution system in the following manner.

 It has a larger voltage level when compare to a distribution system.

 It distributes large power

 It distributed minor substations as balance to a distribution system which distributes

few loads
Distribution Substation
In an area, the entire consumers are connected by components in a power system
to large power source is termed as distribution system. The transmission system which
interconnects the large bulk power system and generating plant. It also fed some load
which could be nearby it.

SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM

POWER GRID:
Definition:
Electrical grid or power grid is defined as the network which interconnects the
generation, transmission and distribution unit. It supplies the electrical power from
generating unit to the distribution unit. A large amount of power is transmitted from the
generating station to load centre at 220kV or higher. The network form by these high
voltage lines is called the super grid. The super grid feeds the sub-transmission network
operating at 132kV or less.
MICROGRID
A microgrid is a small-scale power grid that can operate independently or
collaboratively with other small power grids.
Types of Electrical Grid
The power station of the grid is located near the fuel source which reduces the
transportation cost of the system. But it is located far away from the populated areas.
The power which is generated at high voltage is stepped down by the help of step down
transformer in the substation and then supply to the consumers. The electrical grid is
mainly classified into two types. They are
 Regional Grid – The Regional grid is formed by interconnecting the different
transmission system of a particular area through the transmission line.
 National Grid – It is formed by interconnecting the different regional grid.
Reason for an Interconnection
 The interconnection of the grid provides the best use of power resource and ensures
great security to supply. It makes the system economical and reliable.
 The generating stations are interconnected for reducing the reserve generation
capacity in each area.
 If there is a sudden increase in load or loss of generation in a zone, then it borrows
from the adjacent interconnected area.
 But for the interconnections of the network certain amount of generating capacity
known as the spinning reserve is required.
 The spinning reserve consists generator running at normal speed and ready to supply
power instantaneously
Types of an Interconnections
The interconnection between network is mainly classified into two types,

HVAC link (High Voltage Alternating Current)

HVDC link. (High Voltage Direct Current)
HVAC (High Voltage Alternating Current) Interconnection

In HVAC link the two AC systems are interconnected by an AC link. For
interconnecting the AC system, it is necessary that there should be sufficiently close
frequency control on each of the two systems.

For the 50Hz system, the frequency should lie between 48.5 Hz and 51.5 Hz. Such
an interconnection is known as synchronous interconnection or synchronous tie. The AC
link provides a rigid connection between two AC system to be interconnected. But the
AC interconnection has certain limitations.
The interconnection of an AC system has suffered from the following problems.
 The interconnection of the two AC networks is the synchronous tie. The frequency
disturbances in one system are transferred to the other system.
 The power swings in one system affects the other system. Large power swing in
one system may result in frequent tripping due to which major fault occurs in the system.
This fault causes complete failure of the whole interconnected system.
 There is an increase in the fault level if an existing AC system is connected with
the other AC system with an AC tie line. This is because the additional parallel line
reduces the equivalent reactance of the interconnected system. If the two AC system are
connected to the fault line, then the fault level of an each AC system remains unchanged.
HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) Interconnection

 The DC interconnection or DC tie provides a loose coupling between the two AC

system to be interconnected. The DC tie between two AC systems is non-synchronous
(Asynchronous).
The DC interconnection has the certain advantages. They are as follows.

 The DC interconnection system is asynchronous thus the system which is to be

interconnected is either of the same frequency or at the difference frequency. The DC link
thus provides the advantages of interconnection of two AC network at different
frequencies. It also enables the system to operate independently and to maintain their
frequency standards.

 The HVDC links provide fast and reliable control of magnitude and direction of
power flow by controlling the firing angle of converters. The rapid control of power flow
increases the limit of transient stability.

 The power swings in the interconnected AC networks can be damped rapidly by

modulating the power flow through the DC tie. Thus, the stability of the system is
increased.
Power transfer in AC circuit:
AC Resistance and Impedance:

Sinusoidal Waveforms for AC Resistance

Phasor Diagram for AC Resistance
Z = R + j0 = R Ω’s

AC Resistance Example No1

• An electrical heating element which has an AC resistance of 60 Ohms is connected

across a 240V AC single phase supply. Calculate the current drawn from the supply and
the power consumed by the heating element.
Also draw the corresponding phasor diagram showing the phase relationship between the
current and voltage.

1. The supply current:

2. The Active power consumed by the AC resistance is calculated as:

3. As there is no phase difference in a resistive component, ( θ = 0 ), the

corresponding phasor diagram is given as:

AC Resistance Example No2

• A sinusoidal voltage supply defined as: V(t) = 100 x cos(ωt +

30o) is connected to a pure resistance of 50 Ohms. Determine its impedance and the peak
value of the current flowing through the circuit. Draw the corresponding phasor diagram.

• The sinusoidal voltage across the resistance will be the same as

for the supply in a purely resistive circuit. Converting this voltage from the time-domain
expression into the phasor-domain expression gives us:

Applying Ohms Law gives us:

The corresponding phasor diagram will therefore be:

AC Inductance with a Sinusoidal Supply

Sinusoidal Waveforms for AC Inductance

Phasor Diagram for AC Inductance

AC Capacitance with a Sinusoidal Supply

Sinusoidal Waveforms for AC Capacitance

Phasor Diagram for AC Capacitance

 The following steps are given below to solve the balanced

three-phase circuits.

 Step 1 – First of all draw the circuit diagram.

 Step 2 – Determine inductive reactance per phase XLP = XL/phase = 2πfL.

 Step 3 – Determine capacitive reactance per phase XCP = XC/phase = 1/2πfC.

 Step 4 – Determine reactance XP = X/ phase = XL – XC

 Step 5 – Determine impedance per phase ZP = Z/phase = √R2P + X2P

 Step 6 – Determine cosϕ = RP/ZP; the power factor is lagging when XLP > XCP and
it is leading when XCP> XLP.

 Step 7 – Determine the voltage V phase.

 For star connection VP = VL/√3 and for delta connection VP = VL

 Step 8 – Determine current in phase IP = VP/ZP.

 Step 9 – Now, determine the line current IL.

 For star connection IL = IP and delta connection line current IL = √3 IP

 Step 10 – Determine the Active, Reactive and Apparent power

AC Transmission Line

DC Transmission Line
The DC transmission is mainly used for the bulk power transmission. For long
distance transmission, the DC is less expensive and have low electrical losses.
The cost of the DC transmission systems is higher for short distance transmission line
because it requires more convertible equipment as compared to an AC system.
The converter station converts the AC to DC at the sending end and DC to AC at the load
end of the line.
One of the major advantage of the DC system is that it allows the power transmission
between two unsynchronised AC system.

AC Transmission Line
The ac transmission line is used for transmitting the bulk of the power generation
end to the consumer end. The power is generated in the generating station. The
transmission line transmits the power from generation to the consumer end. The power is
transmitted from one end to another with the help of step-up and step down transformer.
DC Transmission Line
In DC transmission line, the mercury arc rectifier converts the alternating current into the
DC. The DC transmission line transmits the bulk power over long distance. At the
consumer ends the thyratron converts the DC into the AC.

MODULE III
OVER-VOLTAGES AND INSULATION REQUIREMENTS
Generation of Over-voltages: Lightning and Switching Surges. Protection against Over-
voltages, Insulation Coordination. Propagation of Surges, lighting arresters, surge
arresters. Voltages produced by traveling surges. Bewley Diagrams, Ground wire,
protector tube.
Overvoltage:
 Overvoltage occurs when high increase in voltage sustain for very very short in
time
 voltage surge or voltage transients is another term for overvoltage
 system line and device linked to it may have stress voltage which cause by over
voltage.
 There are two types of causes of over voltage in power system.
 Over voltage due to external causes
 Over voltage due to internal causes
Most of the overvoltage are not of large magnitude but may still be important because of
their effect on the performance of circuit interrupting equipment and protective devices.

Surge:
Disturbances in power system parameters like voltage, current, power etc.,
Voltage Surge:
 Voltage transient or surge voltage is termed as when voltage has sudden rise for
duration of short time in power system.
 Transient over voltages can be definite at high frequency (load switching &
lightning), medium frequency (capacitor energizing), or low frequency.
 Over voltage - external causes:
 Lightning strokes – in cloud is the major occurrence of overvoltage in power system
Causes of Overvoltage
 The overvoltage on a power system may be broadly divided into two main
categories
1.Internal causes Switching surges
 Insulation failure
 Arcing ground
 Resonance
2. External causes
 lightning
Internal causes:
 In a circuit, the sudden variation of voltage may leads to oscillation
 This circuit may affect the normal switching operation likes circuit breaker opening,
or may lead to condition of fault like grounding of a line conductor
The normal system insulation is suitably designed to withstand such surges Switching
Surges.
The overvoltage produced on the power system due to switching operations are known as
switching surges.
 Case of an open line
 Case of a loaded line
 Current chopping
 Case of an open line

In line, overvoltage may produce when travelling waves are induced in an unloaded line
at the time of switching operations.
Case of a loaded line
At the time of switching operations of loaded line may leads to over voltage when loeaded
line is interrupted suddenly.
This may have a voltage of 2 Zn i across the break ie switch
i is the instantaneous value of current at the time of opening of line and *Zn is the natural
impedance of the line
Current chopping
 In air blast circuit breaker, the cause of higher voltage surge at the contacts which
results in current chopping
 In air blast CB, the effective deionising effect may have the current to down at zero
prior to normal current reaches zero during low currents.
 This process is termed as current chopping and at the contact of CB it leads to larger
transient voltage.
 Its effect can decrease or avoided by having resistance switching.
2. Insulation failure:
In power system, Conductor grounding, the major factor of insulation failure between
earth and line which may leads to overvoltage in a system.

Arcing ground
 The process of intermittent arc occurs in line-to-ground fault of a 3 phase system
with continues occurrence of transients is known as arcing ground and by providing
proper earthing the neural, the arcing ground may reduce or prevent.
Resonance:
 When XL =Xc occurs in power system, result in resonance.
 At resonance, Z = R, then the power factor of the circuit is unity
 Under resonance, the impedance of the circuit is equal to resistance of the circuit and
the p.f. is unity.
 Resonance causes high voltages in the electrical system.
 In the usual transmission lines, the capacitance is very small so that resonance rarely
occurs at the fundamental supply frequency.
External causes:
Lightning:
 An electric discharge between cloud and earth, between clouds or between the charge
centres of the same cloud is known as lightning.
Mechanism of Lightning Discharge
 When a charged cloud passes over the earth, it produces equal and opposite charge
on the earth below.
 a negatively charged cloud produces a +ve charge on the earth below it.
 When the potential gradient are sufficient (5 kV*/cm - 10 kV/cm) to break down the
surrounding air, the lightning stroke starts

Types of Lightning Strokes:

 Direct stroke
 Indirect stroke
Direct stroke
 Lightning discharge to the subject device is directly from cloud during direct stroke
in overhead line.
 The overvoltages set up due to the stroke may be large enough to flashover this path
directly to the ground.

Indirect stroke
Indirect strokes result from the electrostatically induced charges on the conductors due to
the presence of charged clouds.
PROTECTION AGAINST OVERVOLTAGE:
Transients or surges on the power system may originate from switching and from
other causes but the most important and dangerous surges are those caused by lightning.
The lightning surges may cause serious damage to the expensive equipment in the
power system (e.g. generators, transformers etc.) either by direct strokes on the equipment
or by strokes on the transmission lines that reach the equipment as travelling waves.
It is necessary to provide protection against both kinds of surges.
 The most commonly used devices for protection against lightning surges are:
 Earthing screen
 Overhead ground wires
 Lightning arresters or surge diverters
The Earthing Screen:
The power stations & sub-stations generally house expensive equipment and
These stations could be protected against direct lightning strikes by providing earthing
screen.

Overhead Ground Wires:

 most effective method of providing protection to transmission lines against direct
lightning strokes is by the use of overhead ground wires.

Lightning Arresters:
A lightning arrester or a surge diverter is a protective device which conducts the
high voltage surges on the power system to the ground.
The action of the lightning arrester:
Under normal operation, the lightning arrester is off the line i.e. it conducts no current
to earth or the gap is non-conducting.
On the occurrence of overvoltage, the air insulation across the gap breaks down and an
arc is formed, providing a low resistance path for the surge to the ground. In this way, the
excess charge on the line due to the surge is harmlessly conducted through the arrester to
the ground instead of being sent back over the line.
the function of non-linear resistor in the operation of arrester.
As the gap sparks over due to overvoltage, the arc would be a short-circuit on the power
system and may cause power-follow current in the arrester.
Since the characteristic of the resistor is to offer high resistance to high voltage (or
current), it prevents the effect of a short-circuit. After the surge is over, the resistor offers
high resistance to make the gap non-conducting.
Ground wires:
Ground wires or earth wires are bare conductors supported at the top of transmission
towers. They serve to shield the line and intercept lightning stroke before it hits the current
carrying conductors below i.e. power lines.
Ground wires normally do not carry current. Therefore, they are often made of steel.
The ground wires are solidly connected to ground at each tower in transmission and
distribution system.
In power systems, ground wire is provided in overhead transmission lines having
voltages of 110kV and above.
In modern power systems, there are two ground wires on transmission tower instead of
single for better protection.
These earth wires has no effect on switching surges and the coupling effect is higher
with low serge impedance as compared to single earth wire.
In case of lightning strikes, the resistance between earth and tower base should be low
for effective protection. when lightning hit the ground wire, the produced waves travel
along the line in opposite direction and reach to the adjoining tower.
The tower passes them safely to the earth which ensures no power outage in case of
lightning stroke faults.
The main purpose of ground wire is to protect the power lines conductors from direct
lightning strokes.
In HV transmission lines, lightning strokes may cause a voltage rise at the tower peak
before reaching to the ground wire which may back flash-over from the tower to the
conductors and insulators.
To minimize the chances of insulator flash-overs, it is important to reduce the increase
in voltage on the top of the tower as ground wire is not enough to protect the insulator set
from flash-over.
The chance of fault may be reduced by proper grounding and earthing of the poles and
tower by deep earthing rods or counterpoise wires.
Grounding
Grounding is the connection between live parts of a machine (which carries current
in normal operation) and earth such as the neutral of a generator or neutral point
of a star connected power transformer.
 This grounding provides an effective path to the fault currents from the equipment to
the power source which leads to protect the power system installations and devices.
 Grounding is also used to balance the unbalance system. For example, all three phase
(lines) become unbalanced when a fault occurs in the system hence, the grounding
discharge the faulty current to the earth and make the system balanced once again having
the total neutral current as “0” (it is not possible to gain this value in specific cases but it
reduces to the almost ideal case i.e. nearest value).
 Moreover, grounding provides protection against the surge voltage (lightning, line
faults and surges) and discharges the over-voltage to the ground which makes the system
stable and reliable with maximum transformer efficiency.
 Both AC and DC circuits in electrical and electronics engineering need a “0V” as
reference potential known as ground which makes possible the flow of current from the
generated source to the load side.
Travelling Wave on Transmission Line:
 Travelling wave on transmission line is the voltage / current waves which
propagate from the source end to the load end during the transient condition.
 These waves travel along the line with the velocity equal to velocity of light if line
losses are neglected.
 But practically there always exists some line loss and hence these waves propagate
along the line with velocity somewhat lower than the velocity of light.
Concept of Travelling Wave
 We know that short transmission line and medium transmission line are studied by
their equivalent T or π model.
 But these models are only useful to study and analyze the steady state response of
the line. In case where we are interested in the study of transient behavior, these models
are not useful as the line parameters are actually not lumped rather they are non-uniformly
distributed over the entire length of the line.
 For transient analysis, it is very important to consider the line parameters like shunt
capacitance and inductance to be distributed and hence their effect must be considered.
 Let us consider a lossless transmission line. Let L and C be the inductance and
capacitance per unit length of the line.

 When the switch S is closed, the voltage at the load end does not appear
immediately at the load end.
 As soon as the Switch S is closed, inductance L1 acts as open circuit and capacitance
C1 acts as short circuit.
 Therefore as far as the capacitor C1 is not charged to some value, the charging of C2
through L2 is not possible.
 This means that charging of C2 through L2 will take some finite time. Similar
reasoning applies to the other successive sections
 Thus we see that whenever switch S is closed, there is a gradual voltage build up from
the source end to the load end over the transmission line.
 This gradual voltage build up can be thought of due to a voltage wave travelling from
one end to the other and the gradual charging of capacitor through inductor is due to
current wave.
 Let us understand this voltage and current wave in different wave by taking one
analogy. Replace the switch S by water valve and each section of inductor and
capacitor by a water tank.
  When the water valve is opened, tank A will first fill up to the level of interconnection
between the tanks due to flow of water from the valve.
 This water flow is the flow of current through the inductor L. And the tank level is nothing
but the voltage developed across the shunt capacitor C.
 Once the tank A is filled up, tank B will start filling and when it is also filled up to the
level, tank C will start to fill.
 This means that the filling of tank C will be complete after some finite time and not
immediately.
 Thus the flow of water from tank A to tank C can be assumed as a wave propagating from
tank A to tank C.
 Similarly, the tank levels can also be thought of a wave moving from tank A to tank C.
Relationship between Voltage and Current Wave:
 Let the voltage wave and current wave travels a distance x in time t. Therefore the
inductance and capacitance of line up to distance x will be Lx and Cx respectively. Let this
wave travels a distance dx in time dt.
 Since line is assumed to be lossless, whatever is the value of voltage wave and current
wave at the beginning, the same will be at any time t. This means that, the magnitude of
voltage and current wave at time t will be V and I respectively.

 Hence the stored charge in shunt capacitance Q = VCx

 and the flux in the series inductance Ø = ILx

 But I = dQ/dt

 = CVdx/dt

 But dx/dt = velocity of travelling wave = ν (say)

 Therefore, I = CVν …….(1)

 The voltage developed across the shunt capacitance,

 V= dØ/dt

 =ILdx/dt

 = ILν
 ⇒V = ILν ……….(2)

 Dividing equation (1) and (2), we get

 V / I = IL / CV

 (V/I)2 = L/C

 V/I = √(L/C)
The above expression is the ratio of voltage and current having the dimension of impedance.

 Therefore it is called Surge Impedance. Note that Surge Impedance is the square root of ratio
of series inductance L per unit length of line and shunt capacitance C per unit length of line.
This simply means that this value will remain constant for a given transmission line.
This value will not change due to change in length of line. The value of surge impedance for a
typical transmission line is around 400 Ohm and that for a cable is around 40 ohm.

 Notice that the value of surge impedance for cable is less than that of transmission line.
This is due to the higher value of capacitance of cable compared to the transmission line.

 Velocity of Travelling Wave:

 To get velocity of travelling wave, multiply (1) and (2) as below.

 VI = (CVν) x (LIν)

 ν2 = 1/LC

 ν = √(1/LC) ……..(3)

 The above expression is the velocity of travelling wave. Since L and C are per unit values, the
velocity of travelling wave is constant. For overhead line the values of L and C are given as

 L = 2×10-7ln(d/r) Henry / m

 C = 2πε / ln (d/r)

 From (3), the velocity of travelling wave for overhead line

 ν = 1 / [{2×10-7 ln(d/r)}{ 2πε / ln (d/r)}]1/2

 = 1/[4πεx10-7]1/2

 The permittivity of air, ε = (1/36π) x 10-9

 Therefore,
 ν = 1 / [4πx(1/36π) x 10-9x10-7]1/2 = 3 x108 m/sec.
The velocity of travelling wave for a lossless line is equal to the speed of light.
Since the cable core is surrounded by insulations and sheath, its relative permittivity εr >1 and
hence ε = ε0εr > ε0 (permittivity of air). Therefore the speed of travelling wave on cable is less
than that of transmission line.

MODULE IV
FAULT ANALYSIS AND PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Method of Symmetrical Components (positive, negative and zero sequences). Balanced and
Unbalanced Faults. Representation of generators, lines and transformers in sequence networks.
Computation of Fault Currents. Neutral Grounding.
Switchgear: Types of Circuit Breakers. Attributes of Protection schemes, Back-up Protection.
Protection schemes (Over-current, directional, distance protection, differential protection) and
their application. Earthing switches.
The great majority of faults on the power system are of unsymmetrical nature; the most
common type being a short-circuit from one line to ground.
When such a fault occurs, it gives rise to unsymmetrical currents i.e., the magnitude of fault
currents in the three lines are different having unequal phase displacement.
The calculation procedure known as method of symmetrical components is used to determine
the currents and voltages on the occurrence of an unsymmetrical fault.
Unsymmetrical Faults on 3-Phase System
“Those faults on the power system which give rise to unsymmetrical fault currents (i.e. unequal
fault currents in the lines with unequal phase displacement) are known as unsymmetrical
faults.”
On the occurrence of an unsymmetrical fault, the currents in the three lines become unequal
and so is the phase displacement among them.
There are three ways in which unsymmetrical faults may occur in a power system
 (L — G)
 (L — L)
 (L — L — G)

Symmetrical Components Method: any unbalanced system of 3-phase currents (or voltages)
may be regarded as being composed of three separate sets of balanced vectors
  a balanced system of 3-phase currents having positive phase sequence. called +ve phase
sequence components.
 a balanced system of 3-phase currents having the opposite or -ve phase sequence called -
ve phase sequence components.
 a system of three currents equal in magnitude and having zero phase displacement. called
zero phase sequence components
 The positive, negative and zero phase sequence components are called the symmetrical
components of the original unbalanced system.
The term ‘symmetrical’ is appropriate because the unbalanced 3-phase system has been
resolved into three sets of balanced (or symmetrical) components.
The subscripts 1, 2 and 0 are generally used to indicate positive, negative and zero phase
sequence components respectively.
For instance, IR0 indicates the zero phase sequence component of the current in the red
phase.
Similarly, IY1 implies the positive phase sequence component of current in the yellow
phase.
Similarly, IB2 implies the negative phase sequence component of current in the blue phase
 An unsymmetrical fault occurs on a 3-phase system having phase sequence RYB.
According to symmetrical components theory, the resulting unbalanced currents IR ,
As the symmetrical component theory involves the concept of 120º displacement in the positive
sequence set and negative sequence set, therefore, it is desirable to evolve some operator which
should cause 120º rotation. For this purpose, operator ‘a is used. It is defined as under :
The operator ‘a’ is one, which when multiplied to a vector rotates the vector through 120º
in the anticlockwise direction.
Consider a vector I represented by OA as shown in below fig. If this vector is multiplied
by operator ‘a’, the vector is rotated through 120º in the anticlockwise direction and assumes
the position OB.
a I = I 120º
= I (cos 120º + j sin 120º)

= I (− 0·5 + j 0·866)
a = − 0·5 + j 0·866 ... (i)
If the vector assuming position OB is multiplied by operator ‘a’, the vector is further rotated
through 120º in the anticlockwise direction and assumes the position OC.

a I = I
2
240º
= I (cos 240º + j sin 240º)
= I (− 0·5 − j 0·866)
a = − 0·5 − j 0·866 ... (ii)
2

Thus the operator ‘a2 ’ will turn the vector through 240º in the anticlockwise direction. This is
the same as turning the vector through 120º in clockwise direction.

a I = I −120º
2

Similarly a I = I 360º
3

= I (cos 360º + j sin 360º)

a = 1 ... (iii)
3

Properties of Operator ‘a’

(i) Adding exps. (i) and (ii), we get,

 a + a2 = (− 0·5 + j 0·866) + (− 0·5 − j 0·866) = −1

 1 + a + a2 = 0
(ii) Subtracting exp. (ii) from exp. (i), we get
a − a2 = (− 0·5 + j 0·866) − (− 0·5 − j 0·866) = j 1·732 a − a2 = j 3
Problem 1:
In a 3-phase, 4-wire system, the currents in R, Y and B lines under abnormal conditions of
loading are as under :
IR = 100 ∠30º A ; IY = 50 ∠300º A ; IB = 30 ∠180º A
Calculate the positive, negative and zero sequence currents in the R-line and return current in
the neutral wire.
Solution:
Let I0,I1 and I2 be the zero, positive and negative sequence currents respectively of the line
current in red line.

º]

= [ 81·6 + j 6·7]
= (27·2 + j 2·23) = 27·29 ∠4·68º A
1 2IB)
I1 = 3(IR + aIy + a

[ 100 ∠30º + 1 ∠120º × 50 ∠300º + 1 ∠−120º × 30 ∠180º]

30º + 50 ∠420º + 30 ∠60º]

[(86·6 + j 50) + (25 + j 43·3) + (15 + j 25·98)]

= (42·2 + j 39·76) = 57·98 ∠43·3º A

30º + 1 ∠−120º × 50 ∠300º + 1 ∠120º × 30 ∠180º]

30º + 50 ∠180º + 30 ∠300º]

[(86·6 + j 50) + (−50 + j 0) + (15 − j 25·98)]

= (17·2 + j 8) = 18·96 ∠24·9º A

Current in the neutral wire = IR + IY + IB = (81·6 + j 6·7) = 81·87 ∠4·7º A Yellow phase
Zero phase sequence component is
IRo = IY0 = 27·29 4·68º A
Positive phase sequence component is
IY1 = a2IR1
= 1 −120º * 57·98 43·3º
=57.98 -76.7A
=
Negative phase sequence component is
IY2 = aIR2
=1 120º * 18·96 24·9º A
=18.96 144.9A
Blue phase
Zero phase sequence component is
IRo = IB0 = 27·29 4·68º A
Positive phase sequence component is
IB1 = aIR1 1 120º * 57·98 43·3º= 57.98 163.3A
Negative phase sequence component is
IB2 = a2IR2 1 −120º * 18·96 24·9º = 18.96 -95.12A
Circuit Breakers:
NEED Of CIRCUIT BREAKER:
During the operation of power system, it is often desirable and necessary to switch on or
off the various circuits (e.g., transmission lines, distributors, generating plants etc.) under both
normal and abnormal conditions.

 In earlier days, this function used to be performed by a switch and a fuse placed in series
with the circuit.

DISADVANTAGES:

 Firstly, when a fuse blows out, it takes quite sometime to replace it and restore supply
to the customers.
Secondly, a fuse cannot successfully interrupt heavy fault currents that result from faults
on modern high-voltage and large capacity circuits.
Due to these disadvantages, the use of switches and fuses is limited to low-voltage and
small capacity circuits where frequent operations are not expected e.g., for switching and
protection of distribution transformers, lighting circuits, branch circuits of distribution lines
etc.
A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can
make or break a circuit either manually or by remote control under normal conditions
break a circuit automatically under fault conditions
make a circuit either manually or by remote control under fault conditions Thus a circuit
breaker incorporates manual (or remote control) as well as automatic control for switching
functions. The latter control employs relays and operates only under fault conditions.
A circuit breaker is an equipment which can open or close a circuit under all conditions
viz. no load, full load and fault conditions. It is so designed that it can be operated manually
(or by remote control) under normal conditions and automatically under fault conditions.
For the latter operation, a relay circuit is used with a circuit breaker.. The circuit breaker
essentially consists of moving and fixed contacts enclosed in strong metal tank and immersed
in oil, known as transformer oil
 Under normal operating conditions, the contacts remain closed and the circuit breaker
carries the full-load current continuously. In this condition, the e.m.f. in the secondary
winding of current transformer (C.T.) is insufficient to operate the trip coil of the breaker
but the contacts can be opened (and hence the circuit can be opened) by manual or remote
control.
 When a fault occurs, the resulting overcurrent in the C.T. primary winding increases the
secondary e.m.f.
 This energizes the trip coil of the breaker and moving contacts are pulled down, thus opening
the contacts and hence the circuit.
 The arc produced during the opening operation is quenched by the oil. It is interesting to
note that relay performs the function of detecting a fault whereas the circuit breaker does
the actual circuit interruption.
 When the contacts of a circuit breaker are separated under fault conditions, an arc is struck
between them. The current is thus able to continue until the discharge ceases.
 The production of arc not only delays the current interruption process but it also generates
enormous heat which may cause damage to the system or to the circuit breaker itself.

 Therefore, the main problem in a circuit breaker is to extinguish the arc within the
shortest possible time so that heat generated by it may not reach a dangerous value.
Arc Phenomenon:
 When a short-circuit occurs, a heavy current flow through the contacts of the *circuit breaker
before they are opened by the protective system. At the instant when the contacts begin to
separate, the contact area decreases rapidly and large fault current causes increased current
density and hence rise in temperature.
 The heat produced in the medium between contacts (usually the medium is oil or air) is
sufficient to ionize the air or vaporize and ionize the oil. The ionized air or vapour acts as
conductor and an arc is struck between the contacts.
 The p.d. between the contacts is quite small and is just sufficient to maintain the arc. The
arc provides a low resistance path and consequently the current in the circuit remains
uninterrupted so long as the arc persists.
 During the arcing period, the current flowing between the contacts depends upon the arc
resistance. The greater the arc resistance, the smaller the current that flows between the
contacts
Principles of Arc Extinction:
The factors responsible for the maintenance of arc between the contacts. These are :
 p.d. between the contacts
 ionized particles between contacts
 Taking these in turn,
 When the contacts have a small separation, the p.d. between them is sufficient to maintain
the arc. One way to extinguish the arc is to separate the contacts to such a distance that p.d.
becomes inadequate to maintain the arc.
 However, this method is impracticable in high voltage system where a separation of many
meters may be required.
 The ionized particles between the contacts tend to maintain the arc. If the arc path is
deionized, the arc extinction will be facilitated. This may be achieved by cooling the arc or
by bodily removing the ionized particles from the space between the contacts.
Methods of Arc Extinction
There are two methods of extinguishing the arc in circuit breakers viz.
 High resistance method.
 Low resistance or current zero method.

Classification of Circuit Breakers

There are several ways of classifying the circuit breakers. However, the most general
way of classification is on the basis of medium used for arc extinction. The medium used for
arc extinction is usually oil, air, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) or vacuum. Accordingly, circuit
breakers may be classified into :
Oil circuit breakers which employ some insulating oil (e.g., transformer oil) for arc
extinction.
Air-blast circuit breakers in which high pressure air-blast is used for extinguishing the arc.
Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breakers in which sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used for arc
extinction.
Vacuum circuit breakers in which vacuum is used for arc extinction. Each type of circuit
breaker has its own advantages and disadvantages. In the following sections, we shall discuss
the construction and working of these circuit breakers with special emphasis on the way the
arc extinction is facilitated.
Oil Circuit Breakers:
In such circuit breakers, some insulating oil (e.g., transformer oil) is used as an arc quenching
medium. The contacts are opened under oil and an arc is struck between them.
The heat of the arc evaporates the surrounding oil and dissociates it into a substantial volume
of gaseous *hydrogen at high pressure. The hydrogen gas occupies a volume about one
thousand times that of the oil decomposed. The oil is, therefore, pushed away from the arc and
an expanding hydrogen gas bubble surrounds the arc region and adjacent portions of the
contacts

The arc extinction is facilitated mainly by two processes.

Firstly, the hydrogen gas has high heat conductivity and cools the arc, thus aiding the
deionisation of the medium between the contacts.
Secondly, the gas sets up turbulence in the oil and forces it into the space between
contacts, thus eliminating the arcing products from the arc path. The result is that arc is
extinguished and circuit current †interrupted.
Mainly hydrogen gas is produced as a result of oil decomposition. However, a small percentage
of methane, ethylene and acetylene is also generated.
Types of Oil Circuit Breakers:
The oil circuit breakers find extensive use in the power system. These can be classified into the
following types :
(i) Bulk oil circuit breakers which use a large quantity of oil. The oil has to serve two purposes.
Firstly, it extinguishes the arc during opening of contacts and secondly, it insulates the current
conducting parts from one another and from the earthed tank. Such circuit breakers may be
classified into :
(a) Plain break oil circuit breakers
(b) (b) Arc control oil circuit breakers.
In the former type, no special means is available for controlling the arc and the contacts are
directly exposed to the whole of the oil in the tank.
However, in the latter type, special arc control devices are employed to get the beneficial action
of the arc as efficiently as possible.
(ii) Low oil circuit breakers which use minimum amount of oil. In such circuit breakers, oil is
used only for arc extinction; the current conducting parts are insulated by air or porcelain or
organic insulating material.

Air-Blast Breakers:
 These breakers employ a high pressure air-blast as an arc quenching medium.
 The contacts are opened in a flow of air-blast established by the opening of blast valve.
  The air-blast cools the arc and sweeps away the arcing products to the atmosphere.
 This rapidly increases the dielectric strength of the medium between contacts and
prevents from re-establishing the arc. Consequently, the arc is extinguished and flow of
current is interrupted.
Types of Air Blast Circuit Breakers
Depending upon the direction of air-blast in relation to the arc, air-blast circuit breakers are
classified into :
 Axial-blast type in which the air-blast is directed along the arc path
 Cross-blast type in which the air-blast is directed at right angles to the arc path
 Radial-blast type In which the air-blast is directed radially
Axial-blast air circuit breaker:
The fixed and moving contacts are held in the closed position by spring pressure under
normal conditions. The air reservoir is connected to the arcing chamber through an air valve.
This valve remains closed under normal conditions but opens automatically by the tripping
impulse when a fault occurs on the system.
When a fault occurs, the tripping impulse causes opening of the air valve which connects
the circuit breaker reservoir to the arcing chamber.
The high pressure air entering the arcing chamber pushes away the moving contact against
spring pressure. The moving contact is separated and an arc is struck.
At the same time, high pressure air blast flows along the arc and takes away the ionised
gases along with it. Consequently, the arc is extinguished and current flow is interrupted
Cross-blast air breaker.
 In this type of circuit breaker, an air-blast is directed at right angles to the arc. The cross-
blast lengthens and forces the arc into a suitable chute for arc extinction, the essential parts
of a typical cross-blast air circuit breaker.
 When the moving contact is withdrawn, an arc is struck between the fixed and moving
contacts. The high pressure cross-blast forces the arc into a chute consisting of arc splitters
and baffles.
 The splitters serve to increase the length of the arc and baffles give improved cooling. The
result is that arc is extinguished and flow of current is interrupted.
Since blast pressure is same for all currents, the inefficiency at low currents is eliminated. The
final gap for interruption is great enough to give normal insulation clearance so that a series

isolating switch is not necessary .

Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Circuit Breakers:
 In such circuit breakers, Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used as the arc quenching
medium. The SF6 is an electro-negative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free
electrons.
 The contacts of the breaker are opened in a high pressure flow of SF6 gas and an arc is
struck between them.
 The conducting free electrons in the arc are rapidly captured by the gas to form relatively
immobile negative ions.
 This loss of conducting electrons in the arc quickly builds up enough insulation strength to
extinguish the arc.
 The SF6 circuit breakers have been found to be very effective for high power and high
voltage service.
 In the closed position of the breaker, the contacts remain surrounded by SF6 gas at a pressure
of about 2·8 kg/cm2 .
 When the breaker operates, the moving contact is pulled apart and an arc is struck between
the contacts.
 The movement of the moving contact is synchronized with the opening of a valve which
permits SF6 gas at 14 kg/cm2 pressure from the reservoir to the arc interruption chamber.
 The high pressure flow of SF6 rapidly absorbs the free electrons in the arc path to form
immobile negative ions which are ineffective as charge carriers.
 The result is that the medium between the contacts quickly builds up high dielectric strength
and causes the extinction of the arc. After the breaker operation (i.e., after arc extinction),
the valve is closed by the action of a set of springs.
Vacuum Circuit Breakers (VCB):
In such breakers, vacuum (degree of vacuum being in the range from 10−7 to 10−5 torr)
is used as the arc quenching medium.
Since vacuum offers the highest insulating strength, it has far superior arc quenching
properties than any other medium.
For example, when contacts of a breaker are opened in vacuum, the interruption occurs at
first current zero with dielectric strength between the contacts building up at a rate thousands
of times higher than that obtained with other circuit breakers.

The production of arc in a vacuum circuit breaker and its extinction can be explained as follows
When the contacts of the breaker are opened in vacuum (10−7 to 10−5 torr), an arc is
produced between the contacts by the ionization of metal vapors of contacts*.
However, the arc is quickly extinguished because the metallic vapors, electrons and ions
produced during arc rapidly condense on the surfaces of the circuit breaker contacts, resulting
in quick recovery of dielectric strength.
As soon as the arc is produced in vacuum, it is quickly extinguished due to the fast rate of
recovery of dielectric strength in vacuum.
When the breaker operates, the moving contact separates from the fixed contact and an arc
is struck between the contacts.
The production of arc is due to the ionization of metal ions and depends very much upon
the material of contacts.
The arc is quickly extinguished because the metallic vapours, electrons and ions produced
during arc are diffused in a short time and seized by the surfaces of moving and fixed members
and shields.
Since vacuum has very fast rate of recovery of dielectric strength, the arc extinction in a
vacuum breaker occurs with a short contact separation (say 0·625 cm).
Protective Relays:
“A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the circuit
breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system”
Fundamental Requirements of Protective Relaying
Selectivity. It is the ability of the protective system to select correctly that part of the system
in trouble and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest of the system.
Speed. The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as fast as possible for the
following reasons :
(a) Electrical apparatus may be damaged if they are made to carry the fault currents for a long
time.
(b) A failure on the system leads to a great reduction in the system voltage. If the faulty section
is not disconnected quickly, then the low voltage created by the fault may shut down
consumers’ motors and the generators on the system may become unstable.
(c) The high speed relay system decreases the possibility of development of one type of fault
into the other more severe type.
Sensitivity. It is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value of actuating
quantity
Reliability. It is the ability of the relay system to operate under the pre-determined
conditions. Without reliability, the protection would be rendered largely ineffective and could
even become a liability.
Simplicity. The relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained.
Reliability is closely related to simplicity. The simpler the protection scheme, the greater will
be its reliability
Economy. The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme is the
economic aspect. As a rule, the protective gear should not cost more than 5% of total cost.
Important Terms:
Pick-up current.
It is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to operate. So long as the
current in the relay is less than the pick-up value, the relay does not operate and the breaker
controlled by it remains in the closed position.
However, when the relay coil current is equal to or greater than the pickup value, the relay
operates to energies the trip coil which opens the circuit breaker.
Current setting.
It is often desirable to adjust the pick-up current to any required value. This is known as
current setting and is usually achieved by the use of tapping on the relay operating coil. The
taps are brought out to a plug bridge. The plug bridge permits to alter the number of turns on
the relay coil.
This changes the torque on the disc and hence the time of operation of the relay. The values
assigned to each tap are expressed in terms of percentage full-load rating of C.T. with which
the relay is associated and represents the value above which the disc commences to rotate and
finally closes the trip circuit.
Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T. × Current setting
For example, suppose that an overcurrent relay having current setting of 125% is connected
to a supply circuit through a current transformer of 400/5.
The rated secondary current of C.T. is 5 amperes. Therefore, the pick-up value will be 25%
more than 5 A i.e. 5 × 1·25 = 6·25 A. It means that with above current setting, the relay will
actually operate for a relay coil current equal to or greater than 6·25 A.
The current plug settings usually range from 50% to 200% in steps of 25% for overcurrent
relays and 10% to 70% in steps of 10% for earth leakage relays.
The desired current setting is obtained by inserting a plug between the jaws of a bridge type
socket at the tap value required.
Plug-setting multiplier (P.S.M.).
It is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the pick-up current
i.e. P.S.M. = Fault current in relay coil / Pick - up current
=Fault current in relay coil /Rated secondary current of Current setting
For example, suppose that a relay is connected to a 400/5 current transformer and set at 150%.
With a primary fault current of 2400 A, the plug-setting multiplier can be calculated as under :
Pick-up value = Rated secondary current of CT × Current setting
= 5 × 1·5 = 7·5 A
Fault current in relay coil = 2400 *5/ 400 × = 30 A
P.S.M. = 30/7·5 = 4
Calculation of Relay Operating Time
In order to calculate the actual relay operating time, the following things must be known :
Time/P.S.M. curve
Current setting
Time setting
Fault current
Current transformer ratio
The procedure for calculating the actual relay operating time is as follows :
(i) Convert the fault current into the relay coil current by using the current transformer ratio.
(ii) Express the relay current as a multiple of current setting i.e. calculate the P.S.M.
(iii) From the Time/P.S.M. curve of the relay, read off the time of operation for the calculated
P.S.M.
(iv) Determine the actual time of operation by multiplying the above time of the relay by time
setting multiplier in use.
Determine the time of operation of a 5-ampere, 3-second overcurrent relay having a current
setting of 125% and a time setting multiplier of 0·6 connected to supply circuit through a 400/5
current transformer when the circuit carries a fault current of 4000 A.
Solution:
Rated secondary current of C.T. = 5 A
Pickup current = 5 × 1·25 = 6·25 A
Fault current in relay coil = 4000* 5/ 400 × = 50 A
Plug-setting multiplier (P.S.M.) = 50 /6.25 = 8
Corresponding to the plug-setting multiplier of 8 ,the time of operation is 3.5 seconds.
Actual relay operating time = 3·5 × Time-setting = 3·5 × 0·6 = 2·1 seconds
Induction Type Overcurrent Relay (non-directional):
This type of relay works on the induction principle and initiates corrective measures when
current in the circuit exceeds the predetermined value.
The actuating source is a current in the circuit supplied to the relay from a current
transformer. These relays are used on a.c. circuits only and can operate for fault current flow
in either direction

Operation.
The driving torque on the aluminium disc is set up due to the induction principle.
This torque is opposed by the restraining torque provided by the spring. Under normal
operating conditions, restraining torque is greater than the driving torque produced by the relay
coil current.
Therefore, the aluminium disc remains stationary. However, if the current in the protected
circuit exceeds the pre-set value, the driving torque becomes greater than the restraining torque.
Consequently, the disc rotates and the moving contact bridges the fixed contacts when the disc
has rotated through a pre-set angle. The trip circuit operates the circuit breaker which isolates
the faulty section.
Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay:
The directional power relay discussed above is unsuitable for use as a directional protective
relay under short-circuit conditions.
When a short-circuit occurs, the system voltage falls to a low value and there may be
insufficient torque developed in the relay to cause its operation.
This difficulty is overcome in the directional overcurrent relay which is designed to be
almost independent of system voltage and power factor
Operation.
 Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the circuit
protected by the relay.
 Therefore, directional power relay (upper element) does not operate, thereby keeping the
overcurrent element (lower element) unenergized.
 However, when a short-circuit occurs, there is a tendency for the current or power to flow
in the reverse direction. Should this happen, the disc of the *upper element rotates to
bridge the fixed contacts 1 and 2.
 This completes the circuit for overcurrent element. The disc of this element rotates and
the moving contact attached to it closes the trip circuit.
 This operates the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section. The two relay elements
are so arranged that final tripping of the current controlled by them is not made till the
following conditions are satisfied :
 current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional element.
 current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value.
 Excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time setting of overcurrent
element.
Distance or Impedance Relays:
The operation of the relays discusssed so far depended upon the magnitude of current or
power in the protected circuit.
However, there is another group of relays in which the operation is governed by the ratio
of applied voltage to current in the protected circuit. Such relays are called distance or
impedance relays.
In an impedance relay, the torque produced by a current element is opposed by the torque
produced by a voltage element.
The relay will operate when the ratio V/I is less than a predetermined value
The voltage element of the relay is excited through a potential transformer (P.T.) from the
line to be protected.
The current element of the relay is excited from a current transformer (C.T.) in series with
the line.
The portion AB of the line is the protected zone. Under normal operating conditions, the
impedance of the protected zone is ZL.
The relay is so designed that it closes its contacts whenever impedance of the protected
section falls below the pre-determined value i.e. ZL in this case.
Now suppose a fault occurs at point F1 in the protected zone. The impedance Z (= *V/I)
between the point where the relay is installed and the point of fault will be less than ZL and
hence the relay operates
Types of Protection:
When a fault occurs on any part of electric power system, it must be cleared quickly in
order to avoid damage and/or interference with the rest of the system.
It is a usual practice to divide the protection scheme into two classes viz.
primary protection
back-up protection.
Primary Protection.
It is the protection scheme which is designed to protect the component parts of the power
system.
each line has an overcurrent relay that protects the line. If a fault occurs on any line, it will
be cleared by its relay and circuit breaker.
This forms the primary or main protection and serves as the first line of defence. The
service record of primary relaying is very high with well over ninety percent of all operations
being correct.
However, sometimes faults are not cleared by primary relay system because of trouble
within the relay, wiring system or breaker. Under such conditions, back-up protection does the
required job.
Back-up protection.
It is the second line of defence in case of failure of the primary protection. It is designed
to operate with sufficient time delay so that primary relaying will be given enough time to
function if it is able to.
relay A provides back-up protection for each of the four lines. If a line fault is not cleared
by its relay and breaker, the relay A on the group breaker will operate after a definite time delay
and clear the entire group of lines.
 It is evident that when back-up relaying functions, a larger part is disconnected than when
primary relaying functions correctly.
Therefore, greater emphasis should be placed on the better maintenance of primary
relaying.
 UNIT II
POWERSYSTEMCOMPONENTS
Overhead Transmission Lines and Cables: Types of Travelling-wave Equations.
Sinusoidal Steady state representation of Lines: Short, medium and long lines. Power
Transfer, Voltage profile and Reactive Power. Characteristics of transmission lines. Surge
Impedance Loading. Series and Shunt Compensation of transmission lines.
Transformers: Vector Representation and Phase-shifts. Three-winding transformers, auto-
transformers, Neutral Grounding transformers. Tap-Changing in transformers.
Synchronous Machines: Steady-state performance characteristics. Operation when connected
to infinite bus. Real and Reactive Power Capability Curve of generators. Typical waveform
under balanced terminal short circuit conditions – steady state, transient and sub-transient
equivalent circuits.
Loads: Types, Voltage and Frequency Dependence of Loads. Per-unit System and per-unit
calculations.
Transformer Vector Group:
Definition:
The transformer vector group show the phase difference between the primary and
secondary sides of the transformer. It also determines the high voltage and low voltage
windings arrangement of three phase transformers. The three phase transformer is connected
in various ways. On the basis of connection, the vector group of the transformer is determined.
Three phase transformer is divided into four main groups according to the phase difference
between the corresponding line voltage on the high voltage side and the low voltage sides.
The phase difference is the angle by which the low voltage line lags the high line voltage, and
is measured in units of 30° in clockwise direction.
These groups are
 Group number 1 – no phase displacement Group number 2 – 180° phase
displacement.
 Group number 3 – (-30°) phase displacement.
 Group number 4 – (+ 30°) phase displacement.
The connection Y d 11 gives the following information – Y indicates that the high voltage is
connected to star and d indicates the low voltage is connected in delta.
The 11 indicates that the low line voltage lag, high line voltage by 11 Χ 30° = 330° measured
from higher voltage phasor in a clockwise direction.
 The phasor differences can also be measured by using the clock methods. Consider the
minute hand of the clock shown the high voltage and the low voltage winding is
represented by the hour hand.
 The angle of 30° is the angle between two adjacent figures on the clock dial and is taken
as the unit of dial shift.

 When the hour hand of the clock is at 12, then the phase displacement is zero. When
the hour hand is at 1 then the phase shift -30° degree. At 6 the phase shift is 6 Χ 30º =
180º. Similarly, when the hour hand is at 11 the phase shift is 11 Χ 30º =330º.
 The number 0, 6, 1, and 11 in the group reference number indicates the primary to
secondary phase shift regarding the hours of the clock.
 The connection designated by D y 11 is the delta-star transformer in which the low
voltage line phasor is at 11 and is a phase advanced of +30° on the corresponding line
voltage on the high voltage side.
Note: The only transformer in the same group may be connected in parallel. For example, a
star-star, 3-phase transformers can be parallel with another three phase transformer whose
windings are either connected in Y-Y or ∆-∆. The ∆-∆ transformer cannot be parallel with Y-
∆ transformer.
Phase Shift in Star Delta Transformer
The phase shift is the angular displacement between the maximum positive value of the
alternating quantities having the same frequency.
In other words, the angular displacement between high voltage and the low voltage
terminal and the corresponding neutral points (real or imaginary), expressed with reference to
high voltage side is known as phase displacement (or shift) of the transformer.
 There is no phase shift between the star-star and delta-delta 3-phase transformer. Most
of the power transformer is either star-delta or delta star connected.
 In such type of transformers, even in the normal operating condition, the phase-tophase
voltages and phase-to-neutral voltage of high voltage side are displaced from the
corresponding voltage of low voltage side. Similarly the current on the two sides are
displaced.
 Considered 3-phase star-delta transformer with primary side Y-connected and
secondary with delta-connected as shown in the figure below. The polarity markings
are indicated on each phase. The dots on the windings indicate the terminals which are
positive at the same time on the undottedd terminals.
  The phases on the star sides are marked as A, B, C and the phases on the delta side are
marked as a, b, c.
 The labelling is indicated to the diagram corresponding to + 90º connections in which
the positive sequences on the delta side is lead by 90º corresponding to star side.
 Thus, the lines currents flow through the phase a and A. The alternating way is to label
delta as b→a, c→b and a→c; Thus we get a standard yd , -30º connection.
 If the polarities on the delta side are also reversed, we have standard yd , 30º connection.
 The y are used for line-to-line voltage, and yd are used for line currents and phase (line-
to-neutral) voltage. Line-to-line transformation ratio is being taken to be unity.
 The positive and negative sequence voltages on the primary (star) and secondary (delta)
sides of the transformer are shown below.
 When the power flow is reversed, and the delta of the transformer acts as primary and
star act as secondary, then the voltage phasor does not change, but all the current phasor
are reverse.

Thus, the magnitude of phase shift is same for positive and negative sequence component.
The direction of phase shift is in the case of negative phase sequence is the reverse of that
applies to the positive phase sequence component (due to reverse phase sequence).

The magnitude and direction of phase shift depend on the transformer group and allocation
of phase references. The phase shift of zero sequence quantities needs not to be considered in
star-delta transformer because the zero sequence currents do not flow in lines on the delta-
connected side.
Tap-changing Transformers
The change of voltage is affected by changing the numbers of turns of the transformer provided
with taps. For sufficiently close control of voltage, taps are usually provided on the high voltage
windings of the transformer. There are two types of tap-changing transformers.
 Off-load tap changing transformer
 On-load tap changing transformer
Off-load tap-changing transformer
In this method, the transformer is disconnected from the main supply when the tap
setting is to be changed. The tap setting is usually done manually.
On-Load Tap-Changing Transformer
Definition: The transformer which is not disconnected from the main supply when the tap
setting is to be changed such type of transformer in known as onload tap changing transformer.
 The tap setting arrangement is mainly used for changing the turn ratio of the transformer
to regulate the system voltage while the transformer is delivering the load.
 The main feature of an on-load tap changer is that during its operation the main circuit
of the switch should not be opened. Thus, no part of the switch should get the short
circuit.
 In tap changing transformer different types of an impedance circuit are used for limiting
the current during the operation of a tap changing.
 The impedance circuit may be resistor or reactor type, and by the impedance circuit,
the tap changer can be classified as the resistor and reactor type.
 Nowadays the current limiting is carried out by using a pair of resistors.
Needs For Tapping
 Frequently change in load changes the voltage of the system. The tap changing in the
power transformer is mainly done for keeping the output voltage within the prescribed
limit. Nowadays almost all the large power transformer is provided with on-load tap
changer.
 On-Load Tap Changing Using a Reactor
 The other type of on-load tap changer is provided with a centre tapped reactor as shown
in the figure below. The function of the reactor is to prevent the short circuit of the tap
winding.
 During the normal operation, the short-circuiting switches S remains closed. The
reactor prevents the flow of large values of current in any section of the primary
winding when two tapping switches are closed simultaneously.
 For understanding the applications of the on-load tap changer consider that the tapping
switches are closed and the output voltage is minimized.
For raising the output voltage, the short-circuiting switch S is opened, the second tapping
switch is closed, and the first tapping switch is opened, and finally the short-circuit switch is
closed.
When the short-circuiting switch is in the open position, and the two tapping switches are
in closed position, the reactor is shunted between the two tapping position of the transformer
windings. But the large circulating current is not established on account of its high reactance.
The line current is not affected by this reactance because the current is equally divided and
flows in the opposite direction in the two halves of the reactor. The reactor carries the full
current when only the one switch is closed.
The sliding contacts are so attached at the end of the reactor that makes one before other
breaks and in normal operating condition both contact touches the same tapping stud.
Usually, the tapping is located at the midway between the end turn of the winding to prevent
the surge voltages for getting into the load ratio control elements.
Neutral Grounding
In neutral grounding system, the neutral of the system or rotating system or transformer is
connected to the ground.
The neutral grounding is an important aspect of power system design because the performance
of the system regarding short circuits, stability, protection, etc., is greatly affected by the
condition of the neutral.
A three phase system can be operated in two possible ways
With ungrounded neutral
With a grounded neutral
Ungrounded Neutral System
In an ungrounded neutral system, the neutral is not connected to the grounded. In other
words, the neutral is isolated from the ground. Therefore, this system is also known the isolated
neutral system or free neutral system
Grounded System
In neutral grounding system, the neutral of the system is connected to the ground. Because of
the problems associated with ungrounded neutral systems, the neutrals are grounded in most of
the high-voltage systems.
Some of the advantages of neutral grounding are as follows
1.Voltages of phases are limited to the line-to-ground voltages.
2.Surge voltage due to arcing grounds is eliminated.
3.The overvoltages due to lightning discharged to ground.
4.It provides greater safety to personnel and equipment.
5.It provides improved service reliability.
Method Of Neutral Grounding
The methods commonly used for grounding the system neutral are
1.Solid grounding (or effective grounding)
2.Resistance Grounding
3.Reactance Grounding
4.Peterson-coil grounding (or resonant groundings)
Electrical power system loads are classified into a different category:
A device which taps electrical energy from the electric power system is called a load on the
system.
The load may be resistive (e.g., electric lamp), inductive (e.g., induction motor), capacitive or
some combination of them.
The various types of loads on the power system are
Residential Loads
Commercial Loads
Industrial Loads
Agricultural Loads
Municipal Loads
Traction Loads
Residential Loads:
  Residential load uses electrical energy for doing residential works like home
appliances, lighting load. Residential load are uncertain, they vary with time of day. At
morning and evening, residential load are at peak values. Load curve of the residential
load.
 These loads are mainly light fan, domestic appliances like computer, fridge, heater,
micro oven, irons, dryer, air conditioning equipment. Residential loads are about 10%
to 14% of the total power supplied by the power system.
 The main reasons for variation in residential load are city population, per capita income,
development, urbanization, living style of people, environment condition.
 Residential loads also affected by weather condition, like in winter season less electrical
energy consumed for the cooling system but in summer consumption is more.
Residential loads face fluctuations during hours of days.
Commercial Loads:

Commercial loads occur for longer period compare to residential loads. This types of
loads are mainly electrical energy utilize for commercial shops, school, colleges, advertising,
hoardings, malls, elevator, cinema halls etc.
Commercial load fluctuations are mainly due to switching of air-conditioning
equipment. These loads vary more depending upon the season.

Industrial Loads:
  Industrial loads have constant demand and consider as base loads. Commercial loads
are little affected by seasonal variations and weather conditions.
 This loads mainly include industrial appliances like motor, furnaces, cranes, industrial
lighting, computers, elevators, pumps.
 Industrial loads utilize more electrical energy supplied by the utility. This load does not
vary with seasonal change having constant demand throughout the day.
Agricultural loads :

Agricultural types of loads use electrical energy for doing agriculture activities.
Agricultural loads mainly include irrigation pumps, lights, water pumps.
Agricultural load varies with time. Load factor is generally taken as 15%22%Agricultural loads
affected due to seasons, environment, weather change.
This loads mostly switched on during morning and evening. From the above load duration
curve, we can see that agricultural loads switched on during the morning and in the evening
time.
Municipal Loads :
Municipal loads consist of street lights, electricity required for water supply pumps and
drainage system. for water supply water is pumped to the overhead tank using electric pump,
overhead water tank pumping is carried out during off-peak time. like during night time. its
improve load factor of power system.
Traction Loads :
This types of loads mainly include trains, traction loads has wide variation. during
morning hours it reaches peak value and during afternoon loads starts decreasing and again
rises to peak value during evening time.
Per Unit System:
 For the analysis of electrical machines or electrical machine system, different values
are required, thus, per unit system provides the value for voltage, current, power,
impendence, and admittance.
 The Per Unit System also makes the calculation easier as all the values are taken in the
same unit. The per-unit system is mainly used in the circuit where variation in voltage
occurs.
Definition:
 The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value in any unit to
the base or reference value in the same unit. Any quantity is converted into per unit
quantity by dividing the numeral value by the chosen base value of the same dimension.
The per-unit value is dimensionless.

The base values can be selected arbitrarily. It is usual to assume the base values as given below
Base voltage = rated voltage of the machine
Base current = rated current of the machine
Base impedance = base voltage /base current
Base power = base voltage x base current
Firstly the value of base power and the base voltage are selected, and their choice automatically
fixes the

other base values. As

Putting the value of base current from the equation (1) in equation (2) we get

Putting the value of base current from the equation (1) in the equation (3) we get
 Now,
Putting the value of base impedance from the equation (4) in the equation (5) we will get the
value of impedance per unit

Advantages of Per Unit System

 There are mainly two advantages of using the Per Unit System.
 The parameters of the rotating electrical machines and the transformer lie roughly in
the same range of numerical values, irrespective of their ratings if expressed in a per-
unit system of ratings.
 It relieves the analyst of the need to refer circuit quantities to one or the other side of
the transformer, making the calculations easy.
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