Private Forests Tasmania

Blackwood
Info Sheet No. 1 - Overview

This series on Blackwood has five parts. Each part can be read individually or as part of the
series.

1. Overview
2. Establishment
3. Pruning Regime
4. Thinning Regime
5. Labour Estimates

OVERVIEW
Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) is native to Australia. It is one of the largest and longest
lived of the Acacias. It occurs throughout most of Tasmania and much of eastern Australia,
from south-eastern South Australia to northern Queensland. Blackwood tolerates a wide
range of soil types and rainfall zones. On dry, exposed sites with poor soils and low rainfall it
can form a small shrub with no commercial value. On high quality sheltered sites with high
rainfall it can form large commercial timber trees up to 40m in height and 1.5m in diameter.
Native blackwood can be found growing in a wide range of environmental conditions,
however, high quality commercial timber trees develop in the following forest types.

Blackwood Swamps
• Located in northwest Tasmania, these relatively flat, low lying areas are not true swamps,
but are seasonally flooded with slow moving oxygenated water. During summer and
autumn the soil profile is relatively dry.
• Prolific regeneration from ground stored seed occurs following wildfire or logging. The
competing vegetation is particularly dense in tea-tree and paperbark species, resulting in
intense competition for light. Under such conditions, blackwood usually forms a straight,
single stem with little branch development.
• As height growth of the competing vegetation slows, blackwood expands its crowns and
becomes dominant, forming high quality timber trees.

Wet Eucalypt Forests

• These forest types are common in Tasmania and southern Victoria and are dominated
by large eucalypts such as Eucalyptus regnans and Eucalyptus obliqua.
• Prolific regeneration occurs following wildfire or logging. Blackwood forms part of the
understorey, competing for light with other understorey species such as dogwood
(Pomaderris apetala).
• It is the competing understorey species, rather than the eucalypts, that results in good
stem form and little branch development in the blackwood. The dominant eucalypts,
however, compete for resources resulting in relatively slow growth of the blackwood.

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BLACKWOOD PLANTATIONS
Blackwood plantations have been planted in several countries, including Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa, Chile and China, with most planting and associated research
occurring since the early 1980s.1 To date, limited success has been achieved with blackwood
plantations in Australia, primarily due to inappropriate planting designs and a lack of
management of associated nurse crops.

It is estimated that there are approximately 3,000 ha of blackwood in New Zealand.1 The
New Zealand resource is variable, ranging from unmanaged stands with little commercial
value to high quality plantations with excellent prospects for commercial return. Forest
Research of New Zealand and some private landowners have demonstrated effective
management regimes for producing high quality blackwood in plantations. Although nurse
crops have been utilised with success by some landowners, Forest Research has
demonstrated how an intensive pruning regime can produce trees of acceptable form
without planting a nurse crop.

GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS & PLANTATIONS - Growth, Form & Environment

• When open grown, or growing with other species that do not result in intense competition
for light, blackwood usually branches heavily, with resulting poor form and little or no
commercial value.
• Planting species such as tea-tree, paper bark or dogwood in a plantation to induce
acceptable form and self-pruning of the blackwood, as occurs in native forests, is not
feasible due to the excessive number of seedlings that would be required.
• When grown in plantations, form pruning and clearwood pruning are required to produce
trees with acceptable form and knot-free, clearwood timber.

Artificial Nurse Crops

• The most common plantation regime in Australia has been to plant blackwood with an
artificial nurse crop of faster growing species such as Eucalyptus nitens or Pinus radiata.
• These species do not eliminate the need for form and clearwood pruning. They out-
compete the blackwood for resources relatively early in the rotation, particularly for
moisture and light, resulting in suppression of the blackwood. Plantation failure has been
a common outcome.
• Success with such regimes has been achieved where the nurse crop has been thinned
appropriately.

Pure Blackwood
• In some instances, blackwood can be found in almost pure native forest stands. Form is
usually poor, with multiple stems and leaders. High stocking and little ability to self-thin
results in relatively tall trees and slow diameter growth.
• Pure blackwood plantations established at high stockings of ~2,500 stems/ha have been
successful. High stockings do not improve tree form. Rather, a high stocking of pure
blackwood provides a greater selection ratio from which trees of acceptable form may
be selected.
• Thinning is required to enable adequate diameter growth. At high stockings, the cost of
thinning and removal of the slash can be prohibitive, as slash removal is required for
access and to reduce the fire risk.
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WOOD PROPERTIES
Blackwood is considered one of the world's great decorative timbers1. It is a medium density
hardwood species. Density increases with age and is not influenced by growth rate. It has
moderate durability, although it is not suitable for in-ground use or situations where it is
exposed to the weather. Shrinkage upon drying is low, with good stability in use. Working
properties are considered to be excellent, although highly figured grain can cause problems
during machining. It is relatively easy to saw with portable mills and air-dry on farm, with
little or no degrade.

Heartwood
Considerable variation exists in heartwood colour, varying from almost yellow to reddish-
brown to almost black. Such variation can sometimes occur even within the same tree. This
variation in colour causes some problems for manufacturers in matching timber. Some
have used the natural colour variation as a visual and marketing tool for finished products.
Colour variation has been attributed to1:
• Genetics (this appears to be the dominant influence).
• Site (the influence of site is uncertain at this stage).
• Growth Rate (studies in New Zealand have indicated no relation between growth rate
and heartwood colour).
Occasionally, attractive grain patterns such as fiddleback or birdseye occur, and are
believed to be genetically influenced. The sapwood is usually white and is not considered
suitable for most end uses.

Heartwood Percentage
The width of the sapwood band and the percentage of heartwood can greatly influence the
sawn recovery of valuable heartwood. Considerable variation in heartwood percentage can
occur between trees. There are reports that a greater percentage of heartwood develops
when growing in moist, well-drained organic soils. Heartwood percentage is likely to
increase with age. Reports from one stand in New Zealand indicate 20-30% heartwood for
19 and 20 year old trees, while 32 year old trees from the same location had 70-90%
heartwood1.

END USES
Knot-free clearwood is used for various high-value end uses. Lower grade timber is rarely
used for high-value end uses, although it can be utilised for firewood and pulpwood.

• Furniture • Panelling
• Cabinet making • Turning and carving
• Veneers • Musical instruments
• Flooring • Billiard tables
• Steam bending • Gun stocks

PESTS & DISEASES

Although blackwood has relatively few pests and disease, some problems can be expected.
To date, damage in Tasmanian plantations has been caused by:

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• Browsing - Rabbits, hares, wallabies, possums and domestic livestock can cause
establishment failures unless adequate browsing control is undertaken. Cows can
damage mature blackwood through bark stripping, with subsequent decay of the
underlying timber.
• Psyllids - Small insects that feed on the phloem (sap) in the growing shoots. Black sooty
mould (fungi) is associated with sugars that accumulate on the young trees following
infestation by psyllids. Sooty mould is more common on trees that are exposed to strong
wind. Psyllids are a common cause of reduced vigour and poor form, resulting in multi-
leadering. They can be controlled with insecticides but the cost and time is prohibitive.
• Cicadas - Female cicadas place their eggs in small branches and stems, causing obvious
herringbone scars. There are no known control methods.
• Wattle Grubs - These are the larvae of the Wattle goat moth. Eggs are laid on the bark
surface and once the grubs develop, enter the tree through points of damage such as
damaged bark or poor quality pruning wounds. Trees that are under stress may be more
susceptible, such as suppressed trees or those planted in dry, exposed situations. Grubs
tunnel through the wood, leaving holes ~10mm in diameter before emerging as the adult
moth. The recommended defence against Wattle grubs is to prune branches before they
become too large, ensure quality pruning cuts, maintain good diameter growth to ensure
rapid occlusion and avoid bark damage from pruning ladders. Good site selection and
appropriate thinning of the nurse crop (if utilised) to prevent suppression and tree stress
is recommended.
• Heart Rot Fungi - Occasional tree death has occurred in plantations in Australia and New
Zealand. Armillaria is thought to be responsible1, with extensive decay spreading
throughout the tree. No method of control is known.

SITE REQUIREMENTS
While blackwood grows in a range of soil types and rainfall zones, the growing of
commercial blackwood in plantations requires careful site selection.

Shelter
This is the most important factor to successful growth. Blackwood requires shelter from
wind to enable rapid growth and adequate form. Locations that provide natural shelter
such as gullies, lower valley slopes and adjacent vegetation are desirable. Shelterbelts can
also be incorporated to increase available shelter.

Temperature & Elevation

The warmer the environment, the greater the growth rate, provided adequate moisture is
available. Higher elevation induces colder temperatures and a shorter growing season. As
a general rule, elevations up to 500m may be adequate, provided they are sheltered and
relatively frost-free. The best growth will occur at low elevations near the coast where the
climate is relatively mild.

Moisture
Adequate moisture is required for sustained growth, particularly during the drier months.
Locations with an annual rainfall of at least 1,000mm are recommended. Increased
moisture is usually available near watercourses, gullies and lower valley slopes. Dry,
exposed ridges should be avoided.
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Soil Type
Soils with good drainage that retain moisture are required for sustained growth. Swampy
ground with poorly oxygenated water must be avoided. Tertiary basalt soil is usually ideal,
and is representative of typical locations on farms where commercial blackwood can be
grown.

Frost
Sites that experience severe frost should be avoided. As a general rule, the higher the
elevation the greater the chance of experiencing severe frost. Some low elevation sites can
also experience frosts, particularly sites where cold air drainage is inhibited, such as valleys
and locations where native vegetation can accumulate cold air.

Existing Vegetation
Ex-pasture sites are ideal, as weed control is usually relatively easy, with little regrowth of
woody weeds to hinder access and growth of the blackwood. Ex-forest sites often have
regrowth of woody weeds following establishment. This regrowth, with a deeper root
system than pasture grasses, can provide on-going competition with the blackwood for
moisture during the summer months, slowing growth.

Watercourses
Whilst planting along previously cleared watercourses is possible, commercial harvest within
streamside reserves may be subject to restriction under The Forest Practices Code.
Farmers should contact Private Forests Tasmania or a Forest Practices Officer if unsure how
the Code may impact upon potential harvesting.

PROVENANCE (Seed Source)

With a wide natural distribution, blackwood seed can be sourced from a large number of
provenances (geographic regions) some of which may have superior attributes for
plantations. To date, relatively little is known about superior seed attributes. Higher
elevation north west Tasmanian provenances are more frost tolerant than low elevation
north west provenances2 and high altitude north east provenances. Higher elevation
provenances are slower growing. Queensland provenances perform poorly in southern
regions. Trials established in Victoria and New Zealand indicate that some Victorian and
Tasmanian (Smithton) provenances are the better performers with respect to growth rate
and form. 1 At this stage, local provenances are recommended. If collecting seed from the
local area, select from 2 vigorous, healthy, well-formed trees. If ordering seedlings through a
nursery, ask what provenances of seed they have available and where possible, match the
selected provenance to the planting site. Attributes to consider include soil type, elevation,
temperature and proximity of the seed source to the planting site. If unsure, select 2-3
provenances and record where they are planted for future reference.

FINAL STOCKING & ROTATION LENGTH

Research from New Zealand suggests a final stocking of approximately 200 stems per
hectare to produce trees with a diameter of ~60cm at breast height by age 35. On high
quality sites in Tasmania, the rotation 1 length is anticipated to be 35-40 years. It may be
possible to undertake commercial thinning from age 30 onwards.
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Stocking levels significantly less than 200 stems per ha will enable greater diameter growth
and shorten the rotation. However, total volume production per hectare will be less. In New
Zealand, trees with diameters of 50-60cm have been grown within 20 years. Timber quality
from such fast grown trees is uncertain.

Stockings significantly more than 200 stems per ha will reduce diameter growth, resulting in
smaller diameter trees at age 35-40, or a significantly longer rotation to achieve adequate
diameter. Processors prefer larger diameter logs with a small end diameter of at least
40cm. Smaller diameter trees usually 1incur greater processing costs and provide less
recovery, reducing stumpage to the grower.

SUMMARY
• High quality commercial blackwood sourced from native forest results from intense
competition for light.
• Blackwood plantations have been established in several countries, with varying success.
• Form and clearwood pruning are required in plantations, regardless of the regime.
• Artificial nurse crops can be successful, provided they are managed appropriately.
• Blackwood is accepted as a high quality timber, with various end uses.
• Pests and diseases can be expected in plantations. Appropriate siting and management
usually minimises their impact.
• Blackwood can be grown in a wide range of environments. For commercial timber
production, warm, moist, sheltered sites with minimal frosts and fertile, well-drained soils
are recommended.
• Seed should be sourced from local provenances, with seed collected from vigorous well-
formed trees, or from a provenance that is matched to the site.
• A final stocking of 200 stems per hectare is recommended.
• Rotations of 35-40 years are anticipated for high quality sites.

REFERENCE
1
Nicholas, I. & Brown, I., (2002). Blackwood: A Handbook for Growers and Users. Forest
Research Bulletin 225, New Zealand Forest Research Institute Limited.

2
Neilson, W.A. & Brown, D.R., (1997). 'Growth and silviculture of Acacia melanoxylon
plantations in Tasmania', Tasforests, Vol. 9, pp. 51-70, Forestry Tasmania.

This information has been prepared by Private Forests Tasmania. Every reasonable endeavor has been used to ensure that
the material was accurate at the time of publication. However, Private Forests Tasmania takes no responsibility for the
accuracy, completeness or relevance of such information or for matters arising from changed circumstances or information or
material which may have become available subsequently. This information is introductory in nature and should not be treated
as a substitute for specific advice or relied on as a basis for business decisions. Before undertaking any significant forestry
project it is recommended that you seek personal professional advice directly from a forestry professional on the particular
matter.

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