EDFO 111: HISTORY OF EDUCATION

HISTORY
It is a record of past events or what happens in the past or All past human experience.
EDUCATION:
 It is a process of acquiring knowledge, values attitudes and skills that enable one to live.
 Education is a lifelong process which is acquired from birth to death.
HISTORY OF EDUCATION
 History of education is the study of the past education systems, theories, ideas and practices
that influence political, scientific, economic, technical and cultural heritage.
IMPORTANCE/AIMS OF STUDYING HISTORY OF EDUCATION
 Improving the quality of education and strengthening professional competence: By
studying the history of education, educators can learn from past successes and failures,
enabling them to make informed decisions and implement effective teaching strategies. This
enhances the overall quality of education and boosts the professional competence of teachers.
 Understanding our education system better: Exploring the history of education provides
insights into the evolution and development of educational systems, policies, and practices.
This understanding helps educators navigate the complexities of the current education system
more effectively.
 Making comparisons with historical perspective: Comparing current educational practices
with historical ones allows educators to assess progress, identify trends, and recognize areas
for improvement. This historical perspective informs decision-making and encourages
innovation in education.
 Exposing individuals to knowledge in other disciplines: The history of education often
intersects with various disciplines such as sociology, psychology, and philosophy. Studying
this history exposes individuals to a diverse range of knowledge, enriching their understanding
of education from interdisciplinary perspectives.
 Developing powers of thinking: Analyzing historical events and trends in education fosters
critical thinking skills. It encourages individuals to question assumptions, evaluate evidence,
and form reasoned opinions, thereby enhancing their intellectual capacities.
 Acquisition of knowledge on policy formation and decision making: Understanding the
history of education provides insights into the processes of policy formation and decision-

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 making in education. By studying past policies and their consequences, educators can make
more informed decisions and contribute to the development of effective educational policies
in the future.

SCOPE OF HISTORY OF EDUCATION

 Historical Evolution of Educational Systems: This includes examining how educational
systems have evolved throughout history, from ancient civilizations to modern times.
 Historical Figures in Education: This area focuses on the lives and contributions of
influential educators, reformers, and thinkers throughout history. For example, the works
of figures like John Dewey, Maria Montessori, and Paulo Freire have had a lasting impact
on educational practices
 The scope includes the description and analysis of both the formal and informal aspects of
education.
 Cultural and Social Context: This involves examining the influence of social, political,
economic, and cultural factors on educational practices and policies.
 Pedagogical Approaches: The history of education examines different pedagogical
methods and approaches employed in different historical periods and their effectiveness in
achieving educational goals.
EDUCATION AND EARLY MAN CIVILIZATION
Aspects of Education of Early Man
1. Oral Tradition: Spoken word were to pass knowledge and stories across generations through
elders and experienced community members.
2. Learning through Observation: Vital skills were learned by watching and participating in
daily activities.
3. Cultural and Spiritual Education: Education involved passing on cultural and spiritual
aspects, such as beliefs and traditions intertwined with community life.
4. Socialization: Education was closely tied to teaching social norms and customs, ensuring
community cohesion and survival.
5. Trial and Error: Learning was by experimenting with different techniques and retaining
successful methods while unsuccessful ones were abandoned.

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6. Mentorship: Experienced community members served as mentors, teaching skills like
hunting, making tools e.t.c to the younger individuals.
7. Storytelling: Narratives, including myths and stories were used to convey important lessons,
morals, and cultural knowledge.

THE EGYPTIANS CIVILIZATION

Factors that contributed to Egypt’s civilization.
1. Writing System: The hieroglyphic writing system and later the hieratic script allowed for
record-keeping, communication, and the preservation of knowledge.
2. Centralized Government: The centralized government, with a powerful pharaoh, ensured
political stability and effective resource management.
3. Educational and Intellectual Centers: Centers of learning and knowledge, such as the
Library of Alexandria, played a significant role in advancing various fields of science and
scholarship.
4. Advanced Architecture: The ancient Egyptians developed advanced architectural techniques,
including the construction of monumental structures like the pyramids and temples.
5. Religion and Culture: Egypt's religious beliefs and cultural practices played a significant role
in shaping the civilization, with the construction of monumental temples, pyramids, and a well-
defined pantheon (collection of gods or deities) of gods
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN EDUCATION
Educational Aims
Egyptian Education aimed at:
 Maintaining social stability and status quo – education was aimed at maintaining social
stability and hierarchy by slotting individuals into their respective social, political, and
economic roles.
 Producing professionals and work oriented people. It was practical, technical and
professional and sought to produce professionals and work oriented personnel.
 Advancing agriculture with complex irrigation and flood control networks –Egyptian
education focused on practical skills, leading to advanced farming techniques like irrigation
and flood control. This made Egypt a major food producer for the world.

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 Promoting and enhance a religious view of the world. Egyptian education focused on
polytheistic religion, teaching morals and devotion to gods for this life and the next. It
included religious and philosophical studies to match society's beliefs.
Contributions of Egyptians Education to Modern Civilization
Egyptian education made several significant contributions to modern civilization:
1. Foundations of Formal Education: The Egyptians created formal schools like temples,
colleges, and universities, which inspired modern education systems.
2. Use of Literature and Teaching Methods: Egypt used stories, sayings, and moral lessons in
literature to teach, influencing today's teaching methods.
3. Mathematical Advancements: The Egyptian method of multiplication had a lasting impact
and was used in parts of Eastern Europe and Asia, contributing to the development of
mathematical concepts and techniques.
4. Medical Knowledge: Egyptian knowledge of physiology, surgery, and blood circulation, as
well as the invention of the Hippocratic Oath, shaped the foundations of modern medicine and
medical ethics.
5. Hieroglyphics and Writing Materials: Hieroglyphics and papyrus paper influenced writing
and documentation, helping modern record-keeping.
6. Influence on Architecture and Art: Egyptian architecture influenced modern building
practices, and their art inspired contemporary painting and sculpture.
7. Contribution to Science and Technology: Egypt's advances in engineering, agriculture, and
more formed the basis for later Western science and technology.

THE ANCIENT GREECE EDUCATION

Greek education evolved over time, with two distinct eras:

Education in Sparta (old type)

 The city-state of Sparta was situated in the middle of a hostile conquered people who greatly
outnumbered the Spartans.
 Due to this, the main objective of Spartan education was to produce warriors for the survival
of society.

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 It was designed to instil and develop obedience and loyalty in Spartan youth and was highly
paternalistic.

The Content
1. Gymnastics and Paramilitary: Emphasized gymnastics and paramilitary training for
physical fitness and military skills.
2. Music: Aimed to instill moral values and promote a war-oriented mindset in alignment
with Sparta's martial focus.
3. Dance: Included to enhance physical strength and vigor rather than entertainment.
4. Reading and Writing: there were some reading and writing though it received minimal
attention
Aims of Spartan Education
1. To promote total subordination and obedience to the state: The goal was to ensure that
citizens placed the interests of the state above their personal desires or ambitions, fostering
a strong sense of civic duty.
2. To promote total discipline, courage, physical fitness, and perseverance: Spartan
education was dedicated to molding individuals into disciplined, courageous, physically
fit, and persevering citizens.
3. To produce warrior soldiers for the defense of the city: The state prioritized military
preparedness to ensure the city's safety and dominance in the region.
4. Maintaining social stability: By teaching discipline and obedience, education contributed
to a stable, ordered, and predictable social structure.
5. To restrain individualism and any ideas inconsistent with the state's interests: Spartan
education discouraged individualism and any beliefs or ideas that contradicted the values
and interests defined by the state.
Impact of the Spatan Education to Modern Education
1. Physical Fitness and Character Development: Spartan education emphasized physical
fitness, similar to modern systems promoting well-being and character development with
values like discipline, perseverance, and courage.

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2. Military and Leadership Training: While modern education doesn't create soldiers like
Sparta, institutions like military academies provide leadership and military skills training,
partly inspired by Spartan education.
3. Collective Responsibility and Civic Duty: Spartan education stressed civic duty and loyalty
to the state, similar to modern education's focus on civic responsibility, patriotism, and
community contributions.
4. Gender Roles: Spartan education trained both boys and girls physically, whereas modern
education promotes gender equality and balanced opportunities for all.
5. State Control: In Sparta, the state controlled education; similarly, many countries have state-
controlled education systems setting standards and curricula.
Education in Athens (new type)
The New Greek education was state-regulated but emphasized individual fulfillment and freedom.
It was scientific, prioritizing science over theology, aiming to promote democracy and free
reflection. Both physical and intellectual excellence were valued, with citizens having the freedom
to arrange their children's education.
Aims of Education in Athens
1. Promote the concept of a good life by teaching moral values and emphasizing their
importance.
2. Preparing the youth for both peace and war, emphasizing usefulness of their education.
3. Advocating for the development of democratic individuals, nurturing active citizens.
4. Producing all-round individuals by fostering physical, spiritual, mental, and intellectual
development.
5. Producing a society that was liberal, controlled, and intelligent by emphasizing the importance
of a well-rounded and thoughtful citizenry.
Curricula Content
1. Physical Education (Gymnastics): Gymnastics, which included exercises, sports, and
athletics, aimed to produce physically fit and disciplined citizens.
2. Music and the Arts: Emphasis was on playing instruments, and singing. These activities were
seen as essential for the development of character and cultural refinement.

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3. Rhetoric and Oratory: Students learned the art of public speaking and debate through the
study of rhetoric and oratory to improve ability to speak persuasively for participating in
democratic processes.
4. Literature and Poetry: Study of classical Greek literature, including poets and playwrights.
Reading and analyzing literary works was an integral part of education.
5. Mathematics: Basic mathematics, geometry, and arithmetic were taught to students, although
the level of mathematical education varied depending on the individual's future pursuits.
6. Philosophy: Athens was home to great philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Philosophy was often a part of the education of the intellectual elite. Students engaged in
discussions on moral, ethical, and philosophical issues.
7. History and Politics: Students learned about the city's democratic institutions and the
historical events that shaped Athenian society.
8. Ethics and Morality: Students were taught about virtues, ethics, and moral values to help
them become responsible citizens.
9. Practical Skills: Depending on their family background and social class, students might
receive vocational training or apprenticeships in areas like agriculture, craftsmanship, or trade.

Method of Teaching
1. Simple Memorization: The process of learning and remembering information or facts by
heart.
2. Recitation: Verbally repeating or rehearsing information, often from memory or a written text.
3. Singing: The act of vocalizing musical notes and lyrics, often as a form of artistic expression
or cultural practice.

Impact of the Education in Athens to Modern Education

1. Well-Rounded Education: Athenian education emphasized holistic development,
influencing modern education systems that value physical, intellectual, and moral growth.
2. Arts and Humanities: The emphasis on arts and literature in Athens has left a mark on
modern curricula, highlighting the importance of the humanities.
3. Rhetoric and Communication Skills: Athenian focus on effective communication
parallels modern education's emphasis on public speaking and communication skills.

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 4. Philosophical Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Athenian education's encouragement of
critical thinking aligns with the modern educational goal of promoting deep thinking and
questioning.
5. Historical and Civic Education: Similar to modern civics education, Athenian education
included teaching about history and governance principles, fostering civic engagement.

EDUCATION IN ANCIENT EUROPE

Medieval Education and Universities
Medieval education in Europe, which spanned roughly from the 5th to the 15th century, was
primarily influenced by the Christian Church and the need to educate clergy. During this period,
education was primarily provided by religious institutions, and the foundation for the modern
university system was established.
The Forces behind the Rise of Universities
Among the forces or influences that produced universities were;
1. Ecclesiastical Authority: The dominant role of the Christian Church and the demand for
educated clergy led to the establishment of early universities.
2. Demand for Educated Professionals: The growing need for non-clergy professionals, such
as lawyers and doctors, created a demand for higher education to prepare individuals for these
roles.
3. Urbanization and Wealth: The growth of prosperous cities became hubs for education and
knowledge, providing a fertile ground for universities to thrive.
4. Revival of Learning: A renewed interest in classical knowledge and the works of Greek and
Roman philosophers inspired the establishment of centers of higher learning.
5. Charter and Privileges: Formal recognition, charters, and privileges from secular and
ecclesiastical authorities granted universities legal status and autonomy, enabling their growth
and development.
Organization and management of medieval universities
1. Faculties: Universities were organized into distinct faculties, each specializing in a
specific area of study. These typically included faculties of theology, law, medicine,
and the arts. Each faculty had its own dean and was responsible for managing its
academic programs.

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2. Governance: Universities had a hierarchical structure with a chancellor or rector at
the top, often appointed by the local ruler or ecclesiastical authority. Beneath them
were deans of individual faculties, followed by professors. Students also had a say in
university governance through student guilds and organizations.
3. Curriculum and Degrees: Universities offered a standardized curriculum that
followed the trivium and quadrivium, as well as specialized courses in each faculty.
The Bologna Process, introduced by the University of Bologna, standardized the
degrees of bachelor, master, and doctorate. The conferral of degrees was managed by
the university authorities.
4. Funding and Patronage: Medieval universities relied on various sources of funding,
including tuition fees paid by students, donations from benefactors, and support from
local rulers or the Church. Patronage from kings and nobility played a crucial role in
university sustainability.
5. Student Guilds: Students organized themselves into guilds or associations to protect
their rights, negotiate with university authorities, and maintain a sense of community.
These guilds had a say in university governance and could influence decisions related
to academics and student welfare.

Influence of Medieval University Training

1. Professionalization of Professions: Medieval universities provided specialized education in
fields such as law, medicine, and theology. This led to the professionalization of these
disciplines, setting the groundwork for modern professions and the development of specialized
career paths.
2. Development of Academic Disciplines: The university structure with its distinct faculties laid
the foundation for academic disciplines as we know them today. This organizational structure
influenced the modern higher education system, where various fields of study are organized
into separate departments and schools.
3. Standardized Curriculum and Degrees: The Bologna Process, introduced by the University
of Bologna, established a standardized curriculum and degree system. This framework
contributed to the global standardization of higher education, making it easier for students to
transfer and compare their educational qualifications across different countries and institutions.

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4. Transnational Exchange of Ideas: Medieval universities were centers of learning and
intellectual exchange. Scholars and students from various regions gathered at these institutions,
fostering cross-cultural scholarship and the exchange of ideas. This contributed to the spread
of knowledge and helped bridge cultural and geographical divides.
5. Cultural Preservation and Knowledge Dissemination: Universities played a crucial role in
preserving classical texts and religious writings. The invention of the printing press during the
late medieval period allowed for more efficient production and dissemination of knowledge,
with universities contributing to the production and distribution of printed texts. This
significantly impacted the preservation and sharing of knowledge in subsequent centuries.

AFRICAN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

African ingenious education is the learning which existed in African communities before the
coming of the whites. Knowledge, skills, and attitudes of community were passed from elders and
more experienced members of the community through oral instructions and practical activities to
the children in order to make them responsible society members.

Characteristics/Features of African Indigenous Education

Features of indigenous system of education in Africa
1. Preparatory Focus: It aimed to prepare children to become valuable members of their
household, village, and community. Girls were groomed for their future roles as housewives
and mothers, while boys were trained to be future fathers.
2. Functional Education: Education was highly practical and focused on immediate integration
into society. Children actively participated in learning through play, work, ceremonies, rituals,
and initiation, acquiring essential skills for their roles in the community.
3. Economic Participation: Indigenous education stressed economic engagement, with an
emphasis on job orientation and the practical application of acquired knowledge to community
needs. Motivation for learning was intrinsic as children understood the direct relevance of their
education to their future roles.
4. Adaptability: Learners were encouraged to acquire a range of skills rather than specializing
in specific trades. This adaptability allowed them to learn farming, hunting, house building,
and cooking, as well as principles for community well-being.

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5. Environment-Centric Curriculum: The curriculum was tailored to the local environment,
equipping children with knowledge and skills needed to navigate and exploit local resources
effectively. It promoted self-sufficiency and coping with the often harsh environment.
6. Communal Cohesion: The education system emphasized strong communal cohesion,
fostering a sense of belonging and responsibility to society. Individualistic tendencies were
limited to societal norms, customs, and a code of morality that emphasized decency, respect
for elders, obedience to authority, and cooperation for the community's survival.

Aims of education in indigenous education

1. Preparation for Adulthood: Indigenous education primarily aimed to prepare the youth for
adult life within their society, equipping them with the knowledge and skills needed for
effective participation in their communities.
2. Normative and Expressive Goals: These education systems focused on both normative and
expressive objectives. Normative goals aimed to instill accepted standards and beliefs that
governed correct behavior, while expressive goals aimed to foster unity and consensus within
the community.
3. Integration with Social Life: Indigenous education was closely intertwined with social life.
The content of what was taught was directly related to the social context in which people lived,
emphasizing the relevance of acquired knowledge and skills.
4. Socialization: These systems sought to systematically socialize the younger generation into
the norms, religious and cultural beliefs, and collective opinions of the broader society. The
goal was to pass down cultural and moral values.
5. Practical Skills and Knowledge: Indigenous education placed a strong emphasis on the
acquisition of practical skills and knowledge that were not only useful to the individual but
also contributed to the betterment of the entire society.

Content of Indigenous Education in Africa

1. Oral Tradition and Storytelling: Elders and storytellers passed down cultural knowledge
through oral narratives, preserving history, folklore, and values within the community.
2. Practical Life Skills: Indigenous education emphasized essential practical skills like farming,
hunting, and craftsmanship, crucial for self-sufficiency and community well-being.

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3. Cultural and Spiritual Education: It focused on teaching cultural and spiritual beliefs,
encompassing rituals, ceremonies, and connections with nature and ancestors, fostering
cultural identity and spirituality.
4. Social and Moral Values: Indigenous education instilled values like respect for elders,
cooperation, and ethical behavior, vital for community harmony.
5. Environmental Knowledge: Understanding the local environment, sustainable resource
management, and a deep connection to the land were integral parts of indigenous education,
ensuring survival in specific ecological settings.

Pedagogy in African indigenous education/teaching/instructional Methods

1. Apprenticeship and Observational Learning: Learning through apprenticeship was a
fundamental approach in many African societies. Young individuals learned from experienced
members of their community, whether it was a craftsperson, a farmer, or a healer. This hands-
on approach encouraged practical skills and experiential learning.
2. Participatory and Communal Learning: Learning was a communal endeavor in many
African societies. It involved participation in group activities and discussions. Students learned
from each other and from the community as a whole, fostering a sense of belonging and shared
values.
3. Storytelling and Myths: Myths, fables, and folktales were commonly used to teach moral
lessons, values, and historical narratives. These narratives were engaging and helped to convey
cultural identity.
4. Learning through Play: Games, songs, and role-playing were used to engage young learners.
Play was considered an important tool for skill development and cultural understanding.

RENAISSANCE & EDUCATION

The Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement that began in Italy in the 14th century
and later spread across Europe. It had a significant impact on education, leading to profound
changes in the way knowledge was acquired and disseminated.

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Causes of the Renaissance
1. The Spirit of Discussion in Medieval Universities: The intellectual atmosphere of medieval
universities, influenced by scholasticism, fostered a speculative spirit. This led to a struggle
between the progressive Naturalism and the authoritarian Supernaturalism of the Catholic
Church.
2. The Crusades (1095-1270): The Crusades exposed Europeans to eastern civilization, spurring
a desire for new products and commodities. Trade, commerce, and manufacturing thrived,
elevating the middle class and inspiring a new way of life. The Crusades also introduced
European contact with Byzantine and Arabic learning rooted in the Hellenic tradition.
3. The Age of Discoveries: Exploration and scientific discoveries heightened the spirit of
inquiry. Expanding commerce sought new trade routes, leading to the formation of national
nuclei. The emerging spirit of nationality stimulated belief in Europe's natural powers,
challenging previously settled questions and resulting in the production of new national
literatures.
4. The Invention of Printing: The introduction of paper from the East and the invention of
printing by 1450 facilitated the spread of new learning and education throughout Europe.
Manuscripts were replaced by printed books, making information and knowledge accessible
to a wider audience.
5. The Order of Chivalry: The secular ideal of chivalry, emphasizing expertise and character,
instilled faith in human capacities and possibilities, in contrast to the rigid religious constraints
of the time.

Factors that lead to the Spread of the Renaissance Ideals

1. Printing Press: Johannes Gutenberg's invention in the mid-15th century revolutionized
knowledge dissemination, making books more accessible and accelerating the spread of
Renaissance ideas.
2. Humanist Scholars and Universities: Influential humanist scholars like Petrarch and
Erasmus promoted classical texts, individualism, and critiqued medieval scholasticism,
influencing intellectuals. European universities, including the University of Padua and the
University of Bologna, embraced humanism, encouraging the study of classical languages and
texts, contributing to the dissemination of Renaissance ideals.

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3. Patronage and Artistic Achievements: Wealthy patrons, like the Medici family, supported
artists, scholars, and writers, fostering Renaissance culture that promoted humanism and
individualism. Renaissance art, with its focus on realism and the human form by artists like
Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, reflected humanist values and influenced the spread of
Renaissance ideals.
4. Trade, Commerce, and Exploration: Expanding trade and commerce facilitated the
exchange of ideas and cultures, particularly in urban centers where Renaissance ideals thrived.
Voyages of exploration led by figures like Christopher Columbus introduced Europeans to new
cultures and knowledge, contributing to the dissemination of Renaissance ideals.
5. Literature and Religious Reformation: Works like Dante's "Divine Comedy" and Chaucer's
"Canterbury Tales" carried humanist themes to a broad readership. The Protestant
Reformation, led by figures like Martin Luther, challenged the authority of the Catholic Church
and promoted individualism, critical thinking, and religious reform, spreading Renaissance
ideals.
6. Educational Reforms: The establishment of humanist curricula in schools and universities
promoted Renaissance values, encouraging the study of classical literature, rhetoric, and
critical thinking, furthering the spread of Renaissance ideals.

Educational Significance of the Renaissance

1. Revival of Learning: The Renaissance renewed interest in Greek and Roman classics,
fostering humanism and a human-centered curriculum with an emphasis on the humanities and
classical languages.
2. University Expansion: Renaissance transformed universities like Padua and Bologna,
embracing humanism and broadening curricula to include classical literature and philosophy.
3. Individualism and Critical Thinking: Renaissance humanism emphasized individual value,
nurturing critical thinking and inquiry skills in education.
4. Secular Education: Alongside the Church's role, the Renaissance saw the rise of secular
education, exploring a wider range of subjects, including art, science, and literature.
5. Art and Science Fusion: Renaissance integrated art and science, emphasizing observation and
empirical inquiry, exemplified by artists like Leonardo da Vinci.

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6. Printing Revolution: Johannes Gutenberg's printing press made knowledge more accessible
and affordable, crucial in spreading Renaissance ideas to a wider audience.
7. Civic Education: Renaissance promoted history, political philosophy, and civic engagement
in education, encouraging active participation in communities.

Landmarks in the development of formal Western education in Africa between 1900 and
1945
1. Early Beginnings and European Traders: Education in Africa had early beginnings along
the East and West African coasts, initially influenced by Portuguese and later by Dutch,
English, and Italian traders and proselytes.
2. Scramble for Africa and Missionary Activities: The "Scramble for Africa" by European
colonial powers and the activities of missionaries led to the establishment of the first schools
beyond the coastlines, marking the expansion of Western-style education into the interior.
3. African Resistance to Western Education: Africans initially resisted the establishment of
formal Western education for various reasons, including cultural differences, skepticism about
foreign influence, and concerns about the erosion of traditional values and practices.
4. World War I Effects: World War I had a significant impact on the development of education
in Africa, as it disrupted existing systems, created demands for education, and highlighted the
need for a more skilled labor force.
5. African Contribution and Acceptance: African societies gradually contributed to the
guarded acceptance and eventual acceptance of Western education, recognizing its potential
benefits for economic, social, and political advancement.
6. Phelps-Stokes Commission: The Phelps-Stokes Commission made valuable contributions to
the development of education in Africa by assessing educational needs and recommending
improvements, particularly in teacher training and curricula.
7. Racial Stratification: The education provided in Africa was often racially stratified, with
different standards and opportunities for different racial or ethnic groups, leading to
inequalities in access and quality.
8. Colonial Powers' Approaches: Various colonial powers adopted different approaches to
education in Africa. The British pursued an adaptation model, while other colonial powers,

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 like the French, practiced assimilation, which aimed to integrate African societies into
European culture.

International Donor Agencies influence on Access and quality of primary Education in

Africa.
1. Era of Economic Optimism (1960s and 1970s): During this period, donor agencies supported
African countries with financial aid to expand access to education. This era saw economic
growth and increased investment in education, leading to improved access.
2. Era of Economic Crisis (1970s and 1980s): Economic downturns, triggered by factors like
oil shocks and high expenditure on petroleum products, affected the funding available for
education. This led to a decline in financial support and challenges in maintaining education
quality.
3. Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs): The imposition of SAPs by donor agencies in the
1980s and 1990s often included reductions in government expenditure on social sectors,
including education. These austerity measures had negative consequences for access and
quality.
4. Global Economic Orders: Movements like the Non-Aligned Movement and the introduction
of the New International Economic Order (NIEO) through the UN aimed to address economic
disparities. However, the reaction of industrialized countries led to the promotion of the World
Order (WO) and challenges to African economies.
5. Economic Decline in Africa: Various factors, including natural disasters, corruption, bad
governance, and undemocratic practices, contributed to economic decline and reduced
government budgetary support for education.
6. Introduction of Cost Sharing/User Fees: Governments implemented policies of cost sharing
and user fees, affecting vulnerable groups' access to education. This led to a decline in gross
enrollment rates (GREs).
7. Changing Funding Dynamics: The withdrawal of industrialized countries from UNESCO
funding and the World Bank's elevation as a key educational funding agency led to the
promotion of neo-liberal ideology and free enterprise in education.
8. World Conferences on Education: Events like the World Conference on Education for All
(EFA) in 1990 and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) set targets for achieving

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 Universal Primary Education (UPE) by 2015. These global initiatives influenced education
policies and funding.
9. Political Decisions for Free Primary Education: Many African countries made political
decisions to provide free primary education, increasing enrollment but posing challenges to
education quality.
The response of Africans to formal Western education in Africa between the periods: prior
to 1920 and 1920-1945
Background
 Prior to 1920 no foreign systems of education were established. However, Africans had
developed their own ways of training their young generation.
 From mid-19th century there were intense European political and economic activities in Africa.
These led to the partition of the African continent at the Berlin Conference in 1884. This
partition led to:
 Introduction of formal western education in Africa.
 Influence on the pattern of education similar to that of the colonial powers

Formal Western education in Africa.

Three groups took an active part in the development of education in Africa.

1. Missionaries: European Christian missionaries established schools, especially in rural areas,

aiming to spread Christianity and provide basic education.
2. Colonial Officials: Representatives of European colonial powers actively shaped education in
African colonies, setting policies, regulations, and curricula to serve colonial interests.
3. Africans: African elites, including chiefs and intellectuals, collaborated with missionaries and
colonial authorities in school establishment. Over time, African students, parents, and
educators became involved, advocating for education and at times challenging the curriculum.

Response of Africans to formal western education prior to 1920

Prior to 1920, the African response to formal Western education was characterized by a range of
attitudes, including:

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1. Indifference: Many Africans initially showed little interest in Western education, with some
communities remaining largely uninvolved or unconcerned about it.
2. Hostility: In some cases, Africans viewed Western education with suspicion or hostility, often
due to concerns about cultural and religious influences from the West.
3. Apathy: There was a sense of indifference or disinterest among some African individuals or
communities regarding Western education, as they might have seen little immediate value in
it.
4. Curiosity: Despite the aforementioned attitudes, there were also instances of curiosity among
Africans who were interested in exploring Western education and its potential benefits.
5. Religious Conversion: Missionary education was often tied to religious conversion efforts.
Africans who resisted conversion were less likely to engage with missionary education.
6. Cultural Conflicts: The introduction of Western education sometimes led to cultural clashes
within African societies. Elders and traditional leaders, concerned about the erosion of
traditional values, occasionally opposed missionary education.

Response of Africans to missionary education prior to 1920

1. Social Outcasts and Famine Victims: Initially, mission stations attracted marginalized
individuals and famine victims seeking assistance and education.
2. Curiosity of Local Communities: Later, curious people from nearby communities gathered
around mission stations to learn about new ideas and practices.
3. Limited Integration with Village Life: Mission stations and village life remained separate
for a while, with education distinct from traditional village life. Full integration took time to
develop.
Opposition to missionary influence
1. Economic Impact: Missionary education focused on children and adolescents, who were
essential for the economic life of villages. Communities resisted as they saw this as a disruption
to their labor force.
2. Interference with Tribal Customs: Missionary education interfered with tribal rites and
traditional instruction. It separated children from their tribal traditions and ways of life, leading
to resistance.

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3. Lack of Immediate Benefits: Parents did not perceive immediate advantages in sending their
children to missionary schools, which hindered the acceptance of missionary education.
4. Exploitation and Land Conflicts: Some communities perceived missionaries as tools of land
appropriation and exploitation, leading to strong opposition.
5. Coercion and Conflicts: Missionary efforts sometimes involved coercion or pressure to
convert, which generated opposition and conflicts with local populations who valued their
religious freedom.
6. Cultural Preservation: Resistance was often rooted in the desire to maintain cultural
autonomy. Missionaries were seen as agents of cultural change, and some communities resisted
Western cultural influence, including language and dress.

Challenges faced by missionaries in attempt to provide education to Africans

Language: Many missionaries faced challenges in communicating with local populations due to
language differences. Teaching in a language unfamiliar to the students hindered effective
learning.
Traditional Beliefs: Local cultures often had deeply rooted traditional beliefs and practices that
were sometimes at odds with the teachings of the missionaries. Convincing communities to adopt
new religious and cultural values posed a significant challenge.
Resistance from Local Authorities: Some local rulers and authorities resisted the introduction of
Western education, viewing it as a threat to their traditional power structures and values.
Hostility from Communities: In some cases, missionaries faced hostility from the communities
they were trying to serve. This could be due to mistrust, fear, or a perceived threat to local customs.
Financial Constraints: Missionaries often worked with limited financial resources, making it
difficult to establish and maintain schools. Lack of funds affected the quality of education and the
availability of necessary resources.
Infrastructure and Supplies: Building schools and providing basic infrastructure such as books,
stationery, and teaching materials in remote areas was challenging.
Disease and Epidemics: Missionaries were often exposed to new and sometimes deadly diseases
in Africa. This posed a threat to their health and sometimes disrupted educational efforts.
Geographical Challenges: The vast and diverse geography of Africa presented logistical
challenges in reaching remote and isolated communities. Travel and transportation difficulties
hindered the establishment of schools in certain areas.

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Climate and Environment: Harsh climates, extreme weather conditions, and environmental
factors could impede the construction and maintenance of educational facilities.
Political Climate: The political climate in the missionaries' home countries could affect their
ability to operate in Africa. Changes in political leadership or policies could impact the support
and resources available to missionary endeavors.
Relevance of Curriculum: Designing a curriculum that was relevant to local needs and contexts
while incorporating Western education principles posed a significant challenge.
Patience and Persistence: Establishing a viable educational system required long-term
commitment and persistence. Some missionaries faced discouragement and frustration in the face
of slow progress.

Response of Africans to formal western education 1920-1945

During the period from 1920 to 1945, Africans became increasingly aware of the potential benefits
of formal Western education. They recognized that education could significantly impact several
aspects of their lives, including:
1. Economic Betterment: Africans sought education for improved economic prospects, offering
skills for better jobs.
2. Social Advancement: Education was a path to higher social status and greater community
respect.
3. Political Engagement: Education empowered Africans to engage in politics and advocate for
their rights.
4. Career Opportunities: Education opened doors to various careers, including professions,
civil service, and entrepreneurship.
5. Community Development: Educated individuals contributed to community development by
sharing knowledge and skills.
Response to the demand for formal western education
1. Establishment of Independent Schools: Independent schools, often privately funded or
managed by local communities, were established to provide educational opportunities beyond
the existing colonial or missionary schools. These schools aimed to meet the specific
educational needs and preferences of local populations.

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2. Setting of Local Native Council Schools: Local native councils and community leaders
played a role in addressing the demand for education by establishing their own schools. These
schools were often tailored to the cultural and linguistic preferences of the communities they
served.
3. Expansion of Existing Schools: Some existing schools, whether run by missionaries or
colonial authorities, expanded their capacity and curriculum to accommodate more students
and provide a broader range of educational offerings.
4. Advocacy for Educational Access: Local leaders, parents, and educators advocated for
increased access to formal education, leading to the establishment of new schools and the
improvement of existing ones.
5. Collaboration with Missionaries: In some cases, communities collaborated with missionary
organizations to establish and run schools that aligned with their educational objectives and
cultural values.
The development of education in Africa in the years 1945-1960
Factors that influenced the development of higher education in Africa, 1945-1960 were:
1. Post-World War II Impact: After World War II, there was a greater focus on education for
post-war recovery and development, recognizing its vital role in reconstruction.
2. African Nationalism: The rise of African nationalist movements during this era led to a
demand for educational reforms and increased access to education, shaping future leaders.
3. UNESCO Formation: The founding of UNESCO in 1945 globally promoted education,
declaring it a human right and setting the stage for educational advancement in Africa.
4. Colonial Education Legacy: Many African countries inherited educational systems shaped
by colonial powers, necessitating efforts to adapt and reform these systems to suit local needs.
5. International Support: International organizations and donor countries provided aid to
expand educational opportunities in Africa.
6. Urbanization Impact: Urbanization trends increased the demand for education in cities and
influenced the development of vocational and technical education.
7. New Educational Institutions: New institutions, such as universities and technical colleges,
were established to meet the growing demand for higher education and specialized training.

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The contribution of Africans to the development of their own education during the colonial
period
During the colonial period, Africans made significant contributions to the development of their
own education, including:
1. Donation of Land: Africans donated land for the construction of schools, providing the
physical infrastructure necessary for education.
2. Labor Contribution: Africans provided labor for building schools, contributing to the
construction of educational facilities.
3. Teaching and Employment: Africans took up teaching positions and other essential roles in
educational institutions, actively participating in the operation of schools.
4. Curriculum Reform: Africans rejected religious-focused education and advocated for
curriculum reforms that better aligned with their cultural and societal needs.
5. Anti-Racism Efforts: Africans fought against racism in education, challenging discriminatory
practices and advocating for equal educational opportunities.
6. Independent Schools: Independent African schools were established to supplement
government and missionary efforts in providing education, addressing local educational needs.
7. Advocacy for Universal Education: Africans advocated for universal primary education,
secular education, and equal opportunities for all, even though these goals were not
immediately achieved during the colonial period.
Causes of Independent School Movement In Kenya
1. Western Influence Displeasure: Africans were unhappy with the westernizing influence of
missionaries on their culture and traditions.
2. Missionaries against Customs: Missionaries taught against African customs, including
practices like female circumcision and polygamy.
3. Mission Education as Colonialism: Africans perceived mission education as a tool of
colonialism, which influenced their resistance.
4. Rural Education Access: Mission schools were established to provide education to the
predominantly rural African population.
5. Political Response to Colonialism: The formation of mission schools was a political reaction
to colonial oppression, exploitation, and repression.

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6. Promotion of African Nationalism: Mission schools provided a conducive atmosphere for
the development of African nationalism.
7. Desire for Leadership: Africans desired leadership roles but were often excluded from them
in missionary schools and churches.
8. Quality Education Aspiration: Africans disliked the perceived low quality of education and
wanted academic education for upward mobility.
9. Alien Methodology: Africans found the methodology in colonial and missionary schools to
be alien, irrelevant, and boring.
10. Fight against Segregation: Africans aimed to combat segregation in education, where
Europeans and Arabs had advantages, while Africans received basic education for labor in
industries and settler farms.

EDUCATION TRENDS SINCE INDEPENDENCE

Status of Education at Independence
At Kenyan independence, the education system was discriminatory, favoring Europeans, Arabs,
and Asians over Africans. It focused on producing clerical and craftsman roles, while the country
needed managers for vacant colonial-era positions. Kenya faced numerous challenges, including
fragmentation, underdevelopment, disease, poverty, and ignorance, all of which were inherited
problems affecting education.

Problems inherited in education

i. Inequality: The education system in Kenya suffered from significant inequalities stemming
from racial discrimination, gender bias, and geographic disparities.
ii. National Disunity: The segregated education system contributed to national disunity by
creating divisions among different racial and ethnic groups.
iii. Inadequate Schools/Facilities: Insufficient schools and learning facilities resulted in a
limited educational capacity, leaving many school-age children without access to education
and creating a small group of educational elites.
iv. Lack of Qualified Human Resources: The education system lacked qualified educators,
with many Africans receiving minimal education from clerks and craftsmen. Racial

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 distinctions existed in recruitment, training, and grading, leading to a shortage of secondary
school teachers at independence, necessitating government reliance on external expertise.
v. Irrelevant Curriculum: The curriculum was deemed irrelevant due to issues with content,
examination systems, and overall structure.
vi. Language Policy Challenges: The education system faced challenges related to language
policies, which affected access and comprehension for many students.
vii. Limited Finances: Inadequate funding for building schools and employing teachers resulted
in a lack of resources to meet the educational needs of the population.
viii. Inadequate Resources: Insufficient teaching and learning resources, such as textbooks and
materials, further hindered the quality of education in Kenya.

Since independence the government has addressed challenges facing education sector through
commissions, committees and task process

KANU Manifesto of 1963 in relation to education

The ruling party KANU put education as a priority in its election manifesto in preceding
independence.
It committed itself to;
1. Universal Primary Education (UPE): The government committed to achieving universal
primary education, ensuring that all children have access to elementary schooling.
2. Secondary School Improvement: Efforts were made to extend and enhance secondary
education to provide more opportunities for students beyond primary school.
3. Alignment with National Needs: The education system aimed to produce graduates whose
skills and knowledge align with the country's national needs and priorities.
4. Integration of Postgraduate Study: The government sought to incorporate more postgraduate
study and advisory input into the development planning process.
5. Community Enlightenment: Programs were introduced to educate and enlighten the
community, including adult literacy initiatives. The government also aimed to adopt science
and technology to overcome barriers to economic development.
6. Reiteration of UPE: Universal Primary Education remained a principal goal, emphasizing its
importance for all children.

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7. Youth Preparation and Expansion: The education system aimed to prepare youth for their
role in nation-building, expanding education at the O level, and responding to
recommendations regarding educational policies. A commission was established to advise the
government on education goals and policies.

Sessional paper NO.10 of 1965 (African socialism)

 Sessional paper is a policy document by the government based on commission
recommendation
 Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 emphasized African socialism, a system blending African
values with useful techniques from various sources for positive political and economic ideals.

African socialism was expected to satisfy three conditions:

i) Draw from the best African traditions
ii) Adapt to new and changing trends or circumstances.
iii) Non alignment to any particular country or group of countries.

Features of Africans socialism contained in sessional paper no.10 of 1965;

a) Political Democracy: Traditional African societies valued political democracy, ensuring equal
political freedom for all, regardless of economic status. The paper recommended inclusive state
policy-making to safeguard minority interests and differentiated African socialism from
communism, emphasizing traditional resource-sharing over a classless, stateless society.
b) Mutual Social Responsibility: This concept extends the spirit of African families to the entire
nation. The state has a duty to provide equal opportunities, eliminate exploitation and
discrimination, and offer essential social services such as education, healthcare, and social
security.
c) Various Forms of Ownership: Under colonialism, Kenyans lacked political equality,
economic opportunities, and property rights. African socialism encouraged both state and
private ownership, with a focus on preventing extreme wealth concentration at the expense of
others.
d) Range of Controls: To ensure property served society's mutual interests, various control
measures were implemented.

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e) Diffusion of Ownership: This aimed to prevent the concentration of economic power in the
hands of a few.
f) Progressive Taxation: Implemented to achieve a fair distribution of wealth and income,
ensuring equity in the society's economic structure.

The sessional paper also addressed:

1. Africanization of Jobs: It focused on promoting the hiring and promotion of African
citizens in both public and private sectors, seeking to increase African representation in the
workforce.
2. Skilled Manpower: The paper emphasized the importance of providing adequate training
and education to develop a skilled workforce to meet the country's needs.
3. Foreign Exchange: It highlighted the need to earn and manage foreign exchange
effectively, likely through trade and economic policies that support a favorable balance of
payments.
4. Domestic Resource Utilization: The paper emphasized the prudent and efficient
utilization of domestic resources, ensuring they are effectively harnessed for national
development.
5. Infrastructure Development: It discussed the need for nationalization of key
infrastructure elements such as schools, hospitals, roads, water supply, and major
industries. This likely entailed government ownership and management to ensure
accessibility and quality services.
6. Welfare Services: The sessional paper advocated for the establishment of welfare services,
suggesting a commitment to social development and the well-being of the population
through various social programs and services.

Guidelines in relation to education

Sessional paper No 10 of 1965 provided guidelines to shape education in order to achieve the
following:
i. To produce good citizens at the end of the seven year free education course.
ii. To meet the needs of economic growth by producing the required manpower.
iii. To promote national unity

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 iv. To encourage proper use of leisure time.
v. To develop curricula that would meet the government’s specified standards.
vi. To produce citizens who could contribute to the development of education through self-help
activities e.g. payment of taxes, school fees.

Achievements of Sessional paper No. 10 of 1965

i. Education continues to impart knowledge, skills and attitudes that promote social and
economic development.
ii. Centralization of curriculum development at KIE took place and through this, the
government controls curricula that is used in all public educational institutions below the
university.
iii. Citizen of Kenya continues to contribute tremendously to the development of education in
various areas especially through the concept of cost sharing.
iv. Education continues to promote national unity by for example, teaching Kiswahili the
national language, as an examinable subject. This enables Kenyans to communicate with and
understand one another.
v. Education aims to meet the need for economic growth by producing economic manpower.

Kenya Education Commission – Ominde report

After independence in December 1963, the government appointed the Kenya education
commission also referred to as Ominde Commission of 1964 with objectives that is to:
i. Survey existing educational resources in Kenya
ii. Advise the government on the formulation and implementation of national policies for
education.
iii. Address problems inherited from the colonial government to make education more to the
needs of the country.(main goal – Foster national unity and cohesiveness)

The following are recommendations that were adopted and implemented from the Ominde
report:

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1. The introduction of the 7-4-2-3 system of education that is seven years in primary
education four years secondary education ,two years pre-university education and three
years university education
2. Each secondary school to give the minimum of 20 percent of its vacancies to students
from outside its area (unity)
3. Education to foster positive aspects of culture and history such as communal sharing and
cooperation.
4. English to become the medium of instruction in all schools, Kiswahili, through non-
examinable should be used in primary schools to act both as a unifying force and an
effective means of communication.
5. Efforts be made to ensure the trained and sufficiently skilled manpower takeover the
management of the country’s affairs from the Europeans as they left the country’s affairs.
6. Teachers be posted to teach in any public institution regardless of race, creed, tribe or
social affiliations.
7. Racial integration be put in place in education.
8. All schools to use a common curriculum.
9. Entry age of primary school be pegged at six years.
10. Social training, science education, training in manipulative skills and teaching good
citizenship were to be given special emphasis in primary education.
11. History and geography syllabuses be revised to reflect the Kenyan situation.
12. Agriculture to be offered as part of general science in a revised syllabus and not as a
separate subject.
13. Art and craft be taught for motor control and coordination.
14. Music be encouraged for its contribution to patriotism and national unity.
15. Integration of the scattered teacher training institutions to improve quality.
16. Kiswahili to be compulsory subject in secondary schools.
17. Institutionalization of legal framework to address early childhood and special education.
18. Guidance and counseling be established in all institutions of learning.
19. Teachers to be well remunerated.
20. Revision of the functions of the TSC

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 21. An ideal pupil –teacher ratio of 40:1 be effected and, where this was not possible,
alternative approaches to teaching to be applied.
22. Co-curricular activities be made an integral part of the entire basic education.
23. Consolidated of laws dealing with education.

A study of curriculum development in Kenya – Bessy Report.

The report of 1972 looked into the problems of the curricula were being caused by the neglect of
practical and creative subjects.
Recommendations in the Bessy Report were as follows:
1. That the primary curriculum be broadened and intensified to produce adaptable individual
capable of surviving in the society.
2. That a more rural oriented syllabus which include African folklore, social studies, science
,Agriculture ,home and community studies and crafts be introduced.
3. That the primary school curriculum be planned in three distinct but related phases lower
primary(std 1-3) middle primary (std 4-5) and upper primary (std 6-7)classes.
4. That physical sciences be introduced in forms 5 and 6 to replace general science, physics and
chemistry.

Following the report, the existing subjects and syllabuses were reviewed under the guidance of the
curriculum development centre.

The national committee on educational objectives and policies – Gachathi report

The Bessy report only addressed part of the curriculum reforms. The national committee on
education objectives and policies also known as Gachathi report on 1976 was entrusted with the
task of redefining educational objectives and policies. It has also required to formulate a specific
programme of action for realizing the objectives and policies within the nation’s financial
constraints.

Education objectives as recommended by Gachathi report.

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The recommendation made in Gachathi report were as follows
i. That free secondary education be attained by 1980
ii. That primary school education be increased from seven to nine years .The nine years of
basic education was to be followed by two years of junior secondary and four years of senior
secondary education. (9-2-4 system of education)
iii. That a new examination system and a new curriculum be introduced and considerable
amount of teacher retraining be done.
iv. That emphasis be placed on vocational, scientific and technical education &skills in the
school curriculum.
v. That secondary school education be geared towards the rural and informal sector by
diversifying the curriculum and teaching agricultural sciences.
vi. That a language policy be adopted in which the teaching of mother language would be
emphasized as the medium of instruction in the lower classes std 1 to std 3, and Kiswahili
be used in schools in urban settings due to their cosmopolitan nature.
vii. The national centre of early childhood education (NACECE) be established to coordinate
early childhood education matters at a national level and distinct centres for early childhood
education (DICECE) be set up to coordinate early childhood education.
viii. That the teaching of science be enhanced on through the building of more laboratories.
ix. That Kiswahili as a language be made compulsory and examined at primary and secondary
schools levels.
x. That a center of research and study of Africa languages be established
xi. That English be taught at all levels and an examinable subject
xii. That Kenyatta university college be elevated to a fully-fledged university.
xiii. That the education for teachers be improved and expanded.
xiv. That teachers be promoted on merit to administrative status while still teaching.
The government accepted the recommendations of the Gachathi committee and started the work
of restructuring the education system. However, the recommendations made by Gachathi report
were not implemented as result of economic constraints.

The presidential working party on establishment of the second university in Kenya –Mackay
report 1981

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Working party is a group of professionals appointed by the president to investigate on something
and later give a report of recommendations. The Mackay report of 1981 was chaired by Canadian
educationist, Professor Colins Mackay and technological university in the country.
The commission drew a lot from the recommendations of the international labour organization
(ILO) mission and the Gachathi Report in making the following recommendations
 The setting up of a technically oriented university
 The establishment of a college for continuing education
 Adaptation of the 8-4-4 system of education .The primary education period extended
from 7 years to 8 years and the A level component of education be scrapped reducing
secondary education from six to 4 years .
 Improvement of curriculum content giving greater orientation towards vocational and
technical education.
 Effort be made to reduce emphasis on examination –centre education

Achievements from Mackay Report

 Moi university was established in 1985 as the second university in Kenya
 Kenyatta University College and Egerton – a constituent college of the University of Nairobi
became full-fledged university bringing the number of public university to four.
 8-4-4 was systematically introduced
 Home science, agriculture woodwork, art and craft, and business education were introduced in
the primary school curriculum.
 Continuous assessment was made an integral part of the overall assessment of learners
contributing 30 out of the 100 marks required for the final examination.
 Project work was introduced in the technical and vocational subjects as part of the final
certification of learners.
Other results of the Mackay Report that were outside its frame of reference include:
 Intensifying in service teachers training programmes
 Promotion of teacher’s merits
 Additional primary TTCS were constructed to provide extra manpower for facilitation of
the curriculum.
 External degree programmes were started at the university of Nairobi

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  Social studies replaced Geography, History and civies in the primary school.

The presidential working party on education and manpower training for the next decade
and beyond –Kamunge Report
When the presidential working party on education and manpower training for the next decade and
beyond was appointed in 1988, Kenya was experiencing economic decline due to the impact of
the structural adjustments programmes (SAPS) introduced by the international monetary
fund(IMF)
The following are recommendations that were made by Kamunge Report
1. Cost sharing for in education for rationalization of government budget on education with
the tight implementation of this recommendation, the enrolment at primary level declined
from 95%in 1988 to 76.7%in 1997 as indicated in national development plan for 1997-
2001.
2. The establishment of a national Advisory Council on education that would, on a continuous
basis, review all aspects of national education, training policies and objectives and
implementation of recommendation.
3. The establishment of a strong professional development institute. This led to the
establishment of Kenya Education staff institute (KESI)

Totally integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQET) - Koech Commission

Dr.Dary Koech was appointed to chair the commission of inquiry into the education system of
Kenya in 1999.The aim of the commission was to review Kenya’s education system and
recommend ways and means of enabling it to facilitate the following:
i. National unity.
ii. Mutual social responsibility
iii. Acceleration of industrial and technological development
iv. The consideration and enhancement of lifelong learning and adaptation in response to
changing circumstances.
The following were recommendations made in Koech Report
1. Diversification of curriculum to Make it more relevant at each level of learning, Make
graduate more useful to the society, Reduce the workload in the curriculum by dividing the

32
 subjects into examinable and non-examinable subjects and Make it more manageable to
learners
2. Expansion of basic education from eight to 12years –eight years of primary education and
four years of secondary education.
3. Equity in education by provision of universal and compulsory basic education.
4. Expansion of opportunities at past secondary school level.
5. All providers of education be accountable to the ministry of Education(MOE)
6. Introduction of limitless opportunities for access to education through alternative and
continuing education.
7. The medium of instruction in lower primary school be the learners’ mother tongue or the
dominant language within the school catchment area. In urban centers this would be
Kiswahili, English was to be used as the medium of the instruction in upper primary classes
throughout the country.
8. The ministry is responsible for modalities of ensuring publication of instructional material
in the local languages in the country.

The Koech report has been said to be arguable the most comprehensive and forthright of all
commissions since independence.
It saw the need of an education system that promote the all-round development of an individual
persons and which fosters national unity, moral integrity and mutual social responsibility. The
national development plan (2005) indicates that the government did not adapt the report fully due
to cost implications but some recommendations such as curriculum rationalization have been
adapted and implemented

Others recommendations that have been implemented include:

1. Adoption of alternative approaches to teaching for example mobile schools in Wajir,and
Samburu and multigrade and multi-shift schools in Garrisa and overpopulated urban informal
settlement.
2. Contemporary issues have been integrated into curriculum.
3. FPE was implemented in 2003 in an attempt to attain universal primary education (UPE).

33
4. Implement of quality of education by raising the entry requirements of TTCand reducing
curriculum workload through subjects’ specialization.
5. Enhancing the management capacities of education managers through in-service training.
6. Opportunities for lifelong education have been enhanced through continuing education and
parallel education programmes
7. Provision of policy guidelines to streamline early childhood education, special needs education
and gender mainstreaming.
8. Revision of the curriculum at all levels of education by the KIE to make it more relevant to
societal needs.

Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 on a policy framework for education

Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 on a policy framework for education, training and research that was
established by the government to adopt the goals of the Kenya education sector support programme
(KESSP) from 2005 to 2010. The policy framework was formulated by the MOE as a result of
findings of the national conference on education and training held in November 2003.
The conference addressed the following areas:
i. Management and planning of education and training.
ii. human resource management
iii. teachers development and utilization
iv. Information, communication and technology.
v. Research and development.
vi. Financing and partnership in education.
vii. Legal framework.

According to sessional paper no 1 of 2005, the overall goal of education is to achieve education
for all (EFA) by the year 2015.The MOE has set the following specific objectives in line with
national and international goals.
1. To develop a comprehensive early childhood development and education (ECD) policy paying
attention to gender, and vulnerable and disadvantaged children by the year 2015.

34
2. To ensure that all children girls, children in difficult circumstances and those from
marginalized or vulnerable groups, have access to free and compulsory primary primary
education by the year 2010.
3. To enhance access equity and quality to all levels of education and training by 2010.
4. To improve all aspects of education and training quality so that recognized and measurable
learning outcomes are achieved, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills
relevant to the world of the work by the year 2010.
5. To ensure that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable
access to appropriate learning and life skills programmes by the year 2015.
6. To promote and pauperize information communication and technology (ICT) as well as science
and technology education by the year 2008.

NDEGWA REPORT OF 1971

Although the commission concerned the whole of civil services, it made specific recommendations
on education that were to influence education.
Recommendations
i. Re-establishment of DEBS to enable the primary schools system to respond effective to
local requirements by active participation and involvement of the local community.
ii. The commission recommended phasing out of teachers without secondary education.
iii. The commission recommended diversification of the curriculum to allow more secondary
schools to provide technical and vocational subjects. This was to enable secondary
education to meet the manpower needs of the country.
iv. The government should take over all harambee schools and maintain them in order to
improve the standards.
v. To correct the mismatch between technical and vocational education to meet the job market
needs.
vi. Reviewing the curriculum in liaison with commercial and industrial organization to offer
relevant education.
vii. Expansion of training of teachers especially in sciences. The commission also urged the
government to improve teachers’ salaries to attract high caliber to undertake education
courses.

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