CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Light
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

REFLECTION
The phenomenon where light rays return to the same medium upon
striking a surface is known as "reflection."
Laws of Reflection:
The First Law of Reflection: The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the
normal to the surface at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

The Second Law of Reflection: The angle of incidence is equal to the

angle of reflection. In other words, the angle between the incident ray
and the normal is equal to the angle between the reflected ray and the
normal.

*These laws of reflection are applicable to the reflection of light from any
smooth surface, not just mirrors.*

Properties of Image Formed by a Plane Mirror:

1. An image formed by a plane mirror is virtual and erect.
2. The Image is laterally inverted
3. The image formed is as far behind the mirror as
the object is in front of it
4. The Size of the image is Equal to that of the Object
(m=1)
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Spherical Mirrors:
Mirrors, Whose reflecting surfaces are spherical in the part of a hollow
sphere of glass. A Concave mirror is a curved mirror where the reflecting
surface is on the inner side of the curved shape. Convex Mirror is a curved

mirror where the reflective surface bulges out toward the light source.

Sp e c Mir s:

(1) Concave mirror - Whose Reflecting Surface is curved inwards is called a concave mirror.
(2) Convex mirror -Whose Reflecting Surface is curved outwards is called a convex mirror.

Terms used in Spherical mirrors:

●
● Pole: The center of a spherical mirror's reflecting surface coincides with the
mirror's surface itself. Typically, we denote the mirror's pole with the letter "P."

● Centre of curvature: A spherical mirror has a curved surface from a

sphere. The center of that sphere is the center of curvature. In concave
mirrors, it's in front, in convex mirrors, it's behind.

● Radius of curvature: The sphere's radius, from which the reflecting

surface of a spherical mirror is derived, is symbolized by the letter "R."
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● Principal axis: The principal axis of a spherical mirror is a straight line

that extends through the mirror's pole and its center of curvature. This
axis is perpendicular to the mirror's surface at its pole

● Principal Focus: Parallel rays meet at the principal focus (F) for a concave
mirror and seem to diverge from the principal focus (F) for a convex mirror.
The distance between the mirror's center and the principal focus is the
focal length.

● Aperture: The reflecting surface's diameter in a spherical mirror is called

the aperture. When the aperture is much smaller than the radius of
curvature, we can use R = 2f as an approximation.
Ray Diagrams Rules:
(1)A parallel ray will either pass through or appear to converge at the
principal focus for a concave mirror and appear to diverge from the
principal focus for a convex mirror.

2. A ray directed at the principal focus of a concave mirror or passing

through the principal focus of a convex mirror will come out parallel to
the principal axis.
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3. A ray passing through the center of curvature of a concave mirror or

directed toward the center of curvature of a convex mirror will be
reflected back along its original path

4. Ray incident obliquely to the principal axis towards the pole of the
concave mirror on a convex mirror is Reflected Obliquely.

IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX MIRROR:

2)

(1)

(2)
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IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE MIRROR:

Uses of Spherical Mirrors:

Con : f= (-ve)
Concave mirrors are used in torches, headlights, shaving mirrors, dental
examinations, and solar furnaces for heat.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Con : f=(+ve)
Convex mirrors are used in vehicles’s rear-view mirrors to provide smaller
but upright images and a wider field of view, enhancing driver visibility.

Sign-convention:
1. Object on the left, light comes from the left.
2. Start measuring from the mirror's pole.
3. Left is negative, right is positive.
4. Above the principal axis is positive.
5. Below the principal axis is negative.

Important:
● The object distance u, is always negative.
● The image distance v, is positive if the image is formed
behind a concave mirror and negative if the image is
formed in front of the mirror.
● The image distance v, is always positive for a convex
mirror.
● The focal length of a concave mirror is always negative
and that of a convex mirror is always positive.
● The height of an object is always positive.
● If the image is erect the height is taken as positive and if
the image is inverted, the height is taken as negative.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

MIRROR FORMULA:

● The distance of the Object from its pole is called the Object
distance (u)
● The distance of the Image from its pole is called the image
distance (v)
● The distance of the principal focus from the pole is called the focal
length (f)

Magnification (m):
Magnification Produced by a spherical mirror gives the relative Extent to
which the image of an Object is magnified with respect to the Object's
size.

1. 0<m<1: Diminished ( Between 0 and 1)

2. m=1: Same Size
3. m>1: Enlarged

#An object is placed at a distance of 8cm from a convex mirror of a

focal length of 12cm. Find the position of the image.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Ans: Also, in the case of a concave mirror, the magnification will be negative
because the object and mage will be above and below the principal axis.
So, m=-4 = Hi /Ho (Given)
Since the object is in front of a mirror (opposite to the direction of the ray of
light), it will be negative U = -12 cm (Given)
Find the distance of the image (v).
m= -4 = v/-12
Therefore V=-48 (Ans)
*A negative sign indicates that the image forms in front of the mirror.

REFRACTION
A Change in the path of a light ray as it passes from one medium to
another medium is called the Refraction of light.

LAWS OF REFRACTION:
● The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the
surface of separation of two media at the same point of
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
● Snell’s law: The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of
angle of refraction for a light of a given color is constant for a
given pair of media.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Refraction through a Rectangular Glass slab:

i= Incident Ray
r= Reflected Ray
e= Emergent Ray

● Angle of incidence = Angle of emergence (∠i)=(∠e)

● When a ray of light is incident perpendicularly on
a plane glass slab, it passes through undeviated. In
this case, the angle of incidence (∠i) is 0°, and
therefore, the angle of refraction (∠r) is also 0°.

Refractive Index:
The refractive index measures how light changes direction when it
moves from air to another material. It shows how fast or slow light
travels and bends in different substances, helping us understand its
behavior.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Absolute refractive index:

The absolute refractive index is the refractive index of a substance
compared to a vacuum (where the first medium is free space or a vacuum).
The refractive index of water is 1.33, which means that light travels about
1.33 times slower in water compared to its speed in air.

Spe Qu s o :
#

Sol o :

Sol o :
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Spherical Lens:
A spherical lens is an optical lens with a curved surface that causes light rays
to converge or diverge.

1 . Thick at middle 1. Thin at middle

2. Converging Lens 2. Diverging lens

(1) Concave lens - A concave lens is thin in the middle and thicker at the edges,
and it makes light spread out.
(2) Convex lens - A convex lens has a thicker middle and thinner edges, and it
makes light converge.

Terms used in Spherical Lens:

● Center of curvature (c): The center of curvature for a

spherical lens is the point on the principal axis that is at the
same distance from the lens as the radius of curvature.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

● Principal Axis: An imaginary straight line passing through the

two centers of curvature of a lens is called its principal Axis.

● Principal focus: The point where parallel rays meet (convex

lens) or appear to diverge from (concave lens). Lenses have two
such points.

● Aperture: The aperture of a spherical lens is its effective

diameter, representing the size of the circular outline.

● Optical center (O): The optical center of a lens is where light

passes through without bending.

● Focal length: Focal length is the distance between the principal

focus and the optical center.

RAY DIAGRAMS:
Rul :
● Rays parallel to the principal axis converge at the principal focus
after refraction in a convex lens, while they appear to diverge from
the principal focus in a concave lens.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

● A ray passing through or directed to the focus will emerge parallel

to the principal axis.

● A ray directed towards the optical center will emerge without

deviation.

Image formation by Convex Lens:

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Image formation by Concave Lens:

Lens formula & Magnification:

● u= image distance
● v = object distance,
● f= focal length
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Note: We apply sign conventions similar to those used for spherical

mirrors, with the exception that all measurements are taken from the
optical center of the lens.

Magnification - Ratio of the height of the Image and the height

of the Object Represented by (m)

hi - height of the image

ho- height of the object

(-Ve) Sign shows that the image is virtual & erect.

(+Ve) Sign shows that the image is real & inverted.

Power of Lens:
The power of a lens is a measure of its ability to converge or
diverge light and is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length
(F) in meters. It is typically measured in diopters (D) and is
calculated using the formula:

f - focal length in meter.

SI unit => (D) Dioptre
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# TOP 7 QUESTIONS
Q.1) As the velocity of light increases, the refractive index of the medium decreases.
Light enters from air to water having a refractive index of 4/3. Find the speed of light
in water. The speed of light in a vacuum is 3*10^{8} m/s. [CBSE 2012] (2 - Marks)

Sol o :

Q.2)An object is placed at the focus of a convex lens. Draw a ray diagram to locate the
position of the image formed, if any. State its position and nature. [CBSE 2013] (2-Marks)

Sol o :

Q.3) What is meant by the power of a lens? Give its SI unit. When two or more lenses are
placed in contact, what will their combined power? [CBSE 2012] (2-Marks)

Sol o :

Q.4) Differentiate between reflection and refraction of light.

Sol o :
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Q.5) (a) Name the spherical mirror used as: [CBSE 2012] (2-Marks)
1. Shavingmirror,
2. Rearview mirror in vehicles,
3. Reflector in search – fights.
(b) Write any three differences between a real and virtual image

Sol o : (a)

(b)

Q.6) A 2.0 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex lens of
1 focal length 10 cm. The distance of the object from the lens is 15 cm. Find the
position, nature, and size of the image forms. [All India 2013] (5-Marks)

Sol o :
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Q.7) (a) A concave mirror produces a three-times enlarged image of an object placed 10
cm in front of it Calculate the focal length of the mirror.
(b) Show the formation of the image with the help of a ray diagram when the object is
placed 6 cm away from the pole of a convex mirror.

Sol o :

# Competency-based Question-Answer:
Q.1) A rear-view mirror is a device that allows the driver to see the traffic on the road
behind him. It usually finds its place at the top of the
windscreen inside the cabin. This device is one of the
most basic but essential safety devices in the vehicle.
It provides assistance to the driver during overtaking,
parking in reverse gear, etc. Generally, vehicles also
have a pair of mirrors attached to the body from the
outside. They are known as 'side mirrors or Outer
Rear View Mirrors (ORVM) which serve the same
purpose. Almost all modern cars mount their side mirrors on the doors-normally at A-pillar
rather than the wings (the portion of the body above the wheel well).
 PRASHANT KIRAD

(a) What type of Mirror is required to make ORVM in the vehicles?

(b) What type of image is formed by such a mirror?
(C) Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of an image by this type of mirror.
(d) Why are these types of mirrors used as rear-view mirrors in vehicles?

Sol o :
(a) Convex Mirror
(b) Convex mirror always forms an erect, virtual, and diminished image for all positions of
the object placed in front of it.

(c)

(d) Convex mirrors are used as rear-view mirrors in vehicles to see the traffic at the rear
side (or back side) because- (i) a convex mirror always produces an erect image of the
object; (ii) the image formed in a convex mirror is highly diminished due to which a convex
mirror gives a wide field of view.

Q.2) The above images are those of a specialized slide projector. Slides are small
transparencies mounted in
sturdy frames ideally suited
to magnification and
projection since they have a
very high resolution and a
high image quality. There is
a tray where the slides are
to be put into a particular
orientation so that the
viewers can see the enlarged erect images of the transparent slides. This means that the
slides will have to be inserted upside down in the projector tray. To show her students
the images of insects that she investigated in the lab, Mrs. Iyer brought a slide
projector. Her slide projector produced a 500-times enlarged and inverted image of a
slide on a screen 10 m away. (CBSE 22-23 SQPs)

(a) Based on the text and data given in the above paragraph, what kind of lens must the
slide projector have?
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(b) If v is the symbol used for image distance and u for object distance then with one
reason state what will be the sign for 𝑣/u in the given case.

(c) A slide projector has a convex lens with a focal length of 20 cm. The slide is placed
upside down 21 cm from the lens. How far away should the screen be placed from the
slide projector’s lens so that the slide is in focus?

(d) When a slide is placed 15 cm behind the lens in the projector, an image is formed 3 m
in front of the lens. If the focal length of the lens is 14 cm, draw a ray diagram to show
image formation. (not to scale)

(d) When a slide is placed 15 cm behind the lens in the projector, an image is formed 3 m
in front of the lens. If the focal length of the lens is 14 cm, draw a ray diagram to show
image formation. (not to scale)

Sol o :
(a) The slide projector has a Convex lens.
(b) Sign of v/u i.e. "m" will be negative as the image formed is real and
inverted.
c) Given f=20cm, u = -21 cm; v (screen distance) = ?
using lens formula 1/u + 1/f = 1/v
=> 1/v = 1/20 + 1/-21
=> 1/v = 21-20/420 = 1/420
v = 420 cm or 4.2 m
So, the screen be placed 4.2 m away from the lens of the projector.
(d)

Here the slide is placed between F and 2F of the lens and the image is
formed beyond 2F' of lens on its other side.
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Human Eye
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

THE HUMAN EYE

The human eye is a complex and highly specialized sensory organ
responsible for the sense of vision. It is one of the primary
components of the visual system in humans and plays a crucial role in
perceiving the world around us.

Parts of the Human Eye:

● Cornea:-> The transparent, curved outermost layer of the eye that helps to
focus incoming light.

● Pupil:-> The small, adjustable opening in the center of the eye that regulates the
amount of light entering the eye.

● Iris:-> The colored part of the eye that surrounds the pupil and controls the size
of the pupil.

● Retina:-> The innermost layer of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells (rods
and cones) that convert light into electrical signals, initiating the visual process.

● Aqueous and Vitreous Humors:-> Clear fluids that fill the front and back
chambers of the eye, providing nourishment and maintaining the shape of the eye.
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● Optic Nerve:-> The bundle of nerve fibers that transmits the electrical signals
generated in the retina to the brain for processing.

Power of Accommodation:
The power of accommodation is the eye's ability to adjust and focus on
objects at different distances by changing the shape of the lens, allowing
us to see clearly at various ranges.

Defects of vision:
M O :
Myopia, or nearsightedness, is a vision condition where distant
objects appear blurry due to the eye's inability to focus properly
on them.

Ca s of Myo :
1. Excessive Curvature of the eye lens.
2. Elongation of the eyeball

Cor t o of Myo :
Myopia can be corrected by using a concave (diverging) lens of appropriate
focal length (or Power)
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Hy e m pi :
Hypermetropia, also known as farsightedness, is a vision condition
where distant objects are clearer than close-up objects due to the
eye's inability to focus on nearby objects properly.

Ca s of Hy e m pi :
1. Large focal length of the eye lens.
2. Shortening of the eyeball.

Cor t o of Hy e m pi :
Hypermetropia can be corrected by using a convex (converging) lens of
appropriate focal length (Or Power)

Pre y a:
Presbyopia is an age-related vision condition
where it becomes difficult to focus on close-up
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objects, usually requiring reading glasses for correction.

Ca s of Pre y a:
1. Gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles with age.
2. Decreasing flexibility of the crystalline lens.

Cor t o of Pre y a:
For a person suffering from both myopia and hypermetropia, bi-focal
lenses are required in which the upper part is a concave lens and lower part
is a convex lens.

PRISM
A prism is an optically transparent material with a minimum of two
angled surfaces, causing the refraction or bending of light as it
passes through due to the surface inclination.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Dispersion Of White Light By A Glass Prism:

A glass prism disperses white light, splitting it into its constituent
colors, and creating a rainbow-like spectrum due to the varying
refraction of different wavelengths of light.

*Wha is t e ca of di r o ?
Dis s o oc s du to t e va n re c e in s of diff t co s
or wa n h of li t w e pa n t o g a t a s n me li a
p i m, ca g t e to s e d o t.

Recombination Of White Light:

Recombination of white light involves merging the separated colors
(spectrum) created by a prism or similar device, resulting in the restoration
of white light.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# Secret Questions
1) State the cause of dispersion, when white light enters a glass prism. Explain with a
diagram.(All India 2014)
Solution:
When white light passes through a prism it splits
into its constituent colors, because each colored
light has a different speed in a prism. Prism has
different refractive index for these light rays and
so deviates through different angles when emerge
from the prism. Deviation for violet colour
(shortest wavelength) is the most and for red
colour (largest wavelength) deviation is the least.

2) (a) Calculate maximum power of accommodation of a person having normal vision.

(b) A person needs to use glasses for reading newspaper. Identify the defect in her vision and
the type of lens she would need to correct it.
c) Sometimes when we enter into a dark room from bright sunlight we are unable to see
objects clearly. Why? [CBSE 2014]
Solution:
(a) Least distance of distinct vision for a normal eye D = 25 cm.

For a person having normal vision, the power of accommodation is 4 D.

(b) Hypermetropia, to correct hypermetropia convex lens is needed
(c) In bright light the pupil contract its size becomes small to control the light,
but when we enter into a dark room it take sometime for the pupil to expand to
allow more light in dark room.

3) State one function each of iris, pupil, and cornea. [CBSE 2014]
Solution:
a. Iris: It controls the amount of light entering the eye by changing the size of
pupil.
b. Pupil: Pupil is a part of the eye through which light enters in the eye.
c. Cornea: It is a thin membrane which covers the eye ball. Light enters the eye
through cornea where it is refracted most.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Rainbow:
A rainbow is a colorful, circular arc of light in the sky that
appears after rain, caused by the bending of sunlight in water
droplets, resulting in the colors red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, and violet in that order.

● Water droplets act as miniature prisms.

● Water droplets refract and disperse incoming sunlight, then internally
refract it, and ultimately refract it once more upon exiting the raindrop.

Atmospheric Refraction:
When refraction occurs between two mediums, and one of these mediums is
Earth's atmosphere, this phenomenon is referred to as atmospheric
refraction.
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Consequences of Atmospheric Refraction:

Twinkling of stars: Twinkling of stars is caused by the

bending of starlight as it passes through Earth's atmosphere,
resulting from variations in the atmosphere's refractive index.
These variations lead to rapid fluctuations in a star's apparent
position and brightness, creating the twinkling effect when
observed from Earth.

Planets do not Twinkle: Planets do not twinkle because they

appear as small disks and reflect the Sun's light, resulting in
a more stable and constant source of illumination when
viewed from Earth, unlike distant stars, which are point
sources of light.

Advance sunrise and Delayed sunset: We can see the sun approximately
two minutes before it officially rises and about two minutes after it
technically sets. This phenomenon is a result of atmospheric refraction.

Scattering of light:
The dispersion of light in all directions when it interacts with an object is
known as the scattering of light. This phenomenon is influenced by the type
of particles involved.
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Extremely fine particles predominantly scatter light

in the blue color spectrum. Conversely, larger
particles scatter light with longer wavelengths. The
shorter the wavelength, the more pronounced the
scattering.

Consequences of Light Scattering:

Tyndall Effect:
The Tyndall Effect is observed when Earth's atmosphere, composed of tiny
particles like smoke, minuscule water droplets, and airborne dust, becomes
visible because of the scattering of light.

Colour of Sky is blue:

The blue color of the sky is a result of a phenomenon known as Rayleigh
scattering. In Earth's atmosphere, the small molecules of air and fine
particles effectively scatter shorter-wavelength light, especially at the
blue end of the spectrum, more than longer-wavelength light at the red
end. As sunlight travels through the atmosphere, these tiny particles
scatter blue light more prominently than red. This scattered blue light
enters our eyes, giving the sky its characteristic blue color.

Colour of Sun at Sunrise and Sunset:

At sunrise and sunset, the Sun appears red or
orange due to the longer path of sunlight through
Earth's atmosphere, which scatters shorter
wavelengths and lets red and orange colors
dominate.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# TOP 7 QUESTIONS
1) “A person cannot read a book at distances less than 50 cm. Name the defect
of vision he is suffering from. How can it be corrected? Draw ray diagrams to
show the image formation: a. by defective eye and b. after using a corrective
lens
Solution:
a. Either the hypermetropic eyeball is too short or
b. The ciliary muscle is unable to change the shape of the lens enough to
properly focus the image i.e., the focal length of the eye lens is too long. This
defect is called hypermetropia.

2) (a) If a person wears a lens of power - 6D for distant vision and for
correcting his near vision he needs a lens of +2D. Determine the focal length of
the lenses in both cases. [CBSE 2016]
(b) Give a reason for the following natural phenomenon:
(i) Stars twinkle
(ii) Planets do not twinkle
(iii) Stars appear raised in the sky.
Solution:
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(b) (i) Due to continuous changes in the densities of the atmospheric layers the
apparent position of the star also changes; which makes the light coming from
the distant point-sized star brighter and dimmer. The light coming from the
stars therefore gives a shaking appearance, which gives the impression of the
twinkling of a star.
(ii) Since the planets are closer to us. Due to this they appear a combination of
large point-size source of light, and change in the path of light coming from the
planets is not significant. So planets do not appear twinkling.
(iii) Due to atmospheric refraction, a star appears to be slightly higher than its
actual position in the sky.

3) a) Explain why colour of the sky appears blue during the day with the help of
a diagram.
(b) Explain why the Sun looks reddish at the time of sunrise and sunset.
Solution:
(a) Due to the scattering of blue colours by the dust particles present in the
atmosphere.
(b) During the Sunrise or Sunset, Sun is at the horizon, and sunlight travels a
longer distance in the atmosphere. Due to this, all colours get scattered except
red which reaches the eye of the observer to whom sun appears reddish in the
morning or evening.

4) Why do stars twinkle? Explain

Solution:
Light coming from stars when enters the Earth’s atmosphere suffers refraction
from the atmospheric layers. Since the densities of atmospheric gases change
frequently. Since the stars are point-sized and at a far distance sometimes
stars appear brighter and sometimes dimmer which gives the impression as the
stars twinkling.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

5) (a) What is the least distance of distinct vision for the normal eye?
(b) Does the above distance increase or decrease for long sighted eye? Give a
reason for your answer with a diagram.
Solution:
(a) For a normal human eye, the least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm.
(b) Least distance of distinct vision increases for long-sighted eyes. A
hypermetropic eye can see up to an infinite distance, which is more than 25 cm.

6) With the help of a diagram, explain the formation of a rainbow in the sky.
Solution:
The water droplets in the atmosphere act like small prisms. These droplets
refract and disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally, and finally
refract it again when it comes out of the raindrop. Due to the distortion of
sunlight and internal reflection, different colours reach the observer.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

6) A person with a defective eye-vision is unable to see objects nearer

than 1.5 m. He wants to read books at a distance of 30 cm. Find the nature,
focal length, and power of the lens he needs in his spectacles. (CBSE 2016)
Solution:

# Competency-based Question-Answer:
1. A prism is a transparent refracting medium bounded by two plane surfaces inclined to each
1)
other at a certain angle. The refraction of light through a prism follows the laws of refraction. In
The spreading of light by the air molecules is called scattering of light.
the prism, refraction takes place on its refracting surface it means when the light enters the
Theand
prism light
whenhaving
the lightthe least
leaves the wavelength scatters
prism. The refraction more.
through Theis sun
a prism appears
shown. Here, A red
is the
angle of prism, i is the angle of incidence of the face AB and Ze is the angle of emergence at
at sunrise and sunset, the appearance of a blue sky is due to the scattering
other face AC.
ofincident
The light. ray
The colour
suffers of theor scattered
a deviation light
bending through depends
an angle 8 due toonthethe size of
refraction the
through
prism. This angle is called angle of deviation as shown in figure.
particles. The smaller the molecules in the atmosphere scatter smaller the
wavelengths of light. The amount of scattering of light depends on the
wavelength of light. When light from the sun enters the earth’s
atmosphere, it gets scattered by the dust particles and air molecules
present in the atmosphere. The path of sunlight entering the dark room
through a fine hole is seen because of the scattering of the sunlight by the
dust particles present in its path inside the room.

(a) What is the phenomenon referred to as the scattering of light, and why does
it occur?
 PRASHANT KIRAD

2. The spreading of light by the air molecules is called scattering of light. The light having least
wavelength scatters more. The sun appears red at sunrise and sunset, appearance of blue sky it is due
to the scattering of light. The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of particles. The
smaller the molecules in the atmosphere scatter smaller wavelengths of light. The amount of
(b) Why
scattering does depends
of light the sunon appear red at ofsunrise
the wavelength and light
light. When sunset,
fromand
sun what
entersrole does the
the earth's
atmosphere,
scattering it of
getsligscattered by the
ht play in this dust particles and air molecules present in the atmosphere. The
phenomenon?
path of sunlight entering in the dark room through a fine hole is seen because of scattering of the sun
(c)byHow
light thedoes
dust the
particles present
size of in its
particles in path inside the room.
the atmosphere affect the color of scattered light, and
what determines which wavelengths are scattered more by smaller particles?

(d) What causes the path of sunlight entering a dark room through a fine hole to be visible, and how
does this relate to the scattering of sunlight?

Solution:
(a) The scattering of light is the dispersion and redirection of light by air molecules
and particles in the atmosphere. It occurs because shorter wavelengths of light
scatter more easily due to their interaction with smaller particles and molecules.

(b) The sun appears red at sunrise and sunset because, at these times, sunlight
has to pass through more of Earth's atmosphere. The scattering of light is
responsible for this phenomenon as it scatters shorter wavelengths (blue and
green) more, allowing longer wavelengths (red and orange) to dominate our line of
sight, giving the sun a red appearance.

(c) The size of particles in the atmosphere affects the color of scattered light.
Smaller particles scatter shorter wavelengths (e.g., blue light) more effectively
due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, where shorter wavelengths are
scattered more than longer ones.

(d) The path of sunlight through a hole in a dark room is visible due to light
scattering off dust particles, which is the same scattering effect responsible
for various optical phenomena.

2) As we know that, the ciliary muscles are responsible for changes in the focal length of
the eye lens. This ability of the eye lens to change the focal length is referred to as
accommodation. The least distance of distinct vision of the normal eye is a about 25 cm and
the far point of the normal eye is found to be at infinity. Because of refractive defects of
vision in human beings 3 defects are possible they are myopia, hypermetropia, and presbyopia.
In the case of myopia, a person can see nearby objects clearly but cannot able to see distant
objects distinctly. In this defect, the image is formed in front of the retina, and hence to
correct this defect concave lens which is a diverging lens of suitable power is used to form
the image on the retina. In the case of hypermetropia, the person is not able to see nearby
objects clearly but he can see distant objects distinctly. Hence in this case, the image is
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Electricity
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Electricity
Electric charge: (Sy ol=q)
A physical phenomenon characterized by an excess or deficiency of electrons
in a body.
° It is a scalar quantity.
° The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C).

Mag de of el r c ag:

Electric Current:(s bo =i)

The quantity of electric charge 'Q' flowing through a specific cross-sectional
area in unit time 't'.
° It is a scalar quantity.
° The SI unit of current is the Ampere (A).

The direction of electric current is considered opposite to the flow of electrons,

and in a circuit, conventional current flows from the battery's positive terminal
to the negative terminal.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q
Sol o :

Electric Potential:(Sy ol=V)

The amount of work done (1 W) when moving a unit positive charge (1C)
from infinity to a specific point.
° It is a scalar Quantity.
° SI unit is volt (V)

Electric Potential Difference: (Sy ol=ΔV)

It quantifies the energy expended per unit of electric charge. Electric
potential, delineated as the variance in electric potential energy between
two locations within an electric field, corresponds to the energy expended
for each charging unit when transporting it from one point to another in an
electrostatic field.
° It is a scalar Quantity.
° SI unit is joules per coulomb.

The measurement of the electric potential difference between two

points in a circuit is accomplished using a device known as a
voltmeter.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Electric circuit:
An electric circuit is a closed and unbroken loop that facilitates the flow of
electric current. It comprises diverse components, such as a current source
(like a cell or battery), a load (such as a bulb or any appliance), a switch (for
opening or closing the circuit), a fuse, and interconnecting wires, typically
constructed from copper.

° When the switch is closed, the circuit is termed a closed circuit

(allowing the current to flow).
° Conversely, when the switch is open, the circuit is referred to as an
open circuit (preventing the flow of current).

Circuit Diagram:
It is a visual depiction of a circuit wherein various electrical components are
represented by their symbols.

Ohm's Law:
According to this principle, the electric current coursing through a conductor
exhibits a direct proportionality to the applied potential difference across its
terminals, under the condition that physical factors like temperature remain
constant.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Resistance:(Sy ol=Ω)
It is the characteristic of a conductor that hinders or resists the
movement of electric charge through it. This property is known as
resistance. Resistance is a scalar quantity, and its unit in the International
System of Units (SI) is the ohm, denoted by the symbol Ω.

The resistance of a conductor depends on several factors, including:

1. Length (L): The longer the conductor, the greater the resistance.
2. Cross-sectional Area (A): Wider pathways (larger cross-sectional area
(A) in a conductor make it easier for electric current to flow by reducing
resistance.
3. Material Resistivity (ρ): Different materials have different inherent
resistances. Resistivity is a property of the material itself.
4. Temperature (T): Generally, resistance increases with temperature. This
is a more complex relationship and depends on the material.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Resistivity:
Resistivity is a property of materials that describes their ability to impede the
flow of electric current. It is denoted by the symbol (ρ) (rho) and is measured in
ohm-meters (Ω⋅m) in the International System of Units (SI). The formula for
resistivity (ρ) is:

R= ρ(L/A)
Resistivity (ρ) is a material property
measuring its resistance to electrical
current flow. Conductors like metals
have low resistivity, allowing easy
current flow, while insulators have
high resistivity. Ohm's Law (I=V/R)
relates current (I), voltage (V), and
resistance (R), where resistance
depends on the material's resistivity
(ρ) length (L), and cross-sectional area (A).

# Secret Questions
Q1) Name the device/instrument used to measure a potential difference. How is it
connected to an electric circuit? [CBSE 2016]
Sol o : The device that is used to measure potential difference is a voltmeter.
A voltmeter is connected in parallel to an electric circuit.

Q2) Many free electrons are present in metals yet no current flows in the
absence of electric potential. Explain the statement with reason. [CBSE 2014]
Sol o : Though there are a large number of free electrons present in a conductor,
their motion is random motion in the absence of potential difference. Their average
velocity is zero. Hence there is no current flowing in a conductor. But when a
potential difference is applied across the ends of the conductor, it sets the
electrons to move in a direction. The motion of charge produces an electric current in
the conductor.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q3) List two differences between a voltmeter and an ammeter in a tabular

form. [CBSE 2014]
Sol o :

Q4)

Sol o :

Series Combination:

I=Sam
V=Div

Series combination formula:

Total resistance is the sum of individual resistances.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

1. Adding Resistances: In a series circuit, you just add up all the resistances
to find the total resistance.
2. Total Resistance is Higher: The total resistance in a series is greater than
any single resistor.
3. One Stops, All Stop: If one component in a series circuit stops working,
everything in the circuit stops.
4. Not for Different Devices: Series circuits are not good for devices like
bulbs and heaters because they need different amounts of current.

Parallel Combination:

I=Div
V=Sam

Parallel combination formula: Inverse of

total resistance equals the sum of
inverses of individual resistances

1. Add Inverses: In a parallel circuit, sum the inverses of individual

resistances to find the reciprocal of the total resistance.
2. Lower Total Resistance: The overall resistance in parallel is less than that
of any single resistor.
3. Diverse Currents: Different currents flow through components in parallel.
4. Continued Operation: If one component fails, others continue to operate in
a parallel circuit.

# Secret Questions
Q1) [C8SE 2006)
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Sol o :

Q2)

Sol o :

Heating effect of electric current:

In an electric circuit, the source must continuously provide energy to
maintain current flow. Some energy sustains the current, while the rest
dissipates as heat—known as the heating effect of electric current.

Joule's Law of Heating:

This law indicates that the heat generated in a resistor is:
1. Directly proportional to the square of the current (I) flowing through
the resistance (R).
2. Directly proportional to the resistance (R) in the circuit.
3. Directly proportional to the time (t) for which the current flows.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Practical applications of the heating effects of electric current include:

Producing Light (Electric Bulb): The bulb features a tungsten filament

with high resistivity and melting point. The application of voltage heats
the filament, making it white-hot and emitting light.

Electric Fuse: A safety device in household circuits, it contains a lead

and tin alloy with a specific melting point. If the current surpasses the
safe limit, the fuse wire heats, melts, and interrupts the circuit,
safeguarding other elements from potential hazards.

Power:
1. Definition of Electrical Power (P): Electrical power (P) is defined as the
rate at which electric charge is consumed or transferred in a circuit per unit
of time.
2. Scalar Quantity: Electrical power is a scalar quantity, meaning it only has
magnitude and no direction.
3. Unit of Electrical Power: The unit of electrical power is the watt (W).
The relationship between power (P), current (I), and resistance (R) is given by
Ohm's Law (P = I^2R).

1. Kilowatt (kW):
- 1 kilowatt (1 kW) is equivalent to 1000 watts (1000 W).
2. Megawatt (MW):
- 1 megawatt (1 MW) is equivalent to (10^6) watts (1,000,000 W).
3. Gigawatt (GW):
- 1 gigawatt (1 GW) is equivalent to (10^9) watts (1,000,000,000 W).
4. Horsepower (HP):
- 1 horsepower (1 HP) is approximately equal to 746 watts (746 W).
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Commercial unit of electrical energy:

1 {ki t -ho (kW )} = 1000 wa -ho (Wh)
Since 1 watt-hour is equal to 3600 joules (J):

1000 {Wh} = 1000 * 3600 J

This simplifies to
1000 {Wh} = 3.6 * 10^6{J}
So, 1 kilowatt-hour is equivalent to (3.6 times 10^6) joules.

Number of units consumed by electric appliances:

Certainly! The number of units consumed by an electric appliance is
calculated by multiplying its power (in kilowatts) by the time
it is in use (in hours). The formula is:
Ene y (kW ) = Pow (kW) * Tim (ho )
For example, if you have a 1.5 kW appliance running for 3
hours:
{Energy (kWh)} = 1.5 {kW} * 3 hours = 4.5 {kWh}

So, the appliance consumes 4.5 kilowatt-hours of energy during that period.

# Top Seven Question:

Q1) What is the function of a galvanometer in a circuit? [CBSE 2019]
Sol o : A galvanometer is used to detect and measure electric currents in a
circuit. It indicates the presence and direction of current flow.
Q2) State Ohm’s law. [Delhi 2016]
Sol o : If the physical conditions of a conductor remain the same then the
current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
b/w the two ends of the conductor.
I ∝ V => V= IR
Q3) The power of a lamp is 60 W. Find the energy in joules consumed by it in 1
s. [CBSE 2014]
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Sol o :

Q4) An electric kettle of 2 kW works for 2 h daily. Calculate the [CBSE 2014]
(a) energy consumed in SI and commercial units
(b) cost of running it in the month of June at the rate of `3.00 per unit.
Sol o :

Q5) (a) Explain why a conductor offers resistance to the flow of current.
(b) Differentiate between conductor, resistor, and resistance.
Sol o : a. When a current is passed through a conductor, the atoms or
molecules of the conductor produce a hindrance in the path of flow of
electrons. This hindrance in the path of the flow of charge is called the
resistance of the conductor.
b. A substance that allows it to pass the charges through them easily is called
a conductor. Resistor: A conductor having some value of resistance is called a
resistor. Resistance: It is the property of any conductor by virtue of which it
opposes the flow of charge through it.
Q6) Two conducting wires of the same material, equal length, and equal
diameter are connected in series. How does the heat produced by the
combination of resistance change? [CBSE 2010]
Sol o :
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q7) (a) Define the term ‘volt’.

(b) State the relation between work, charge, and potential difference for an
electric circuit. Calculate the potential difference between the two terminals
of a battery, if 100 joules of work is required to transfer 20 coulombs of
charge from one terminal of the battery to the other.
Sol o : a. Potential difference b/w two points in an electric field is said to be 1
volt if the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one point
to another point is 1 J.

# Competency Based Question:

Q1)

Vinita and Ahmed demonstrated a circuit that operates the two headlights and
the two sidelights of a car, in their school exhibition. Based on their
demonstrated circuit, answer the following questions.
(i) State what happens when switch A is connected to
a) Position 2
b) Position 3
(ii) Find the potential difference across each lamp when lit.
(iii) Calculate the current
a) in each 12 Ω lamp when lit.
b) In each 4 Ω lamp when lit.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Sol o :
(i) Switch A connected to:
a) Position 2: Both headlights and sidelights are turned on.
b) Position 3: Only the sidelights are on.
(ii) Potential Difference Across Each Lamp When Lit:
The potential difference across each lamp is determined by the voltage
supplied to the circuit. If the car's electrical system operates at a standard
voltage (e.g., 12V), then each lamp receives this voltage when lit.
(iii) Current Calculation:
a) In Each 12 Ω Lamp When Lit:
Ohm's Law (V = IR) can be used to calculate current. If the potential
difference (V) is known and the resistance (R) of the lamp is given, the
current (I) can be found.
b) In Each 4 Ω Lamp When Lit:
Similar to part (a), apply Ohm's Law using the potential difference across the
lamp and its resistance to find the current.
It's crucial to note that without specific values for potential difference (voltage) or other electrical
parameters, exact numerical calculations cannot be performed. You would need these values to substitute
into Ohm's Law (V = IR) to find the current in each lamp.

Q2)

The diagram above is a schematic diagram of a household circuit. The house

shown in the above diagram has 5 usable spaces where electrical connections
are made. For this house, the mains have a voltage of 220 V and the net
current coming from the mains is 22A.
(a) What is the mode of connection to all the spaces in the house from the
mains?
 PRASHANT KIRAD

(b) Spaces 5 and 4 have the same resistance and spaces 3 and 2 have
respective resistances of 20Ω and 30Ω. Space 1 has a resistance double that
of Space 5. What is the net resistance for space 5?
(c) What is the current in space 3?
(d) What should be placed between the main connection and the rest of the
house’s electrical appliances to save them from accidental high electric
current?
Sol o :
(a)The mode of connection to all the spaces in the house from the mains is
Parallel Connections. Elements connected in parallel connections are connected
along numerous paths, and each element has the exact voltage across it,
proportional to the voltage across the network.

(d) Fuse wire should be placed between the main connection and the rest of the
house's electrical appliances to save them from accidental high electric current. The
fuse is positioned in the live wire just after the 'electricity meter' of the customer.
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Magnetic Effects
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

Hans Christian Oersted found that if you put a compass

next to a wire with an electric current flowing through it,
the needle in the compass would move. He thought this
happened because the electric current created a magnetic
field, which caused the compass needle to deflect.

Magnetic fields:
The region around a magnet where a magnetic force is felt is called the
magnetic field. It's a vector quantity, and its unit in the International
System of Units (SI) is the tesla.

Magnetic field Lines:

Imaginary lines that depict the magnetic field are
observed when iron fillings are placed near a
magnet, forming a pattern that illustrates the
arrangement of magnetic field lines.

● Magnetic field lines start at the North pole of a magnet

and extend to the South pole outside the magnet.
However, within the magnet, the direction is from South
to North.
● They create unbroken, closed curves.
● The tangent indicates the direction of the magnetic field at any point on
the magnetic field lines.
● Magnetic field lines never intersect each other.
● When magnetic field lines are closely spaced, the magnetic field is
stronger. Conversely, the magnetic field is weaker if the field lines are
spaced farther apart.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

The magnetic field is produced by a current flowing through a straight conductor.

● Magnetic field lines form concentric circles with the

center at the wire.
● The strength of the magnetic field increases with an
increase in current.
● The strength of the magnetic field decreases as we move
away from the wire.

# Maxwell's Right-Hand thumb Rule:

Maxwell's Right-Hand Thumb Rule helps you find the

direction of the magnetic field around a wire with
current. Point your thumb in the direction of the
current, and the way your fingers curl shows the
magnetic field's direction.

# Magnetic field due to a current through a

circular Loop:

When current flows through a circular loop:

1. Inside the loop, the magnetic field runs along the axis.
2. Outside the loop, it forms concentric circles.
3.The field's strength depends on the current and loop size.
4. The direction inside is determined by the current using
the right-hand rule.

# Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid:

*Whe cu n flow t o g a so id*
1. Magnetic field lines run through the core.
2. It resembles the magnetic field around a
bar magnet.
3. Strength depends on current and the
number of turns in the solenoid.
4. The field's direction is determined by the
right-hand rule.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Electromagnet:
An electromagnet is a temporary magnet created by
passing an electric current through a coil of wire. It
exhibits magnetic properties only when the current
flows, making it useful in various applications like
doorbells and electric locks. The strength of the
electromagnet can be adjusted by changing the current
or the number of coils in the wire.

Force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field:

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field:

1. It experiences a force perpendicular to both the current direction and the

magnetic field direction.
2. The force's strength increases with the amount of current and the strength of
the magnetic field.
3. The direction of the force is determined by Fleming's Left-Hand Rule, where the
thumb represents motion, the forefinger indicates magnetic field, and the middle
finger denotes current direction.

# Fleming's Left Hand rule:

Fleming's Left-Hand Rule is a way to figure out the direction of three things: the
magnetic field (first finger), the current (second finger), and the force or motion (thumb).
*

Imagine holding your left hand with your

thumb, first finger, and second finger at
right angles to each other. If you point your
first finger in the direction of the magnetic
field, and the second finger in the direction
of the current, then your thumb will point in
the direction of the force or motion. It helps
to remember how these three things are
related in a magnetic field.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Secret Questions
1) Why do two magnetic field lines not intersect?
Sol o : Magnetic field lines do not intersect because if they did, it would
imply that at the point of intersection, a compass needle would need to show
two different directions simultaneously, which is not possible.

2) What is meant by the term, 'magnetic field'? Why does a compass needle
show deflection when brought near a bar magnet?
Sol o : The magnetic field is the space surrounding a magnet where a magnetic
material feels a force due to that magnet. The compass needle, acting like a small
bar magnet, enters the magnetic field of another bar magnet. As a result, the
needle encounters a force from the bar magnet, causing it to deflect.

3) Name and state the rule that determines the direction of the magnetic field
around a straight current-carrying conductor.
Sol o : The Right-Hand Thumb Rule involves holding a current-carrying
straight conductor in your right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction
of the current. The fingers then wrap around the conductor in the direction
of the magnetic field lines.

4) Why are magnetic field lines more crowded towards the pole of the
magnet?
Sol o : Magnetic field lines are more crowded towards the poles of a magnet
because the magnetic field is stronger in those regions due to the
convergence of field lines, indicating higher magnetic force.

5) List two sources of magnetic fields.

Sol o : a. Permanent Magnets Materials like iron, nickel, and cobalt can be
magnetized, creating permanent magnets.
b. Electric Currents: Flowing electric currents create magnetic fields.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Galvanometer:
A device capable of sensing the presence of an electric
current in a circuit. The needle stays at the zero position
(center of the scale) when there is no current. Depending
on the current direction, the pointer can shift to either the
left or right of the zero mark on the scale.

Domestic Circuit:
● Electricity generated at power stations is conveyed to our homes
through two robust copper or aluminum wires.
● One of these wires is known as the live wire, distinguished by its
red insulation cover, and it operates at a voltage of 220 V with a
frequency of 50 Hz.
● The other is termed the neutral wire, identifiable by its black
insulation cover, and it is at zero potential.
● The live and neutral wires enter an electricity meter, commonly
installed in homes, through a primary fuse.
● They are linked to the line wires in the home through a primary
switch.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

● Each distribution circuit is equipped with an individual fuse. In the

event of a fault, such as a short circuit in one circuit, its respective
fuse blows, while the other circuit remains unaffected.

● All electric appliances, such as bulbs and fans, are connected in

parallel across the live wire and neutral wire.

The electric supply reaching our homes has two wires:

1. Live Wire (Phase Wire): Typically colored red or brown, it carries the
current from the power source to the electrical appliances.
2. Neutral Wire: Usually blue or black, it completes the circuit by
providing a return path for the current to flow back to the power source.

EARTH WIRE:
The earth wire, often green or bare, is a safety wire in electrical circuits. It
provides a path for excess electrical current to safely flow into the ground,
preventing electric shocks and ensuring safety in case of faults.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Fuse:
A safety device made of a thin wire composed of a tin and
lead alloy with a low melting point. Its purpose is to
prevent potential damage caused by overloading and
short-circuiting.

Top 7 Questions:
1) What are permanent magnets and electromagnets? Give two uses of each.
[CBSE 2010]
Sol o :
Permanent Magnet: It has a constant magnetic field around it. e.g. generator,
loudspeaker.
Electromagnet: When a soft iron is placed in a solenoid it gets magnetized till
there is current in the solenoid, e.g. electric bells, or cranes.

2) Differentiate overloading and short-circuiting. (CBSE 2010)

Sol o :
Overloading means to draw current more than the permitted maximum current in
the circuit which may be due to connecting many appliances in one socket. In short,
circuiting, when live wire and neutral wire come in contact with each other then the
resistance of the circuit becomes minimal consequently the current in the circuit
increases abruptly. It may be due to damage to the insulation of the wire.

3) What happens to the deflection of the compass needle placed at a point near the
current carrying a straight conductor: (CBSE 2011, 2014)
a. if the current is increased?
b. if the direction of current in the conductor is changed (reversed)?
c. if the compass is moved away from the conductor?
Sol o :
 PRASHANT KIRAD

a. If the current increases deflection of the compass increases.

b. If the direction of current is reversed the deflection in the compass needle is
also reversed.
c. The deflection of the compass needle decreases when a compass is moved away
from the conductor.

4) (a) Which effect of the electric current is utilized in the working of an

electrical fuse?
(b) A fuse is connected in series or parallel in a household circuit? (c)
Draw a schematic labeled diagram of a domestic circuit that has a
provision of a main fuse, meter, one light bulb, and a switch socket.
Sol o :
a. Heating effect of current
b. In series in the household circuit
C.

5) State one main difference between AC and DC. Why AC is preferred over DC
for long-range transmission of electric power? Name one source for each of AC and
DC. (CBSE 2012)
Sol o :
The magnitude and direction of ac remain the same whereas a.c. changes
its magnitude and direction periodically. Low AC voltage can be increased
to high voltage to prevent loss of electric energy during its long-distance
transmission. AC generator and DC generator/or cell.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

6) (a) Mention the color code used for live, neutral, and earth wire.
(b) You want to connect a 2 kW electric oven to the electric circuit. In which power
line would you connect it and why? What may happen if you connect it wrongly to the
other power line?
Sol o :
(a) Live wire – Red Neutral wire – Black Earth wire – Green
(b) 2 kW electric iron draws a large current. If it is connected to a socket of
5A then the fuse will be blown. So it is connected to the power socket of 15 A

7) (a) State the function of a fuse in an electric circuit. How is it connected

in the domestic circuit?
(b) An electric fuse of rating 3A is connected in a circuit in which an electric
iron of power 1.5 kilo watt is connected which operates at 220 V. What would
happen? Explain.
Sol o :
(a) Fuse is a safety device to prevent damage to electrical devices from short
circuits or overloading. A fuse is connected in series with the circuit.

Competency-based Questions:
1. A magnetic field is described by drawing the magnetic field lines. When a small north magnetic
1)is The
pole electric
placed currentfield
in the magnetic in acreated
circuitbygenerates
a magnet, ita will
magnetic field
experience around
a force. Andit.ifThis field
the north
pole is free, it will move under the influence of magnetic field. The path traced by a north magnetic
is free
pole a vector
to movequantity with
under the both magnitude
influence of a magneticand direction.
field Magnetic
is called a fieldline.
magnetic field lines runthe
Since from
direction of magnetic
the north pole tofield
thelinesouth
is the pole,
direction of force
forming on a north
closed pole, so
curves. Thethefield's
magnetic field linesis
strength
always begin from the N-pole of a magnet and end on the S-pole of the magnet. Inside the magnet,
determined
however by the
the direction proximity
of magnetic oflines
field these lines:
is from the closer
S-pole ofmeans stronger,
the magnet and farther
to the N-pole of the
magnet.
meansThus, the magnetic
weaker. fieldcurrent
Increasing lines are enhances
closed curves.
theWhen a smallfield.
magnetic compass is moved along a
magnetic field line, the compass needle always sets itself along the line tangential to it. So, a line
drawn from the south pole of the compass needle to its north pole indicates the direction of the
magnetic field at that point
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Using the right-hand rule, holding a current-carrying conductor aligns the fingers
with the current's direction and the thumb with the magnetic field's direction.
For intensified magnetic fields, solenoids, coils of wire wound into a cylindrical
shape, are used. More turns in the wire or greater current increase the field's
(i) The magnetic field lines
strength. Solenoids
(a) intersect at rightare
anglevital in another
to one creating electromagnets, especially for magnetizing
(b) intersect at an angle of 45° to each other
materials.
(c) do not cross one another
a)(d)What
cross determines
at an angle of the strength
60° to of the magnetic field around a current-carrying
one another.
conductor?
(ii) A strong bar magnet is placed vertically above a horizontal wooden board. The
b)magnetic
How doeslinesincreasing
of force willcurrent
be affect the magnitude of the magnetic field?
(a) only in horizontal plane around the magnet
c)(b)
What isvertical
only in the role of around
plane solenoids
the in creating strong magnetic fields?
magnet
Sol(c) in horizontal as well as in vertical planes around the magnet
(d) o : the planes around the magnet.
in all
a) The strength is determined by the proximity of magnetic field lines, with closer
(iii) Magnetic field lines can be used to determine
lines
(a) indicating
the shape ofa the
stronger field.
magnetic field
b) (b) only the direction of the magnetic field
Increasing the current through the electrical circuit increases the magnitude of
(c) only the relative strength of the magnetic field
the(d)magnetic
both the field.
direction and the relative strength of the magnetic field.
c) Solenoids, formed by winding insulated copper wire into a cylindrical shape, are
used to produce strong magnetic fields, particularly in making electromagnets.

2) The domestic electric circuit consists of a red insulated cover called a live wire, a
(v) Which of the following is not true about magnetic field lines?
wire
(a) with black
Magnetic insulation
field lines are called a neutral
the closed wire, and
and continuous a wire with green insulation called
curve.
an (b) No two
Earth field
wire. We lines can that
know crossthe
eachfuse
other.
is connected in series with the circuit to prevent
(c) Crowdness of field lines represents the strength of magnetic field.
damage
(d) Theto electrical
direction appliances
of field and the
lines is from thenorth
circuit
polefrom
to theoverloading. Overloading
south pole inside a bar occurs
magnet.
when the live wire and the neutral wire come in direct contact with each other. Because
of2.this currentcopper
An insulated through
wirethe circuit
wound increases
on a cylindrical suddenly.
cardboard Also,
tube such overloading
that its lengthmay
is occur
greater than its diameter is called a solenoid. When an electric current is passed through
because of connecting many appliances to a single socket. The Earth wire which is green
the solenoid, it produces a magnetic field around it. The magnetic field produced by a
in current-carrying
color is connected to ais metal
solenoid similar plate
to the deep in the
magnetic fieldearth nearbythe
produced house.
a bar This
magnet. Thetype of
field lines inside the solenoid are in the form of parallel straight lines. The strong magnetic
safety measure is used in appliances like electric presses, toasters, table fans,
field produced inside a current-carrying solenoid can be used to magnetise a piece of
refrigerators, etc.like
magnetic material The
softEarth wireplaced
iron, when givesinside
a low-resistance conducting
the solenoid. The strength of path for the
magnetic
field produced by a current carrying solenoid is directly proportional to the number of turns
electric current.
and strength In this
of current way,
in the it protects us from severe electric shock. All the
solenoid.
appliances are connected in parallel circuits so that the potential difference across
i) The strength of magnetic field inside a long current-carrying straight solenoid is
each appliance will be the same.
(a) more at the ends than at the centre
(b) minimum in the middle
(c) same at all points
a. What are the three wires in a domestic electric
(d) found to increase from one end to the other.
circuit and their respective
colors?
 PRASHANT KIRAD

(ii) The north-south polarities of an electromagnet can be

found easily by using
b. Why(a)
is Fleming's
a fuse connected in series with the circuit, and how does it prevent
right-hand rule
(c) Clock face rule
overloading?
(b) Fleming's left-hand rule
c. How (d)
doesLeft-hand thumb wire
the Earth rule. contribute to electrical safety in appliances, and

what is (iii)
its For a current intoa long
connection the straight
earth?solenoid N-and S-poles are created at the two
ends. Among the following statements, the incorrect statement is
Sol o :
(a) The field lines inside the solenoid are in the form of straight lines which
a. Live indicates
wire (red),
that neutral wire
the magnetic (black),
field and at
is the same earth wireinside
all points (green).
the solenoid.
(b) The strong magnetic field produced inside the solenoid can be used to
b. A fuse prevents
magnetise overloading
a piece by breaking
of magnetic material the
like soft circuit
iron, wheninside
when placed theretheiscoil.
a sudden
(c) Theinpattern
increase of the
current, magneticcaused
typically field associated
by thewith
livethe
andsolenoid is different
neutral wires coming in
from the pattern of the magnetic field around a bar magnet.
direct
(d) contact.
The N- and S-poles exchange position when the direction of current through
the solenoid is reversed.
c.The Earth wire provides a low-resistance path for electric current and is
(iv) Ato
connected longa solenoid
metal carrying a current
plate in produces
the earth a magnetic
near field B along
the house, its axis. If
protecting against
the current is double and the number of turns per cm is halved, then new value of
severe magnetic
electricfield
shocks.
is
(a) B (b) 2B (c) 4B (d) B/2
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Chemical Reaction
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Chemical Reaction:
It's a process where substances combine to create a new substance
with unique properties.
Chemical Equation:
A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical
reaction. Symbols and formulae of the reactants and products are used
for the same.

Example: Zinc metal reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to form zinc sulfate and
hydrogen gas.
Zinc+Sulphuric acid -----> Zinc sulfate+Hydrogen
Zn(s) + H₂SO4(aq) ----->ZnSO₁ (aq) + H2(g)

Balanced chemical equation:

A balanced chemical equation has an equal number of atoms of each
element in the reactant and product side. The chemical equation is
balanced to satisfy the law of conservation of mass in a chemical
reaction.
Example: Fe+H2O→Fe3O4+H2 (Unbalanced)
3Fe+4H2O→Fe3O4+4H2 (Balanced)
Characteristics of chemical reactions:
1. Formation of a New Substance:
● Chemical reactions result in the formation of one or more new
substances with different properties than the original substances.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

2. Change in Color:
● The color of substances involved in a chemical reaction may
change, indicating a chemical change.
3. Evolution of Gas:
● Gas production, such as bubbles or effervescence, is a common
indicator of a chemical reaction.
4. Evolution or Absorption of Heat:
● Chemical reactions often involve the release or absorption of heat,
leading to temperature changes.
5. Formation of a Precipitate:
● A precipitate, a solid that forms from a liquid mixture may appear
due to a chemical reaction.
6. Irreversibility:
● Many chemical reactions are irreversible, meaning it is challenging
or impossible to revert the products to the original reactants.
7. Change in State:
● Changes in the state of matter, such as solid to liquid or gas, can
occur during chemical reactions.
8. Change in Energy:
● Chemical reactions involve a change in energy, which can be
exothermic (release of energy) or endothermic (absorption of
energy).
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Combination Reaction:
Definition: A combination reaction, also known as a synthesis or addition
reaction, is a chemical reaction in which two or more reactants combine to
form a single product.

General Form: A+B→AB

Examples:
1. Formation of Water (Hydrogen and Oxygen):
2H2+O2→2H2O
In this reaction, hydrogen gas (H2) combines with oxygen gas (O2) to
form water (H2O)

2. Formation of Calcium Oxide (Calcium and Oxygen):

2Ca+O2→2CaO
Calcium (Ca) combines with oxygen gas O2 to form calcium oxide CaO

Decomposition Reaction:
Definition: A decomposition reaction is a chemical reaction in which
a single reactant breaks down into two or more products.

General Form: AB→A+B

Examples:
1. Decomposition of Water (Electrolysis):
2H2O→2H2+O2
In the process of electrolysis, water H2O decomposes into
hydrogen gas H2 and oxygen gas O2.

2. Decomposition of Sodium Bicarbonate (Baking Soda):

2NaHCO3→Na2CO3+H2O+CO2
Baking soda NaHCO3 decomposes when heated to form sodium
carbonate Na2CO3 water H2O and carbon dioxide gas CO2
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Explanation:

● Thermal Decomposition:
Definition: Thermal decomposition is a chemical reaction in which a
substance breaks down into simpler substances when heated.
Example: 2H2O2→2H2O+O2
Key Concept: The process involves the breakdown due to the
absorption of heat, leading to the formation of new compounds or
elements.
Explanation:

● Electrolytic Decomposition (Electrolysis):

Definition: Electrolysis is the process where an electric current is passed
through an electrolyte, causing it to decompose.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Process:
- Ions migrate to electrodes.
- At the anode, oxidation occurs.
- At the cathode, reduction occurs.
- Electrolyte breaks down into its constituents.

Example: Electrolysis of water produces hydrogen and oxygen:

2H2O(l)→2H2(g)+O2(g)
Applications: Widely used in industry for metal extraction and chemical
production.

Photochemical Decomposition (Photosynthesis):

Definition: Photosynthesis is a process in which plants use light energy
to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
Process:
● Chlorophyll absorbs light, facilitating the conversion of CO₂ and H₂O.
Results in the production of glucose and oxygen.
Equation:
6CO2+6H2O+Light energy→C6H12O6+6O2
Importance: Crucial for plant growth and oxygen release.

Displacement Reaction:
Definition: A displacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which a more
reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Types:
1. Single Displacement:
A+BC→AC+B
Example: Zn+CuSO4→ZnSO4+Cu
2. Double Displacement:
AB+CD→AD+BC
Example: NaOH+HCl→NaCl+H2O
In both types, the more reactive element displaces the less reactive one,
leading to the formation of new compounds.

Explanation:

Explanation:
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# Secret Questions:
1. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reactions that take place
during respiration. Identify the type of combination reaction that takes
place during this process and justify the name. Give one more example of
this type of reaction. [CBSE 2012]
Sol o :
(i) The carbohydrates that we take in our food are oxidized to carbon
dioxide and water.
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂→ 6CO₂ + 6H₂O
The carbon of carbohydrates and oxygen combine to form CO₂.
(ii) It is an exothermic combination reaction.
(iii) Decomposition of vegetable matter into compost is another example of
this type of reaction.

2. Translate a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for the following
reactions:

i) Solutions of Barium chloride and Sodium sulfate in water react to give

insoluble Barium sulfate and a solution of Sodium chloride.

ii) Sodium hydroxide solution in water interacts with hydrochloric acid

to produce Sodium chloride solution and water.

iii) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia.

iv) potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.

Sol o : i) BaCl2 + Na2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl

ii) NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

iii) 3H2 + N2 2NH3

iv) 2K + 2H2O 2KOH + H2

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Oxidation:
Definition: Oxidation is a chemical process in which a substance loses
electrons, increases its oxidation state, or undergoes an increase in the
number of oxygen atoms.
Key Points:
Electron Loss: In oxidation, a substance loses electrons.
Oxidation State: The oxidation state of the substance increases.
Combination with Oxygen: Oxidation can involve the addition of oxygen to
a substance.
Example:
2Fe+3O2→2Fe2O3
Iron undergoes oxidation by combining with oxygen to form iron(III)
oxide.
Importance: Oxidation is a fundamental process in various chemical
reactions, including combustion and corrosion.

Explanation

Reduction:
Definition: Reduction is a chemical process in which a substance gains
electrons, decreases its oxidation state, or undergoes a decrease in the
number of oxygen atoms.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Key Points:
Electron Gain: In reduction, a substance gains electrons.
Oxidation State: The oxidation state of the substance decreases.
Removal of Oxygen: Reduction can involve the removal of oxygen from a
substance.
Example:
CuO+H2→Cu+H2O
Copper oxide undergoes reduction by gaining hydrogen to form copper and
water.

Redox Reaction:
Definition: A redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction is a chemical process
in which one substance undergoes reduction (gains electrons) while
another undergoes oxidation (loses electrons).
Key Points:
Oxidation: Loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state.
Reduction: Gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation state.
Electron Transfer: Involves the transfer of electrons between reactants.
Example:
Zn+Cu2+→Zn2++Cu
Zinc undergoes oxidation, and copper ions undergo reduction.

1. Corrosion:
Definition: Corrosion is the gradual degradation of metals due to their
reaction with atmospheric oxygen, moisture, or other chemicals.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Effect of Oxidation: Oxidation of metals, particularly iron, leads to the

formation of metal oxides, commonly known as rust.
Impact: Corrosion weakens the metal structure, affecting its strength
and durability.
Prevention: Coating metals with protective layers (e.g., paint or
galvanization) helps prevent direct exposure to oxygen and moisture,
reducing the risk of corrosion.

2. Rancidity:
Definition: Rancidity is the development of undesirable odors and
flavors in fats and oils due to their exposure to oxygen.
Effect of Oxidation: Oxidation of the unsaturated fatty acids in fats
and oils leads to the formation of rancid compounds.
Impact: Rancidity imparts unpleasant tastes and smells to food
products, making them unpalatable and reducing their shelf life.
Prevention: Adding antioxidants, storing foods in airtight containers,
and refrigerating can help slow down or prevent the oxidation process
and, consequently, rancidity.

# Top Seven Questions:

1. Why is respiration considered an exothermic reaction? Explain.

Sol o : Respiration is the process of burning food in the living body to
produce energy. Respiration is considered an exothermic chemical reaction
because glucose oxidation occurs in the respiration process, which creates a
large amount of heat energy consumed in the form of ATP. During respiration,
we inhale oxygen from the atmosphere, which reacts with glucose in our body
cells to produce carbon dioxide and water. It is explained in the following
chemical equation.
C6H12O6+ 6O2 → 6CO2 + H2O + energy (ATP)
 PRASHANT KIRAD

2. Explain the following in terms of the gain of oxygen with two examples
each.
(a) Oxidation

(b) Reduction

Sol o : (a) In a chemical reaction when oxygen is added to the element to form its
respective oxide, it is the element being oxidized. For Example:
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)

H2S + O2 → H2O + SO2

(b) In a chemical reaction, it is said to be reduced when oxygen is

removed from the compound. For Ex.,:

so CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(l)

2HgO → 2Hg + O2(g)

3. A shiny brown-colored element ‘X’ on heating in the air becomes black. Name
the element ‘X’ & the black-coloured compound formed.
Sol o : The shiny brown-colored element is Copper metal (Cu). If the metal is
heated in air, it interacts with atmospheric oxygen to form copper oxide.
Therefore, the black-colored compound is copper oxide.
2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s)

4. Why do we store silver chloride in dark-colored bottles?

Sol o : Silver chloride is the best example of a light-sensitive chemical
compound, and the reaction is an example of a photolytic decomposition
reaction. It reacts with light very fast and loses its property by forming
chlorine gas and silver. So avoid this silver chloride in dark-colored bottles.

5. Write one equation each for decomposition reactions in which energy is

supplied in the form of heat, light, or electricity.
Sol o : (a) Thermal decomposition reaction (Thermolysis)
Decomposition of potassium chlorate: If heated strongly, potassium
chlorate decomposes into potassium chloride and oxygen molecules.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

This reaction is commonly used for the synthesis of oxygen

molecules.

2KClO3 + heat → 2KCl + 3O2

(b) Electrolytic decomposition reaction (Electrolysis)-

Decomposition of sodium chloride NaCl: On passing electricity

through molten sodium chloride NaCl, it decomposes into sodium and
chlorine.

2NaCl—- 2Na + Cl2 (in Electrolysis)

(c) Photodecomposition reaction (Photolysis)

Decomposition of Hydrogen peroxide- In the presence of light,

hydrogen peroxide decomposes into water and oxygen molecules.

2H2O2 + light H2O + O2

6. What is the difference between displacement and double displacement

reactions? Write relevant equations for the above.

Sol o : A displacement reaction occurs when a more reactive substance

replaces a less reactive substance from its salt solutions. A double
displacement reaction occurs when a mutual exchange of metal ions happens
between 2 compounds.
In this displacement reaction, only a single displacement occurs, whereas in
the double displacement reaction, as the name suggests, two displacements
occur between the molecules.

Example: Displacement reaction

Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

Double displacement reaction

2KBr + BaI2 → 2KI + BaBr2

 PRASHANT KIRAD

7. Zinc liberates hydrogen gas when reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid,
whereas copper does not. Explain why?

Sol o : Zinc is more reactive than copper as Zinc is placed above hydrogen, and
copper is placed below hydrogen in the activity series of metals. Thus, zinc
liberates hydrogen gas when reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid, whereas copper
does not.

# Competency-Based Question:
1. Corrosion
1) Clean is the phenomenon
a magnesium ribbon aboutof deterioration
2 cm long by of rubbing
the surface of the metal
it with
in the presence
sandpaper. Hold of air anda moisture.
it with It is a natural
pair of tongs. Burn itprocess
using and in thelamp
a spirit presence
or
burner
of a and collect
moist the ash
atmosphere, so formed
chemically in ametals
active watch-glass
get corroded. This is an
oxidation reaction. Rusting is the process where iron corrodes due to exposure
to the atmosphere. The main circumstance of corrosion occurs with iron
because it is a structural material in construction, bridges, buildings, rail
transport, ships, etc. Aluminum is also an important structural metal, but even
aluminum undergoes oxidation reactions. However, aluminum doesn’t corrode or
1. Magnesium ribbon
oxidize as rapidly needs
as its to besuggests.
reactivity rubbed Copper
before(Cu)
burning because
corrodes it a
and forms
has a coating on its surface.
basic green carbonate.
1. What is corrosion, and what causes it?
A. basic magnesium carbonate
B. basic2.magnesium
Which metaloxide
is most susceptible to rusting, and why?
C. basic3.magnesium
Why is aluminum less prone to corrosion compared to its reactivity?
sulphide
D. basic magnesium chloride
Sol o :

2. What1. is
Corrosion is the
the colour ofdeterioration of metal surfaces due to oxidation
magnesium ribbon?
A. Whitereactions in the presence of air and moisture.
B. Black2. Iron is most susceptible to rusting because it is a common
C. Greystructural material in various applications and undergoes oxidation
D. Yellow
reactions when exposed to the atmosphere.
3. Aluminium forms a protective oxide layer on its surface, slowing
3. What is the chemical name of the powder obtained in the
down corrosion despite its reactivity.
activity?
A. magnesium carbonate
B. magnesium oxide
C. magnesium sulphide
D. magnesium chloride
 PRASHANT KIRAD

4.2.
Which compound is formed when the powder obtained reacts with
A chemical reaction is a representation of chemical change in terms of
water?
symbols and formulae of reactants and products. There are various types
A. Magnesium sulphate
B.ofMagnesium
chemical reactions
oxide combination, decomposition, displacement, double
C.displacement,
Magnesiumoxidation, and reduction reactions. Reactions in which heat is
carbonate
D.released along hydroxide
Magnesium with the formation of products are called exothermic
chemical
2. Take reactions.
a plastic mug,Alldrill
combustion reactions
two holes are exothermic
at its base reactions.
and insert carbon
1. What
electrodes. is a chemical
Connect thesereaction?
electrodes to a 6 volt battery. Fill the mug
with water such
2. Name onethat
typethe electrodes
of chemical are immersed.
reaction and provide Add a few drops of
an example.
dilute 3.
sulphuric acid to the exothermic
What characterizes water. Take two test
chemical tubes filled with water
reactions?
and invert them over the two carbon electrodes. Switch on the
Sol o and
current : leave the apparatus undisturbed for some time.
1. A chemical reaction is the representation of a chemical change using
symbols and formulae for reactants and products.
2. One type of chemical reaction is exothermic reaction. Combustion
reactions, where heat is released during product formation, are
examples of exothermic reactions.
3. Exothermic chemical reactions release heat during the formation of
products. Combustion reactions are a specific example of exothermic
reactions.
1. What is the ratio in which hydrogen and oxygen are present in water
by
volume?
A. 1:2 B. 1:1 C. 2:1 D. 1:8

2. Which electrodes are used in this activity?

A. Graphite B. Diamond C. Copper D. Coke

3. Where is hydrogen gas collected?

A. Anode B. Cathode C. At both electrodes D. Hydrogen gas is not
evolved in this activity

4. Which of the following is an endothermic process?

A. Dilution of sulphuric acid B. Condensation of water vapours
C. Respiration in human beings D. Electrolysis
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Acid, Bases and Salts
PRASHANT KIRAD
 Acids, Bases and Salts

Acids Bases

Sour in tasteDerived from Greek

Bitter in taste
word’ ACIDUS’

Changes blue litmus into red Changes red litmus into blue

e.g. Hydrochloric acid HCl e.g. Sodium hydroxide NaOH

Sulphuric acid Potassium hydroxide KOH

Nitric acid Calcium hydroxide

Acetic acid Ammonium hydroxide

Acid-Base Indicators:
Natural indicators like litmus, turmeric, red cabbage leaves, and colored petals
from flowers like Hydrangea, Petunia, and Geranium can show acidity or alkalinity.
On the other hand, synthetic indicators such as methyl orange and
phenolphthalein are also used for the same purpose.

Some naturally occurring acids

Vinegar Acetic Acid

Orange Citric Acid

Lemon Citric Acid

Tamarind Tartaric Acid

Tomato Oxalic Acid

Sour milk (Curd) Lactic Acid

Ant and Nettle sting Methanoic Ac

What Is an Acid and a Base?
Ionisable and Non-Ionisable Compounds
An ionizable compound, when in water or molten form, breaks down into ions
almost completely. Examples include NaCl, HCl, KOH, and others.
In contrast, a non-ionizable compound does not separate into ions when
dissolved in water or in its molten state. Examples of such compounds are
glucose and acetone.

Acids and Bases

An acid is a substance that contains hydrogen and can donate a proton
(hydrogen ion) to another substance. On the other hand, a base is a molecule or
ion capable of accepting a hydrogen ion from an acid. Typically, acidic
substances are recognized by their sour taste.

Arrhenius’ Theory of Acids and Bases

An Arrhenius acid is a substance that, when dissolved in water, breaks apart to
yield H+ (aq) or H3O+ ions.
An Arrhenius base is a substance that, when dissolved in water, dissociates to
produce OH− ions.
Acids Bases
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Nitric acid (HNO3) Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)

Bronsted Lowry Theory

A Bronsted acid is an H+ (aq) ion donor.
A Bronsted base is an H+ (aq) ion acceptor.
examples:
In the reaction: HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq) →NH+4(aq) + Cl− (aq)
HCl – Bronsted acid and Cl− : its conjugate acid
NH3 – Bronsted base and NH+4 : its conjugate acid

potential physical tests for identifying an acid or a base are:

Taste
Acids typically have a sour taste, while bases often taste bitter. However, relying on
taste to identify acids or bases is not recommended due to the risk of contamination or
corrosiveness.
For instance, substances like curd, lemon juice, orange juice, and vinegar exhibit a sour
taste because they contain acids. On the other hand, baking soda, despite having a
somewhat sour taste, serves as an example of a base. It is essential to use proper testing
methods rather than relying on taste alone.
 Effect on Indicators by Acids and Bases
An indicator is a chemical substance that exhibits a change in its physical properties,
particularly in color or odor, upon contact with an acid or a base.
Common indicators and the colors they display are as follows:

a) Litmus:
Neutral solution – purple
Acidic solution – red
Basic solution – blue
Litmus is provided in paper strip forms as red litmus and blue litmus.

Acid transforms moist blue litmus paper to red.

Base transforms moist red litmus paper to blue.

b) Methyl Orange:
Neutral solution – orange
Acidic solution – red
Basic solution – yellow

c) Phenolphthalein:
Neutral solution – colorless
Acidic solution – remains colorless
Basic solution – exhibits a pink color.

Acid-Base Reactions
A neutralization reaction takes place when an acid interacts with a base, resulting in the
formation of salt and water as the final products. In this conventional approach, an acid-
base neutralization reaction is expressed as a double-replacement reaction.
Reactions of Acids and Bases
a) Reaction of acids and bases with metals
Acids, in general, react with metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas. Bases, in general, do
not react with metals and do not produce hydrogen gas.
Acid + active metal → salt + hydrogen + heat
2HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2 ( )↑
Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium → Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen
Base + metal →salt + hydrogen + heat
2NaOH + Zn →Na2ZnO2 + H2 ( ) ↑
Sodium hydroxide + Zinc → Sodium zincate + Hydrogen
A more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its base.
2Na + Mg (OH) 2 → 2NaOH + Mg
Sodium + Magnesium hydroxide → Sodium hydroxide + Magnesium
b. Acid Interaction with Metal Carbonates and Bicarbonates:
When acids engage with metal carbonates or bicarbonates, the resulting reaction
generates carbon dioxide, metal salts, and water. For example, the reaction between
hydrochloric acid and sodium carbonate produces sodium chloride, carbon dioxide, and
water. Notably, if the evolved carbon dioxide is passed through lime water, it causes
the lime water to exhibit a milky appearance.
Acid + metal carbonate or bicarbonate →
salt + water + carbon dioxide.
2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
H2SO4 + Mg (HCO3)2 →MgSO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2
Effervescence indicates the liberation of CO2 gas.
 SECRET QUESTIONS

1. Which gas is generally liberated when an acid reacts with a metal? Illustrate
with a suitable ex. How will you identify and test for the presence of this gas?

Hydrogen gas is liberated when an acid reacts with a metal. For example: Take
some pieces of zinc granules in a test tube and add H2SO4 to it. Shake it and
pass the gas evolved into a soap solution. Bubbles are formed in the soap solution.
These soap bubbles contain hydrogen gas. The chemical equation of the reaction
is:
H2SO4+ Zn → ZnSO4 + H2 ↑
Identification test- Hydrogen gas is identified by bringing a burning candle near
the soapy bubbles. The candle will burn with a pop sound.

2. Explain why Plaster of Paris should be stored in a moisture-proof container. Give

reasons.

Plaster of Paris should be stored in a moisture-proof container because moisture

can affect the plaster of Paris by slowing down the setting of the dressing
application because of hydration. It will turn the plaster useless.

Explanations: Plaster of Paris (POP) should be stored in a moisture-proof

container because it is a powdery mass that can absorb water or moisture to form
a hard solid mass known as gypsum. The reaction takes place as follows:
CaSO4.½ H2O + 1½ H2O → CaSO4.2H2O
Plaster Of Paris water gypsum(hard solid)

3. What do you understand by olfactory indicators?

Some indicators show a change in their odor in the presence of acids or bases.
Such indicators are called olfactory indicators. They are very useful for visually
challenged students because such students cannot use other indicators.
Clove, vanilla, and onion are examples of olfactory indicators.

4. What is meant by the term water of crystallization? How would you show that copper
sulphate crystals contain water of crystallization?

The molecules of water associated with a crystalline substance are called water of
crystallization.
When hydrated copper sulphate is heated its color changes from blue to dirty white
and water droplets are formed.
CuSO4.5H2O → CuSO4 + 5H2O.
If we add little water to anhydrous CuSO4, we get blue color again. It is the
presence of molecules of water of crystallization that was lost on heating.
CuSO4 + 5H2O → CuSO4.5H2O
c) Reaction of Acid with Base
1. Metal Oxides and Hydroxides with Acids:
Metal oxides or metal hydroxides exhibit basic properties.
→
Acid + Base Salt + Water + Heat
→
Acid + Base Salt + Water + Heat
→
Examples: H2SO4 + MgO MgSO4 + H2O
2HCl + Mg (OH) 2 → MgCl2 + 2H2O
2. Non-Metal Oxides with Bases:
Non-metal oxides demonstrate acidic properties.
→
Base + Nonmetal Oxide Salt + Water + Heat
→
Base + Nonmetal Oxide Salt + Water + Heat
→
Example: 2NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2O

3. Reaction of acids and base

A very common acid is hydrochloric acid. The reaction between
strong acid, says hydrochloric acid and strong base say sodium
hydroxide, forms salt and water. The complete chemical equation is
shown below.
HCl (strong acid) + NaOH (strong base) →NaCl (salt) + H2O (water)

Acids and Bases in Water

When added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help
in conducting electricity.
Base:
Neutralization Reaction: Bases participate in neutralization reactions with acids.
Composition: Composed of metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates, and metal
bicarbonates.
Solubility in Water: Most bases are insoluble in water.

Alkali:
Nature: An alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, predominantly metallic hydroxides.
Dissociation in Water: It dissolves in water and dissociates to yield OH⁻ ions.
Relationship with Bases: All alkalis are bases, but it is important to note that not all bases
are alkalis.

The hydronium ion is created through the acceptance of a lone pair of electrons from the
oxygen atom of a water molecule by a hydrogen ion, resulting in the formation of a
coordinate covalent bond.

Dilution
Dilution involves decreasing the concentration of a solution by incorporating additional
solvent, typically water. This process is highly exothermic. When diluting acid, it is essential
to add the acid to water and not vice versa.

Strength of Acids and Bases:

Strong Acid or Base: In the case of a strong acid or base, every molecule in a given
quantity undergoes complete dissociation in water, resulting in the formation of their
respective ions (H⁺(aq) for acids and OH⁻(aq) for bases).
Weak Acid or Base: Contrastingly, with weak acids or bases, only a few molecules from
a given amount undergo partial dissociation in water, producing their respective ions
(H⁺(aq) for acids and OH⁻(aq) for bases).
Dilute acid: contains less number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.
Concentrated acid: contains more number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.

A universal indicator spans a pH range of 0 to 14, providing information about

the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. A solution is considered neutral when it has
a pH of 7.

pH Scale
The pH scale, developed for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, derives
the "p" from the German term 'potenz,' meaning power.
On the pH scale, readings range generally from 0 (indicating strong acidity) to 14
(indicating strong alkalinity).
pH is a numerical representation of the acidic or basic nature of a solution.
A lower pH value corresponds to a higher concentration of hydronium ions.
A neutral solution has a pH of 7.
Values below 7 on the pH scale represent an acidic solution.
As the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it signifies a rise in the concentration of OH⁻
ions, indicating an increase in the strength of the alkali.
The pH scale is often measured using paper impregnated with a universal indicator.

Importance of pH in everyday life

Are plants and animals pH sensitive?
Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8.
When pH of rainwater is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain.
When acid rain flows into the rivers, it lowers the pH of the river water. The survival of
aquatic life in such rivers becomes difficult.

pH in our digestive system

It's fascinating to observe that our stomach naturally produces hydrochloric acid, aiding
in the digestion of food without causing harm to the stomach lining. However, in
instances of indigestion, an excess of stomach acid can lead to discomfort and irritation.
To alleviate this pain, individuals often turn to bases known as antacids. These antacids
work by neutralizing the surplus acid. Magnesium hydroxide, commonly known as Milk of
Magnesia, is a mild base frequently employed for this purpose.
pH change as the cause of tooth decay
Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5.
Tooth enamel, made up of calcium hydroxyapatite (a crystalline form of calcium
phosphate) is the hardest substance in the body.
Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by degradation of sugar and food particles
remaining in the mouth after eating.
The best way to prevent this is to clean the mouth after eating food.
Using toothpaste, which is generally basic, for cleaning the teeth can neutralize the
excess acid and prevent tooth decay.

Self-defense by animals and plants through chemical warfare

Bee-sting leaves an acid that causes pain and irritation. The use of a mild base like
baking soda on the stung area gives relief. Stinging hair of nettle leaves injects
methanoic acid causing burning pain.

Manufacture of Acids and Bases

Manufacture of acids and bases
a) Nonmetal oxide + water → acid b) Hydrogen + halogen →
acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq) H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq) HCl(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq)
4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) →4HNO3(aq)
Non-metal oxides are thus referred to as acid
anhydrides.

→
c) Metallic salt + conc. sulphuric acid salt + more e) Metal + water →base or alkali +
volatile acid hydrogen
2NaCl(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(aq) Zn(s) + H2O(steam) →
ZnO(s)+ H2(g)
2KNO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO3(aq)

f) Few metallic oxides + water →

alkali g) Ammonia + water →
ammonium hydroxide
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l) →NH4OH(aq)

Salts
Salt is formed through the combination of an anion derived from an acid and a cation
derived from a base.
Examples of salts include KCl, NaNO3, CaSO4, and others.
Typically, salts are produced through the neutralization reaction between an acid and
a base.
Commonly known as common salt, Salts sharing the same cation or anion
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is extensively are considered part of the same salt
utilized globally in cooking. family. Examples include NaCl, KCl, LiCl.

pH of Salts
Salts of a strong acid and a strong base are neutral with a pH value of 7.
Salts of a strong acid and weak base are acidic with a pH value of less than 7.
Those of a strong base and weak acid are basic in nature with a pH value of more than 7.
Chemicals From Commal Salt
The salt formed by the combination of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solution is
called sodium chloride (NaCl)/Common Salt.
The common salt thus obtained is an important raw material for various materials of daily
use, such as sodium hydroxide, baking soda, washing soda, bleaching powder, and many
more.
Sodium hydroxide or lye or caustic soda
Baking soda or sodium hydrogen carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate
Washing soda or sodium carbonate decahydrate
Bleaching powder or calcium hypochlorite
1.Sodium Hydroxide
When electricity is passed through salty water (brine), it breaks down to make
sodium hydroxide. This process is called the chlor-alkali process because it
produces chlorine and alkali (sodium hydroxide).
2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + Cl2 (g) + H2 (g)
At one end (anode), chlorine gas is released, and at the other end (cathode),
hydrogen gas is given off. Close to the cathode, we get a solution of sodium
hydroxide.

Bleaching Powder
Chlorine gas is utilized in the manufacturing process of bleaching powder.
The production of bleaching powder involves the interaction of chlorine with dry slaked
lime [Ca(OH)2].
While bleaching powder is often represented as CaOCl2, its actual composition is more
complex.
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O.
Bleaching powder is used –
for bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry, for bleaching wood pulp in paper
factories, and for bleaching washed clothes in laundry;
as an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries; and
to make drinking water free from germs.
Baking Soda
Sodium bicarbonate, commonly known as baking soda or
bicarbonate of soda, has the chemical formula NaHCO3 and is
recognized by the IUPAC name sodium hydrogen carbonate. This
salt is created by the combination of a sodium cation (Na+) and a
bicarbonate anion (HCO3). Found as a fine powder, sodium
bicarbonate is a white, crystalline substance. Its taste is mildly
salty and alkaline, resembling that of washing soda (sodium
carbonate).
Chemical name – Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Chemical formula – NaHCO3
Water of Crystallization
The water of crystallization is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula
unit of salt. Five water molecules are present in one formula unit of copper sulphate. The
chemical formula for hydrated copper sulphate is CuSO4.5H2O.
Plaster of Paris
On heating gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) at 373 K, it loses water molecules and
becomes calcium sulphate hemihydrate (CaSO4.1/2H2O). This is called Plaster of
Paris.
Uses of Plaster of Paris
It is employed by medical professionals to create casts for maintaining fractured bones in the
correct position.
In the realm of creativity, Plaster of Paris is utilized for crafting toys, decorative items, and
achieving smooth surfaces.

Important activities

Take a few zinc granules in a boiling tube and add approximately 5 mL of dilute sulphuric acid to it.
Observe the formation of gas bubbles on the surface of the zinc granules. Direct the gas being
produced through a soap solution in a trough using a glass delivery tube. This results in the
formation of gas-filled bubbles in the soap solution that rise into the air.
Bring a burning candle close to a gas-filled soap bubble. The gas within the soap bubble ignites
with a 'pop' sound, indicating a small explosion.
This demonstration confirms that only hydrogen gas, which has the characteristic 'pop' sound
when ignited, is evolved in the reaction between dilute sulphuric acid and zinc metal (present in
the form of zinc granules).
Take a boiling tube and place approximately 0.5 g of sodium carbonate in it.
Add about 2 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid to the boiling tube using a thistle funnel.
Observe the brisk effervescence of a gas being produced.
Pass the gas generated through lime water. Notice that the lime water turns milky,
indicating the presence of carbon dioxide gas.
Continue passing carbon dioxide gas through the milky lime water for some time.
Eventually, the lime water becomes clear again.
This demonstrates that the initially formed white precipitate of calcium carbonate
dissolves when excess carbon dioxide gas is passed.
Repeat the experiment using sodium hydrogen carbonate instead of sodium
carbonate. Again, carbon dioxide gas is produced, turning the lime water milky. Upon
passing an excess of carbon dioxide, the milky lime water once again becomes clear.

Place 1 g of solid sodium chloride (NaCl) in a clean, dry boiling tube.

Carefully add concentrated sulfuric acid, fitting the rubber cone over the glass
tube.
The reaction forms hydrogen chloride gas, observed escaping from the open end.
Test the gas with a 'dry' blue litmus paper, noting no change in color, indicating
HCl gas doesn't act as an acid in the absence of water.
Test the gas with a 'moist' blue litmus paper, observing a color change to red,
revealing acidic behavior of HCl gas in the presence of water.
Conclusion: HCl gas is not acidic in the absence of water but displays acidic
behavior in the presence of water.
 # Top Seven Questions:
1) A dry pellet of a common base B absorbs moisture and turns sticky when
kept open. The compound is also a by-product of the chloralkali process.
Identify B. What type of reaction occurs when B is treated with an acidic
oxide? Write a balanced chemical equation for one such solution.
Sol o : Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a commonly used base and is hygroscopic; it
absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and becomes sticky. A neutralization
reaction occurs when acidic oxides react with the base to give salt and water.
2 NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O

2) Give reasons for the following:

(i) Only one-half of the water molecule is shown in the formula of the plaster of Paris.

(ii) Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used as an antacid.

(iii) On strong heating, blue-colored copper sulfate crystals turn white. (2020)

Sol o :
(i) Only one-half of the water molecule is shown in the formula of plaster of
Paris (CaSO4. 12H2O) as one molecule of water is being shared by two
molecules of calcium sulphate (CaSO4). So the effective water of
crystallization for one CaSO4 unit comes to half a molecule of water.
(ii) Acidity can be neutralized by a base. Sodium hydrogen carbonate can be used
as an antacid solution because it is a weak base and will react with excess acid
produced in the stomach due to hyperacidity and will neutralize it.
(iii) Blue colored copper sulphate crystals are hydrated copper sulphate,
CuSO4.5H2O. On heating blue copper sulphate crystals lose their water of
crystallization and turn into anhydrous copper sulphate which is white.

3) A white powder is added while baking cakes to make them soft and spongy. Name
its main ingredients. Explain the function of each ingredient. Write the chemical
reaction taking place when the powder is heated during baking. (AI2019)

The white powder added while baking cakes to make them soft and
Sol o :
spongy is baking powder. Its main ingredients are sodium hydrogen carbonate
and a mild edible acid like tartaric acid or citric acid. NaHCO3 decomposes to
give out CO2 which causes the cake to rise and makes it soft and spongy. The
function of tartaric acid or citric acid is to neutralise sodium carbonate
formed during heating which can otherwise make the cake bitter. The
reaction taking place when the powder is heated:

4) The pH of a salt used to make tasty and crispy pakoras is 14. Identify the salt
and write a chemical equation for its formation. List its two uses. (2018)

Sol o : Salt used to make tasty and crispy pakoras is sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), pH = 9. On a
large scale, sodium bicarbonate is prepared as:

5) A white-colored powder is used by doctors to support fractured bones.

(a)Write the chemical name and formula of the powder.
(b)When this white powder is mixed with water a hard solid mass is obtained. Write the balanced
chemical equation for this change. (Board Term I, 2016)

Sol o : (a) Chemical name of the powder is calcium sulphate hemihydrate. The chemical
formula of the powder is CaSO4. 12 ApH2O.
(b) When water is added to the plaster of Paris, it sets into a hard mass in about half an
hour. The setting of the plaster of Paris is due to its hydration to form crystals of
gypsum which set to form a hard, solid mass.

6) List the important products of the Chlor-alkali process. Write one important use of each.
(2020)

Sol o : Sodium hydroxide is prepared by electrolysis of an aqueous solution of sodium chloride

(brine). The complete reaction can be represented as:

The process of electrolysis of sodium chloride solution is called chlor-alkali process because of the
 products formed : chlor for chlorine and alkali for sodium hydroxide. The three very useful
products obtained by the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution are sodium hydroxide, chlorine,
and hydrogen.

At anode: Cl2 gas is liberated At cathode: H2 gas is liberated.

Uses of sodium hydroxide: In the manufacture of soaps and detergents.
Uses of chlorine: As a germicide and disinfectant for sterilization of drinking water and for
water of swimming pools.
Uses of hydrogen: In the manufacture of ammonia which is used for the preparation of
various fertilizers like urea, ammonium sulphate, etc.

7) How is washing soda prepared from sodium carbonate? Give its chemical equation. State the
type of this salt. Name the type of hardness of water which can be removed by it. (2020)

Sol o : Washing soda is prepared by recrystallization of sodium carbonate:

It is used to remove the permanent hardness of water. Hard water is treated with a calculated amount of
washing soda when chlorides and sulfates of calcium and magnesium present in hard water get
precipitated as insoluble calcium and magnesium carbonates which can be easily filtered off. The water
thus becomes soft.

CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3↓ + 2NaCl

MgSO4 + Na2CO3 → MgCOsub>3↓ + Na2SO4

# Competency-Based Question:
1. A compound, X of sodium forms a white powder. It is a constituent of baking powder and is
1)used
Saltin is
some
an antacids. When heated
ionic compound it gives
that a compound,
results from the Y which is anhydrous and
neutralization absorbsof an
reaction
water to become a hydrated salt. When this salt is kept in open air, it loses water molecules in a
acid and
process a base.
called It is composed
efflorescence. of related
When dissolved in water numbers of cations
it forms a strong (positively
base and a weak acid,
Z.charged ions) and anions (negative ions) so that the product is electrically
neutral (i) What is the compound, X?
(without a net charge). They may be simple salts such as NaCl, KCl,
(a) NaHCO3 (b) Na2CO3 (c) NaOH (d) NaCl
and Na2SO4; acid salts like NaHCO3 and NaH2PO4; or double salts like KAl
(ii) The compound, Y is
(SO4)2.(a) NaHCO3 (b) Na2CO3 (c) Na2CO3. 10H2O (d) NaCl
(iii) What is the nature of the solution formed by dissolving Y in water?
1. What
(a)isAlkaline
the general definition
(b) Acidic of (d)
(c) Neutral salt?
It remains insoluble.
(iv) Identify the compound, Z.
2. Provide examples
(a) CO2 of simple
(b) H2CO3 salts,
(c) NaOH (d)acid
H2Osalts, and double salts mentioned in the
passage.
(v) Sodium carbonate is a basic compound because it is a salt of a
(a) strong acid and strong base (b) weak acid and weak base (c) strong acid and weak base
(d) weak acid and strong base.
 3. Why does salt have an equal number of cations and anions?
2. Chemically, Plaster of Paris (POP) is calcium sulphate hemihydrate, i.e., containing half molecule
of water of crystallization. It is represented by the formula, CaSO4-1/2H2O. Half molecule of
Sol oof
water : 1.crystallisation
Answer: A salt means
is an ionic
thatcompound
one waterresulting from
molecule isthe neutralization
shared reactionunits
by two formula of anof
acid and a
CaSO4.
Hence, weisalso
base. It represent
composed its formula
of cations as (CaSO4)2
(positively H2O.
charged ions) andThe name,
anions plastercharged
(negatively of Paris, wasingiven
ions) to
related
this compound
numbers, because
leading for the
to electrical first time, it was made from gypsum which was mainly found in
neutrality.
Paris.
2. Answer: Examples include:
(i) The difference of water molecules in gypsum and plaster of Paris is
(a) 5/2 (b) 2 (c) 1/2 (d) 3/2
- Simple salts: NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4
(ii) Plaster of Paris hardens by
(a) giving off CO2 (b) changing into CaCO3 (c) combining with water (d) giving out water
- Acid salts: NaHCO3, NaH2PO4
(iii) Which of the following statements is incorrect?
(a) Plaster
- Double of Paris is used to ornate designs on walls and ceilings.
salts: KAl(SO4)2
(b) On heating gypsum above 373 K, CaSO4 is obtained.
(c) Dead burnt plaster is CaSO4.2H2O.
3. Answer: A salt has an equal number of cations and anions to maintain electrical neutrality, ensuring
(d) Setting of plaster is due to its hydration into gypsum.
that the overall compound has no net charge. This balance results from the combination of positively
charged(iv) Select
ions the incorrect
(cations) from thestatement with respect
base and negatively to gypsum.
charged ions (anions) from the acid during the
(a) It is slightly
neutralization reaction. soluble in water.
(b) It is also known as alabaster.
(c) On heating gypsum at 373 K, it loses water molecules and becomes calcium sulphate
2. Thehemihydrate.
pH is quite useful to us in several ways in daily life. One of its applications is the Control
of the(d)pHChemical
of the soil: Plants
formula of need
gypsuma specific pH1/2H₂O.
is CaSO4 range for proper growth. The soil may be acidic,
basic, or neutral depending upon the relative concentration of H* and OH-. The pH of any soil
(v) Plaster of Paris is obtained by
can be(a)determined
adding water by using pH paper.
to calcium If the soil is too acidic, it can be corrected by adding lime
sulphate
to it. If
(b)the soil sulphuric
adding is too basic,
acidit to
can be corrected
calcium by adding organic manure which contains acidic
hydroxide
materials.
(c) heating gypsum to a very high temperature
(d) heating gypsum to 100° C.
1. How is pH useful in controlling the growth of plants in soil?

2. What role does pH paper play in determining the pH of soil?

3. How can the pH of acidic soil be corrected, and what about basic soil?

1. Answer: The pH of the soil is crucial for proper plant growth. Plants thrive within specific pH ranges,
and the relative concentration of H+ (acidic) and OH- (basic) ions in the soil determines its pH. By using
pH paper, one can assess the soil's pH. If the soil is too acidic, adding lime can correct it. Conversely, if
the soil is too basic, adding organic manure containing acidic materials can help balance the pH.

2. Answer: pH paper is used to determine the pH of soil by providing a quick and simple method. It
involves placing the pH paper in contact with the soil, and the resulting color change on the paper
corresponds to the soil's pH level. This information is essential for adjusting the soil's acidity or
alkalinity to create optimal conditions for plant growth.

3. Answer: To correct acidic soil, add lime as it acts as a base, neutralizing excess acidity. For basic soil,
adding organic manure is recommended, as it contains acidic materials to neutralize excess alkalinity,
creating a suitable pH for plant growth.
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Metals & Non-Metals
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Metal & Non-Metal

Metals:
Metals are a group of elements characterized by
their luster, conductivity (thermal and electrical),
malleability, and ductility. They typically have high
melting and boiling points and tend to lose
electrons to form positively charged ions (cations)
in chemical reactions. Common examples include
iron, copper, gold, and aluminum.

Physical properties of metals include:

1. Lustre: Metals exhibit a characteristic shine or luster when freshly
polished, attributed to their ability to reflect light.
2. Conductivity: Metals are excellent conductors of heat and electricity
due to the mobility of electrons in their atomic structure.
3. Malleability: Metals can be easily hammered or rolled into thin sheets
without breaking, displaying malleability.
4. Ductility: Metals can be drawn into thin wires without breaking,
demonstrating ductility.
5. High Melting and Boiling Points: Metals generally have high melting
and boiling points compared to nonmetals.
6. Solid State at Room Temperature: Most metals are solid at room
temperature, except for mercury, which is a liquid.
7. Density: Metals are typically dense materials, meaning they have a
high mass per unit volume.
8. Sonorous: Metals often produce a characteristic ringing sound when
struck, known as sonorousness.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

These properties collectively contribute to the wide range of practical

applications of metals in various industries, from construction to
electronics.

Chemical Properties of Metals:

1. Reaction with Oxygen:
● Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides. The general equation
for this reaction is:
Metal+Oxygen→Metal Oxide

# Potassium and sodium metals are extremely reactive, undergoing vigorous

reactions with the oxygen in the air. In the presence of air, they can readily
catch fire and burn. To prevent these reactive metals from reacting with
oxygen, moisture, and carbon dioxide in the air, they are stored in kerosene oil.
This protective measure ensures that the metals remain stable and do not
undergo combustion when exposed to atmospheric conditions.

2. Reaction with Water:

● Some metals react with water to form metal hydroxides and release
hydrogen gas. The general equation is:
Metal+Water→Metal Hydroxide+Hydrogen

3. Reaction with Acids:

● Metals react with acids to produce salts and hydrogen gas. The
general equation is:
Metal+Acid→Salt+Hydrogen
4. Reaction with Salts:
● Metals can displace less reactive metals from their salts in solution.
The reactivity series helps predict such displacement reactions.
5. Reaction with Non-Metallic Elements:
● Metals can react with non-metallic elements to form compounds. For
example, metals react with sulfur to form metal sulfides.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Explanation:

Reactivity Series of Metals:

The reactivity series ranks metals based on their tendency to undergo
displacement reactions. Higher-ranked metals can displace lower-ranked
ones from their compounds in solution. For example, zinc can displace
copper from copper sulfate. The series helps predict outcomes in chemical
reactions.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Non-Metals:
Non-metals are elements that lack typical metallic properties. They are
generally poor conductors of heat and electricity and may exist in various
forms, such as solids, liquids, or gases. Non-metals often gain electrons in
chemical reactions and tend to form covalent bonds. Examples include
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and fluorine. They play essential roles in diverse
chemical and biological processes.

Physical Properties of Non-Metals:

States of Matter: Non-metals can exist in different states - solid, liquid,
or gas.
● Conductivity: Poor conductors of heat and electricity.
● Luster: Lack metallic luster, often appearing dull or matte.
● Malleability and Ductility: Not malleable or ductile; tend to be brittle.
● Density: Generally have lower density compared to metals.
● Melting and Boiling Points: Lower melting and boiling points than metals.
● Solubility: Some non-metals are sparingly soluble in water.
● Brittleness: Non-metals are often brittle in solid form.
● Color: Can exhibit various colors; for example, sulfur is yellow, and
iodine is purple.
Examples: Oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus.
Chemical properties of non-metals include:

● Combustibility: Some non-metals, like hydrogen and carbon, can

undergo combustion reactions.
● Reaction with Oxygen: Non-metals may react with oxygen to form
oxides. For example, sulfur reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide.
● Acid-Base Reactions: Non-metals can react with bases to form salts.
For instance, sulfuric acid, a non-metal compound, reacts with sodium
hydroxide to form sodium sulfate and water.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

● Hydrogen Ion Formation: Non-metals may accept electrons to form

negatively charged ions (anions) in reactions with metals.
● Covalent Bonding: Non-metals form covalent bonds by sharing
electrons with non-metals.
● Reaction with Water: Some non-metals, such as sulfur and phosphorus,
react with water to produce acids.
● Reaction with Metals: Non-metals can displace less reactive metals
from their salts in solution, forming new compounds.

Metals & Non-Metals:

When metals interact with nonmetals, they combine to create ionic
compounds. Conversely, when nonmetals engage with other nonmetals, they
form covalent compounds.

Ionic Compounds:
1. Definition:
● Ionic compounds are chemical compounds composed of positively
charged ions (cations), usually derived from metals, and negatively
charged ions (anions), usually derived from nonmetals.
2. Formation:
● Ionic compounds are formed by transferring electrons from the
metal atom to the nonmetal atom. This transfer results in the
formation of ions with opposite charges.
3. Ionic Bonding:
● Ionic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between positively
charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions). This
attraction holds the ions together in a stable compound.
4. Examples:
● Common examples of ionic compounds include sodium chloride
(NaCl), potassium iodide (KI), and magnesium oxide (MgO).
 PRASHANT KIRAD

5. Properties:
● Ionic compounds generally have high melting and boiling points.
● They are usually solid at room temperature.
● They conduct electricity when dissolved in water or melted, as ions
are free to move.

Eg.

Properties of Ionic Compounds:

1. High Melting and Boiling Points:
● Ionic compounds typically have high melting and boiling points due to
strong electrostatic forces holding ions together in a
three-dimensional lattice.
2. Solubility in Water:
● Many ionic compounds are soluble in water because water molecules
surround and separate the ions, facilitating their movement.
3. Conductivity:
● Ionic compounds conduct electricity when dissolved in water or
molten, as ions become free to move and carry an electric charge.
4. Brittleness:
● Solid ionic compounds are often brittle because when force is applied,
layers of ions with like charges align, leading to repulsion and cleavage.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Occurrence of Metals:
● Metals are predominantly obtained from the Earth's crust, which
serves as a major reservoir for these elements.
● Seawater contains soluble salts like sodium chloride and magnesium
chloride.
● The naturally occurring elements or compounds found in the Earth's
crust are referred to as minerals.
● Minerals that can be profitably processed to extract metals are
specifically termed ores.

Extraction of Metals from Ores:

Metallurgy Definition:
● Metallurgy is the systematic process of extracting metals in their pure
state from respective ores and refining them for practical use.
Extraction Techniques Based on Reactivity:
● Extraction methods vary depending on the position of metals in the
activity series.
Highly Reactive Metals:
● Metals with high reactivity, such as Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), Calcium
(Ca), and Magnesium (Mg), are typically extracted through electrolysis.
Their strong bonding with other components prevents reduction by
heating with carbon.
Moderately Reactive Metals:
● Moderately reactive metals like Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), and Lead (Pb) are
generally extracted through reduction processes using agents like coke
(C).
Less Reactive Metals:
● Less reactive metals, for instance, Copper (Cu) and Mercury (Hg), are
extracted from their oxides through heating alone, a method known as
self-reduction.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Very Less Reactive Metals:

● Metals with very low reactivity, such as Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), and
Platinum (Pt), exist in nature in the metallic form and do not require
extraction processes.

The concentration of Ores:

Impurities and Gangue:
● Undesirable impurities, such as soil and sand, present in ores are
termed gangue or matrix.
Enrichment or Concentration:
● The process of removing gangue from the ore is known as
enrichment or concentration of the ore.
(I) Extraction of Metals of LOW Reactivity:
Self-Reduction:
Sulfide ores of less electropositive metals like Mercury (Hg), Lead (Pb),
and Copper (Cu) undergo self-reduction when heated in air. No external
reducing agent is used in this process.
Examples:
Cinnabar (HgS):
2HgS(Cinnabar)+3O2(g)+heat→2HgO(crude-metal)+2SO2(g)
2HgO(s)+heat→2Hg(l)+O2(g)
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Copper Glance (Cu₂S):

Cu2S(Copper-pyrite)+3O2(g)+heat→2Cu2O(s)+2SO2(g)
2Cu2O(s)+Cu2S(s)+heat→6Cu(crude metal)+SO2(g)
Galena (PbS):
2PbS(Galena)+3O2(g)+heat→2PbO(s)+2SO2(g)
PbS(s)+2PbO(s)→2Pb(crudemetal)+SO2(g)
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Corrosion:
Definition:
Corrosion refers to the gradual deterioration of a material, typically a
metal, due to the influence of moisture, air, or chemicals in the surrounding
environment. An example is the rusting of iron.
Prevention of Corrosion:
1. Coating with Paints, Oils, or Grease:
The application of paint, oil, or grease on metal surfaces forms a
protective barrier, preventing the ingress of air and moisture.
2. Alloying:
Alloying metals enhance corrosion resistance. For instance, stainless
steel is an alloy that exhibits increased resistance to corrosion.
3. Galvanization:
Galvanization involves coating iron articles with molten zinc. Zinc forms
a protective layer, serving as a barrier against corrosion.
4. Electroplating:
Electroplating, achieved through an electric current, involves coating
one metal with another. This method not only protects against
corrosion but also enhances the aesthetic appearance. Examples include
silver plating and nickel plating.
5. Sacrificial Protection:
Magnesium, being more reactive than iron, can act as a sacrificial layer.
When coated on iron or steel articles, magnesium serves as the
cathode, undergoing a sacrificial reaction instead of the iron, thus
protecting the articles.

Alloys:
Definition:
Alloys are uniform mixtures of metals with either other metals or
nonmetals. The formation of alloys results in improved properties,
including increased hardness, tensile strength, and corrosion resistance.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Examples of Alloys:
1. Brass:
- Brass is an alloy composed of copper and zinc.
2. Bronze:
- Bronze is an alloy formed by combining copper and tin.

#Top Seven Questions:

1) Explain why calcium metal after reacting with water starts floating on its
surface. Write the chemical equation for the reaction. Name one more metal
that starts floating after some time when immersed in water.
Sol o : When calcium metal reacts with water, it produces hydrogen gas and
calcium hydroxide. The hydrogen gas bubbles stick to the surface of the
calcium, creating buoyancy, causing calcium to float on the water's surface.
The chemical equation for the reaction is:
Ca (s)+2H2O (l)→Ca(OH)2(aq)+H2(g)
Another metal that starts floating after some time when immersed in water is
sodium.
2 (a) (i) Write two properties of gold that make it the most suitable metal for
ornaments.
(ii) Name two metals which are the best conductors of heat.
(iii) Name two metals that melt when you keep them on your palm.
(iv) Explain the formation of the ionic compound CaO with an electron-dot
structure. Atomic numbers of calcium and oxygen are 20 and 8 respectively.
[5M, 2020]
Sol o : (i). The property of gold used in making ornaments is ductility and
luster.
(ii). Silver are copper are the best conductors of heat.
(iii). Gallium and cesium are the metals that melt when kept on the palm.
(iv) Atomic no. of Ca - 20, Electronic Configuration 2,8,8,2 Atomic no. of O - 8
Electronic Configuration - 2,6
 PRASHANT KIRAD

3. (a)Carbon cannot be used as a reducing agent to obtain Mg from MgO. Why?

(b) How is sodium obtained from molten sodium chloride? Give an equation of
the reactions.
(c) How is copper obtained from its sulfide ore? Give equations of the
reactions.
Sol o : (a) Carbon and MgO:
- Carbon can't reduce MgO; Mg is more reactive.
(b) Sodium from Molten NaCl:
- Na obtained from molten NaCl by electrolysis:
2NaCl (l)→2Na (l)+Cl2(g)
(c) Copper from Sulfide Ore:
- Copper from CuFeS₂ by smelting:
CuFeS2(s)+O2(g)→Cu (l)+FeO (s)+SO2(g)

4. The way, metals like sodium, magnesium, and iron react with air and water
is an indication of their relative positions in the ‘reactivity series’. Is this
statement true? Justify your answer with examples.
Sol o : Yes, the statement is true. The reactivity series ranks metals based on
their tendency to undergo reactions. Metals like sodium, which reacts
vigorously with both air and water, magnesium, which burns in air and reacts
with water, and iron, which reacts with oxygen and steam, demonstrate the
correlation between their reactivity and their positions in the reactivity
series.

5. A non-metal X exists in two different forms, Y and Z. Y is the hardest

natural substance, whereas Z is a good conductor of electricity. Identify X, Y,
and Z.
Sol o : X is carbon. Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon. Diamond is
the hardest natural substance, and hence Y is diamond. Graphite is a good
conductor of electricity, and hence Z is graphite.
6. What are the constituents of solder alloy? Which property of solder makes
it suitable for welding electrical wires?
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Sol o : Constituents of Solder Alloy:

- Typically, tin and lead or lead-free alternatives with elements like silver,
copper, or antimony.
Property Suitable for Welding Electrical Wires:
- Low melting point of solder (below 450°F or 232°C), enabling easy melting
and secure bonding without damaging the electrical wires.

7. A metal that exists as a liquid at room temperature is obtained by heating

its sulfide in the presence of air. Identify the metal and its ore and give the
reaction involved.
Sol o Mercury is the only metal that exists as a liquid at room temperature.
It can be obtained by heating cinnabar (HgS), the sulfide ore of mercury. We
can get metals low in activity series by heating or reducing their sulfides or
oxides.
The reactions are as follows

2 HgS + 3 O2 → 2 HgO + 2 SO2

2 HgO → 2 Hg + O2

# Compentancy Based Question:

1) Ores
1. Basedmined from the
on the reactivity earth are
of different usually
metals contaminated
with oxygen, withaslarge
water and acids well asamounts of
displacement
reactions, the metals have been arranged in the decreasing order of their reactivities. This
impurities
arrangement issuch
known as soil, sand,
as activity etc.,
series or called
reactivity gangue.
series The
of metals. The impurities mustis the
basis of reactivity be
tendency of from
removed metals to
theloseore
electrons.
before If athe
metalextraction
can lose electrons easilymetal.
of the to formThe
positive ions, it
processes
will react readily with other substances. Therefore, it will be a reactive metal. On the other hand, if
Several steps
a meal loses areless
electrons involved inform
rapidly to the aextraction
positive ion, itof
willpure
reactmetal from
slowly with ores.
other Metals
substances.
Therefore, such a metal will be less reactive.
and non-metals used for removing the gangue from the ore are based on the
1. Which of the following metal is less reactive than hydrogen?
differences between the physical or chemical properties of the gangue and
A.Copper B.Zinc C.Magnesium D. Lead
the ore. Different separation techniques are accordingly employed.
2. Which of the following represents the correct order of reactivity for the given metals?
1. Na>Mg>Al>Cu
A. What is gangue in the context
B. Mg>Na>Al>Cu of ores? D. Mg > Al > Na > Cu
C. Na>Mg>Cu>Al

2.Hydrogen
3. Why removegas is notgangue before
evolved when extracting
a metal metals?
reacts with nitric acid. It is because HNO, is a
strong oxidising agent. It oxidises the H, produced to water and itself gets reduced to any of
the nitrogen oxides (N,O, NO, NO2). But _____________ and _____________ react with
very dilute HNO3 to evolve H2 gas.
A. Pb, Cu B. Na, K C. Mg, Mn D. Al, Zn
 PRASHANT KIRAD

3. 4.How
Which of the following metals reacts vigorously with oxygen?
are separation techniques for gangue removal determined in
A. Zinc B. Magnesium C. Sodium D. Copper
metal extraction?
2. An
Sol ionic
o compound is a chemical compound in which ions are held together by ionic bonds. An ionic
bond is the type of chemical bond in which two oppositely charged ions are held through electrostatic
forces. We 1. know
Gangue refers
that metal tohave
atoms impurities likevalence
loosely bound soil and sand in
electrons present in ores.
their valence shell and
non-metal atoms need electrons in their valence shell to attain noble gas configuration. The metal atom
loses the 2. Removing
valence electronsgangue is essential
while non-metal to ensure
atom accepts the purity
these electrons. of the
By losing extracted
electrons, metal
atoms change to cations and by accepting electrons, non-metals form
metal and prevent interference with the extraction process. anions. Ionic compounds are
generally solid and exist in the form of crystal. They have high melting and boiling points.
3. Separation techniques are based on differences in physical or
1. Which of the following can change to a cation?
chemical properties
A. Fluorine B. Oxygen C.between
Potassium D.gangue
Neon and ore components, employing
methods like froth flotation and magnetic separation.
2. Which of the following can change to an anion?
1. The A. Iodine in
metals B. Magnesium
the middleC. Calcium
of the D. Xenon
activity series such as iron, zinc, lead,
3. Ionic compounds are soluble in _____________.
copper, A.
etc., are moderately
Kerosene reactive.
B. Petrol C. Water D. None These
of theseare usually present as sulfides
or carbonates inthe
4. Which of nature.
followingIt is easier
statements to obtain
is correct aboutaionic
metal from its oxide, as
compounds?
I. They
compared to conduct electricityand
its sulphides in solid state.
carbonates. Therefore, before reduction,
II. They conduct electricity in solutions.
the metal sulfides
III. They and
conduct carbonates
electricity in moltenmust
state. be converted into metal oxides.
The sulfide
A. I onlyores areC. converted
B. II only III only D. II into oxides
and III only by heating strongly in the
presence of excess
5.Select air. This
the incorrect process is known as roasting. The carbonate
statement.
ores areA. Ionic compounds are generally brittle
changed into oxides by heating strongly in limited air. This
B. Ions are the fundamental units of ionic compounds
process C.
isFormation
known as ofcalcination.
ionic bonds involve sharing of electrons
D.NaCl is an ionic compound.
1. Which metals are considered moderately reactive and typically found in the middle
of the activity series?
2. Why is it easier to obtain metal from its oxide rather than its sulfides or
carbonates?
3. What is the process used to convert metal sulfides into oxides, and what is it
called?
Sol o
1. Metals such as iron, zinc, lead, copper, etc., are considered moderately
reactive and are located in the middle of the activity series.
2. Obtaining a metal from its oxide is easier because metal oxides are
generally more readily reducible than metal sulphides or carbonates.
3. The process used to convert metal sulphides into oxides is called
"roasting," which involves heating strongly in the presence of excess air.
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Carbon and It’s Compound
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Carbon and its Compounds

The atomic number of carbon: 6
Carbon achieves stability with 4 electrons in its outermost
shell. While it could gain four electrons to form a carbon
anion, removing electrons poses challenges due to the
substantial energy requirement. Gaining or losing electrons
influences the formation of bonds in chemical compounds.
# To solve this issue, carbon shares its outer electrons
with other carbon or different atoms. This sharing helps both atoms
reach a stable configuration, similar to noble gases. This sharing is
called covalent bonding.
EXAMPLES OF COVALENT BONDING:

# Formation of Hydrogen Molecule:

"The hydrogen molecule (H2) forms when two hydrogen atoms come close
together. Each hydrogen atom shares its electron with the other, creating
a covalent bond. This sharing completes their outer electron shells, making
the molecule stable. The chemical equation for this process is H+H→H2
(H----H)
*Single Covalent Bond

# Formation of chlorine Molecule (Cl2):

Chlorine gas (Cl2) forms when two chlorine atoms combine. Each chlorine
atom contributes one electron, creating a covalent bond. This shared
electron pair satisfies the octet rule, making the molecule stable. The
chemical equation is Cl+Cl→Cl2
(Cl----Cl)
*Single covalent Bond
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# Formation of Oxygen Molecule (O2)

Two oxygen atoms combine to form an oxygen molecule (O2). The
chemical equation is 2O→O2 showing that two oxygen atoms come
together to create one oxygen molecule.
(O===O)
*Double covalent Bond

# Formation of Nitrogen Molecule (N2)

Two nitrogen atoms combine to form a nitrogen molecule (N2). The
chemical equation is N+N→N2 indicating that two nitrogen atoms come
together to create one nitrogen molecule.

*Triple covalent Bond

# Formation of Methane (CH4) :

Methane CH4 forms when one carbon atom combines with four hydrogen
atoms. The chemical equation for this is C+4H→CH4 indicating the
combination of carbon and hydrogen to produce methane.

Methane, or marsh gas, is a vital fuel used in CNG and Biogas. It not only
serves as a potent energy source but also participates in reactions
forming essential compounds like (Ammonia NH3),(Water H2O), and
(Carbon Dioxide CO2) This versatility underscores its significance in
both energy and environmental contexts.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# Formation of Sulphur (S8):

Properties of covalent Bond:

● Low Melting and Boiling Points:
- Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points
due to weak intermolecular forces.
● Weak Intermolecular Forces:
- Covalent compounds exhibit weak forces between
molecules.
● Electron Sharing Between Atoms:
- Electrons are shared between atoms in covalent bonds.
● No Charged Particles Formed:
- Covalent compounds do not form charged particles;
electrons are shared, not transferred.

Allotropes of carbon:
Allotropy is the characteristic of an element to exist in multiple forms,
where each form possesses distinct physical properties while maintaining
identical chemical properties.
DIAMOND:
Properties:
● Very Hard
● Does not conduct Electricity
● Transparent and colorless.
Uses:
● Industrial cutting tools due to hardness.
● Jewelry and gemstones.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

GRAPHITE:
Properties:
● Conductivity: Excellent electrical
conductivity.
● Thickness: Single layer of carbon atoms
arranged in a hexagonal lattice.
● Strength: Exceptionally strong.
Uses:
● Lubricants and as a dry lubricant in locks and mechanisms.
● Electrodes in batteries.
● Pencils (as pencil lead).
● Moderators in nuclear reactors.

Fullerenes :
The fullerene C60 was named "Buckminsterfullerene" after
Buckminster Fuller. The initial discovered fullerene is C60,
also known as Buckminsterfullerene, and it comprises 60
carbon atoms.

Versatile Nature of carbon:

The versatile nature of carbon is attributed to its ability to form a wide
variety of compounds, owing to the following characteristics:
1. Tetravalency: Carbon can form four covalent bonds, allowing it to
bond with various other atoms, including itself, to create diverse
molecular structures.
2. Catenation: Carbon exhibits a high degree of catenation, meaning
it can form long chains, branched structures, or rings, contributing to
the diversity of carbon-based molecules.
3. Allotropy: Carbon exists in different allotropes, such as diamond,
graphite, graphene, fullerenes, and carbon nanotubes, each with
distinct properties and applications.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

4. Isomerism: Carbon compounds can have different structural or

spatial arrangements, leading to the existence of isomers—molecules
with the same molecular formula but different structures.
5. Polymerization: Carbon is integral to the formation of polymers,
enabling the creation of a wide range of synthetic materials with
diverse applications.

These characteristics collectively contribute to carbon's versatility,

making it a cornerstone of organic chemistry and a crucial element for the
existence of life as we know it.

Hydrocarbons:
A compound made of hydrogen and carbon only is called hydrocarbon.
Types of Hydrocarbons.
I. SATURATED:
- Compounds of carbon are linked only by single bonds between the
carbon atoms.
- Type of Saturated Hydrocarbon:
● Alkanes.
II. UNSATURATED:
- Compounds of carbon have double or triple bonds between their carbon
atoms.
- Types of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
● Alkenes.
● Alkynes.

Alkanes:
- Hydrocarbons with all carbon atoms linked by single covalent bonds are
alkanes or paraffins.
- General formula: CnH2n+2.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Alkenes:
- Unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one double bond along with single
bonds are called alkenes or olefins.
- General formula: CnH2n where n> 4.

Alkynes:
- Unsaturated hydrocarbons with one or more triple bonds along with single
bonds are alkynes.
- General formula: CnH2n−2
Note: For alkenes, n must be greater than 4, and for alkynes, n must be
greater than or equal to 2 to ensure a minimum number of carbon atoms for
a double or triple bond.

IUPAC Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons:

IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) nomenclature
is a systematic method used to name organic compounds, including
hydrocarbons.

1. Alkanes (Saturated Hydrocarbons):

- End the name with "-ane."
- Number the carbon atoms in the longest continuous chain.
- Identify and name any substituents (side branches).
- Combine the names of the substituents with the chain name.
- Example: CH3CH2CH2CH3 is butane.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

2. Alkenes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons with Double Bonds):

- End the name with "-ene."
- Number the carbon atoms in the longest continuous chain.
-Identify the location of the double bond and include it in the name.
- Example: CH2=CH−CH3 is propene.

3. Alkynes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons with Triple Bonds):

- End the name with "-yne."
- Number the carbon atoms in the longest continuous chain.
- Identify the location of the triple bond and include it in the name.
- Example: CH≡C−CH2−CH3 is propyne.

Remember to follow the IUPAC rules for numbering and prioritizing

substituents. The goal is to provide a systematic and unique name for each
hydrocarbon based on its structure.

Steps for Writing IUPAC Names:

1. Identify the Longest Carbon Chain:

- Locate the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms in the molecule.
2. Number the Carbon Chain:
- Number the carbon atoms in the chain from the end that gives
substituents the lowest numbers.
3. Identify and Name Substituents:
- Identify and name any substituents (groups attached to the main
carbon chain).
4. Combine Chain and Substituent Names:
- Combine the names of the main carbon chain and substituents,
alphabetizing them.
5. Add Prefixes and Suffixes:
- Add prefixes and suffixes based on the type of compound (alkane,
alkene, alkyne).
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# Examples:
1. CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₃:
- Longest Chain: 5 carbon atoms (Pentane).
- IUPAC Name: Pentane.
2. CH₃CH₂CH₂OH:
- Longest Chain: 3 carbon atoms (Propane).
- Substituent: OH (Hydroxy).
- IUPAC Name: Propanol.
3. CH₂=CHCH₃:
- Longest Chain: 3 carbon atoms (Propene).
- IUPAC Name: Propene.
4. CH₃CH₂CH₂COOH:
- Longest Chain: 4 carbon atoms (Butane).
- Substituent: COOH (Carboxyl).
- IUPAC Name: Butanoic acid.
Drawing Structures of Saturated and Unsaturated Compounds:
1. Connect All Carbon Atoms with Single Bonds:
- Use single bonds to link all carbon atoms together in the molecule.
2. Satisfy Remaining Valencies of Carbon with Hydrogen Atoms:
- Attach hydrogen atoms to each carbon atom to fulfill their valency.
- Carbon typically forms 4 bonds due to its 4 valencies.
3. If Available Hydrogen Atoms are Insufficient:
- If the number of available hydrogen atoms is less than required, use
double or triple bonds to satisfy the remaining valency of carbon.

1.The structural formula for propane is:

 PRASHANT KIRAD

This represents a straight-chain alkane with three carbon atoms, each

bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The carbon atoms are connected by single
bonds.

2. The structural formula for ethene (also known as ethylene) is:

This represents an alkene with two carbon atoms and a double bond
between them. Each carbon atom is bonded to two hydrogen atoms.

3. The structural formula for propyne is:

This represents an alkyne with three carbon atoms. The triple bond ≡ is
between the first and second carbon atoms. Each carbon atom is bonded
to one hydrogen atom.
4. The structural formula for cyclohexane is represented as a
hexagon:

Cyclohexane is a cyclic alkane with six carbon atoms forming a ring, and
each carbon is bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The bond angles in the
ring are approximately 109.5 degrees, creating a stable and symmetrical
structure.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

5. The structural formula for benzene is represented as a hexagon

with a circle inside:

This representation indicates that benzene has a stable and symmetrical

ring structure with six carbon atoms. The circle inside the hexagon
signifies the delocalized pi electrons, highlighting the resonance
structure of benzene. Each carbon atom is bonded to one hydrogen atom,
and all carbon-carbon bonds in benzene are equivalent.

Functional Groups:
A functional group is an atom or group of atoms within a carbon compound
that imparts reactivity and determines its chemical properties. When a
compound contains a functional group, it is denoted in the compound's
name through the use of either a prefix or a suffix.

Prettysuffix
=> Prefix—Chloro

=> Suffix - ol.

=> Suffix - al.

=> Suffix - one.

=> Suffix - oic
acid.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Homologous series:
A homologous series is a group of organic compounds sharing similar
structure and chemical properties, where successive members in the
series differ by the addition of a common CH₂ group. For example, CH3,
C2H5, and C3H7
- All members have the same general formula.
- Successive members differ by a CH₂ group.
- Two adjacent members differ by molecular masses of CH₂.
- All members exhibit similar chemical properties (though not
necessarily identical physical properties).

Structural Isomerism:
Structural isomerism refers to compounds sharing the same molecular
formula but exhibiting distinct arrangements of atoms or bonds within
their structures.

Some Important carbon compounds:

Ethanol (C₂H₅OH):
- A liquid compound, soluble in water.
- Commonly referred to as alcohol, it serves as the active ingredient.
- Due to its excellent solvent properties, ethanol is employed in
various medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups, and many
tonics.
Acetic Acid (C₂H₄O₂):
- Commonly known as acetic acid.
- A 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is termed vinegar and is used
as a preservative in pickles.
- With a melting point of 290 K, it tends to freeze during winter.
- Carboxylic acids, including acetic acid, are categorized as weak acids.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Denatured Alcohol:
Denatured alcohol is a form of alcohol that is rendered unsuitable for
consumption in large quantities due to its adverse effects
on health. Excessive alcohol intake can impede metabolic
processes and suppress the central nervous system, leading
to issues such as lack of coordination and drowsiness. To
prevent the misuse of alcohol, it is intentionally altered by
incorporating toxic substances like methanol and pyridine,
as well as colored dyes. This modified form of alcohol,
known as denatured alcohol, is specifically designed to
deter ingestion.

Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds:

1. Combustion:
Combustion is a chemical reaction that releases heat and light.
Combustion of Carbon:
C(s) + O2(g)→CO2(g)+Heat+Light
Combustion of Hydrocarbon:
CH4(g)+O2(g)→CO2(g)+H2O(g)+Heat+Light
Combustion of Alcohol:
C2H5OH(g)+O2(g)→CO2(g)+H2O(g)+Heat+Light
In each case, the combustion process involves the reaction of the
substance with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)
accompanied by the release of heat and light.

Nature of Flame:
● Saturated hydrocarbons such as methane and ethane burn with a
clear blue flame in the presence of sufficient oxygen.
● Limited oxygen availability for saturated hydrocarbons results in a
sooty flame.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

● Unsaturated hydrocarbons like ethene and ethyne burn with a yellow

flame and significant black smoke.
● Kerosene, when burned with sufficient oxygen, produces a clear,
blue flame.
● Some hydrocarbons like benzene and naphthalene burn with a sooty
flame.
● Combusting coal and petroleum primarily yields CO2, CO, nitrogen
oxides, and sulfur oxides. The latter contributes to air pollution.

2. Oxidation:
Carbon compounds readily undergo oxidation during combustion.
2C(s)+O2(g)→2CO(g)
(Limited Oxygen, Carbon Monoxide)

C(s)+O2(g)→CO2(g)
(Excess Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide)
Different amounts of oxygen yield different products.

Oxidation of Alcohol:

Both alkaline KMnO4 and acidified K2Cr2O7 act as oxidizing agents,

supplying oxygen for the oxidation process.
3. Addition Reaction:
In the presence of catalysts like palladium or nickel, unsaturated
hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions, where hydrogen is
incorporated, leading to the formation of saturated hydrocarbons.
Catalysts are substances that facilitate a reaction to take place at a
different rate, without being consumed in the process.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Hydrogenation Reaction:
This process is employed in the hydrogenation of vegetable oil.
Vegetable oils typically consist of long unsaturated carbon chains,
whereas animal fats possess saturated carbon chains. Animal fats
commonly contain saturated fatty acids, which are detrimental to
health.

4. Substitution Reaction:
A substitution reaction is a chemical process in which one functional
group in a chemical compound is exchanged with another functional
group.
CH3OH+HBr→CH3Br+H2O
CH4+Cl2-->CH3Cl+HCl
In these reactions, one functional group is substituted for another,
resulting in the formation of new compounds.

Reactions of Ethanol:
i. Reaction with Sodium:
2Na+2CH3CH2OH→2CH3CH2O-Na++H2
(sodium ethoxide)
ii. Reaction to Form Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
CH3CH2OH—----->CH2=CH2+H2O
Hot concentrated H₂SO₄ acts as a dehydrating agent (which removes
water), facilitating the reaction.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# Secret Question:
1) Write the molecular formula of alcohol which can be derived from butane.
Sol o : C 3 C 2 C 2 C 2 OH, 1-But
2) Write the number of covalent bonds in the molecular formula of butane,
C4 H10.
Sol o :

3) Write the molecular formula of benzene and state the number of double
bonds in its structure. [CBSE 2014]
Sol o :

4) List two characteristics of covalent compounds.

Sol o : (i) They have low melting and boiling points.
(ii) They do not conduct electricity.

Reactions of Ethanoic Acid:

In these reactions, ethanoic acid participates in esterification, and

saponification, and reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to
yield different products.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Soaps and Detergents:

Soaps consist of sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic
acids. The ionic end of the soap dissolves in water, while the carbon
chain dissolves in oil.

Detergents are typically ammonium or sulphonate salts of long-chain

carboxylic acids.
Cleaning Action of Soap:
● Most of the dirt is oily, and oil does not dissolve in water.
● Soap molecules form structures called micelles.
● In micelles, one end is oriented towards the oil droplet, while
the other, which is ionic, faces outward.
● Soap, in the form of a micelle, resides in the center of the
micelles.
● The micelles remain in the solution as a colloid, preventing them
from coming together and precipitating due to ion-ion repulsion.
● Soap micelles are large enough to scatter light; therefore, a
soap solution appears cloudy.

Hardness of Water:
● Hard water refers to water with a high mineral content, particularly
calcium and magnesium salts. Soap molecules react with these salts,
leading to the formation of precipitates, also known as scum.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

● Soft water, which lacks calcium and magnesium salts,

does not form scum with soap.
● Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonate salts
of long-chain carboxylic acids. The charged ends of
these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates
with hard water, allowing them to remain effective in
such conditions.

# Top Seven Questions:

1) A compound X on heating with an excess of cone. H2 SO4 at 443 K
gives an unsaturated compound Y. X also reacts with sodium metal to evolve
a colorless gas Z. Identify X, Y, and Z. Write the equations of the chemical
reaction of formation of Y and also write the role of conc. sulphuric acid in
the reaction. (CBSE 2016)
Sol o :

2) Distinguish between esterification and saponification reactions with the

help of equations for each. State one use of each
(i) ester
(ii) saponification process.
Sol o :
 PRASHANT KIRAD

3) Explain giving reasons, why carbon can neither form C4+ cation nor C4-
anion but forms covalent compounds which are bad conductors of
electricity and have low melting and boiling points. [CBSE 2017]
Sol o : Carbon cannot lose four electrons because high energy is needed to
remove four electrons. It cannot gain 4 electrons because 6 protons cannot
hold 10 electrons. It can share 4 electrons to form covalent bonds.
Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity because these do not form
ions. They have low melting and boiling points due to the weak force of
attraction between molecules.
4) Write the chemical equation of the reaction of ethanoic acid with the
following:
a. Sodium
b. Sodium hydroxide,
c. Ethanol.
Write the name of one main product of each reaction.
Sol o :

5) What is the difference between the molecules of soaps and detergents,

chemically? Explain the cleansing action of soap. [CBSE 2015]
Sol o : Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids. They contain
—t e CO a group. Detergents are sodium or potassium salts of sulphonic
acids. They contain —SO3 Na or —SO4 Na group. Soap has an ionic end which is
hydrophilic, and interacts with water while the carbon chain is hydrophobic
and interacts with oil and grease. The soap molecules orient themselves in a
cluster in which hydrophobic tails are inside the cluster and ionic ends face
outside. These clusters are called micelles. These attract oil which is
washed away by water.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

6) Write the molecular formula of the following compounds and draw their
electron dot structures:
(a) Ethane
(b) Ethene
(c) Ethyne
Sol o :

7). What are micelles? Why does it form when soap is added to water? Will
a micelle be formed in other solvents such as ethanol also? State briefly
how the formation of micelles helps to clean the clothes having oily spots.
Sol o : Micelles are clusters of molecules in which hydrophobic tails are
inside the cluster 3 and the ionic ends are at the surface of clusters. Soap
molecules when dissolved in water they form a cluster due to the
hydrophobic part of molecules orienting themselves away from water. So
they arrange towards the inside of the cluster while the hydrophilic part
remains outside of the cluster. No, micelles will not be formed in alcohol.
Soap in the form of micelles can be cleaned because the oily dirt will be
collected in the center of the micelle which is rinsed away by water.

# Competency-Based Questions:
1. Two allotropic forms of carbon which are crystalline in nature, are diamond and graphite. They differ
1)
physicallyCarbon, in allthey
but chemically its are
allotropic forms,is burns
similar. Diamond in oxygen
the hardest to form
crystalline give ofcarbon
carbon.dioxide
In
diamond, each carbon atom is linked to four other carbon atoms by covalent bonds. In graphite, each
along
carbon atomwith thetorelease
is linked of carbon
three other heat and light.
atoms Most bond.
by covalent carbon compounds
Graphite also
is relatively release
soft and
greasy. It is also a good conductor of electricity. The C-C bond length in graphite is 141.5 pm while in
a large amount of heat and light on burning. Saturated hydrocarbons will
diamond it is 154 pm.
generally give (i) a clean
Which of flame whileis aunsaturated
the following good conductorcarbon compounds
of heat and electricity?will give a
(a) Coal (b) Diamond (c) Charcoal (d) Graphite
yellow flame with lots of black smoke.
(ii) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity because
(a) it has free electrons (b) it has free atoms (c) it is crystalline (d)
it is soft and greasy.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

(iii) Which of the following types of binding forces is present in the structure of diamond?
(a)1.Ionic
Why(b)does carbon
van der Waals'burn in oxygen?
(c) Covalent (d) None of these

(iv) Diamond is not a good conductor of electricity because

2. How does the flame of saturated hydrocarbons differ from
(a) it is very hard
unsaturated
(b) its structure iscarbon compounds?
very compact
(c) it is not water-soluble
3.itWhy
(d) has nodo carbon
free compounds release heat and light during
electron. combustion?
4. What safety precautions are needed when burning carbon
(V) Which of the following is the structure of diamond?
compounds?

Sol o :
1. Carbon burns in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, releasing heat and
2. The compounds which have the same molecular formula but differ from each other in physical or
chemicallight in the are
properties process.
called isomers and the phenomenon is called isomerism. When the
isomerism is due to difference
2. Saturated hydrocarbons in the arrangement
yield ofa atoms within
clean the molecule,
flame, while without any
unsaturated
reference to space, the phenomenon is called structural isomerism. In other words, structural
isomers compounds
are compoundsproduce
that have a the
yellow
same flame with
molecular black
formula but smoke
differentdue to incomplete
structural formulas,
i.e., they are different in the order in which different atoms are linked. In these compounds,
carboncombustion.
atoms can be linked together in the form of straight chains, branched chains or even rings.
3. Combustion of carbon compounds is exothermic, resulting in the
(i) Which of the following sets of compounds have same molecular formula?
release
(a) of energy
Butane and in(b)
iso-butane the form of heat
Cyclohexane and light.
and hexene (c) Propanal and propanone(d) All of
these
4. Ensure proper ventilation to prevent carbon monoxide buildup and
take
(ii) precautions
To form against
branching, an fire hazards,
organic compound given
must have the flammable
a minimum of nature of
(a) four carbon atoms (b) three carbon atoms (c) five carbon atoms (d) any number of
manyatoms.
carbon carbon compounds.

2)(iii)Carbon compounds
Which of can
the following beisomeric
is an easily pair?
oxidized during combustion. In addition to
(a) Ethane and propane (b) Ethane and ethene (c) Propane and butane (d) Butane and
this complete oxidation, we have reactions in which alcohols are converted
2-methylpropane to
carboxylic acids.
(iv) Among the We see
following that
the one some
having substances
longest chain is are capable of adding oxygen
to(a) neo-pentane
others. These(b)substances
iso-pentane (c)are
2-methylpentane (d) 2, 2-dimethylbutane.
known as oxidizing agents.
(v) The number of isomers of pentane is
1. What is the significance of combustion
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5
with carbon compounds?
2. Besides combustion, what other reactions involve the conversion of
alcohols to carboxylic acids?
3. How do substances that add oxygen to others in reactions like the
conversion of alcohols to carboxylic acids get classified?
4. Why are oxidizing agents relevant in the context of carbon
compounds?
 PRASHANT KIRAD

CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Life Processes
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Life Processes

What are Life Processes?

Life processes encompass a set of interconnected activities within an organism that
collectively contribute to its repair and maintenance. These crucial processes include
Respiration (R), Excretion (E), Nutrition (N), and Transportation (T), forming the acronym
RENT.
Nutrition is the transformative process by which an organism acquires external sources of
energy, commonly known as food, and transfers it internally for sustenance and vitality.

Respiration: The process of acquiring oxygen from outside the body, and using it in
the process of break-down of food sources for cellular needs, is called respiration.
Transportation refers to the internal mechanism responsible for conveying nutrients and
oxygen from one location to another within the body.

Excretion is the process through which the body eliminates and expels waste by-products,
ensuring their removal from the internal environment and subsequent disposal outside the
organism.

Modes of Nutrition
1. Autotrophic Nutrition.
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition.
Autotrophs are organisms that derive their nutrition from basic food
materials acquired from inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide and
water. Notable examples include green plants and certain bacteria.
Heterotrophs, on the other hand, rely on complex substances for their
nutritional needs. These intricate compounds must undergo breakdown into
simpler forms before being utilized for the maintenance and growth of the
organism. To facilitate this process, organisms employ bio-catalysts known as
enzymes. Animals and fungi are examples of heterotrophs.
E .M .A
Autotrophic Nutrition:
1. Autotrophic organisms fulfill their carbon and energy requirements
through photosynthesis.
2. Photosynthesis is the process whereby autotrophs absorb external
substances and convert them into stored energy. This involves the
conversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates in the presence
of sunlight and chlorophyll.
3. Surplus carbohydrates produced through photosynthesis are stored in the
form of starch.
4. Similarly, in our bodies, a portion of the energy derived from the food we
eat is stored in the form of glycogen.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Events Occurring during Photosynthesis:

1. Chlorophyll absorbing light energy.
2. Transformation of light energy into
chemical energy.
3. Separation of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
4. Conversion of carbon dioxide into
carbohydrates through reduction.

Chlorophyll is a crucial component for the process of photosynthesis.

The iodine test results in a blue-black coloration in the leaf regions where
photosynthesis occurs.

How the plant obtains carbon dioxide?

Massive gaseous exchange occurs in leaves via stomatal pores for
photosynthesis.
Gas exchange extends across the surfaces of stems, roots, and leaves.
Stomatal pores close to prevent excessive water loss when carbon dioxide is
not needed for photosynthesis.
The opening and closing of stomatal pores are regulated by guard cells.
Guard cells swell with water influx, causing stomatal pores to open.
Conversely, the pores close when guard cells shrink.

E .M .A
Stomata
Stomata, pores on leaves, facilitate gas exchange.
Predominantly located on the underside of leaves.
Guard cells, regulating pore opening and closing, safeguard each stoma.
The functionality of guard cells is influenced by their water content.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Heterotrophic Nutrition: E.M.A

Saprophytic Nutrition
Saprophytic nutrition refers to the feeding behavior of certain
organisms that rely on consuming dead and decomposed organic matter.
The food is partially digested outside the body, and then it is absorbed.
E.g. Fungi are saprophytes.

Parasitic Nutrition
Parasitic nutrition involves organisms feeding at the expense of another,
causing harm.
Parasites live on or within a host organism, extracting nutrients directly
from the host's body.
Examples include leeches as ectoparasites, Ascaris as an endoparasite,
and Cuscuta as a parasitic plant.

Holozoic Nutrition:
In holozoic nutrition, the digestion happens inside the body of the organism.
i.e., after the food is ingested. Most of the animals follow this mode of
nutrition.

How do Organisms obtain their Nutrition?

Single-celled organisms
E.M.A Amoeba engulfs food through temporary
extensions of its cell surface, creating a food-
vacuole as these extensions merge over the food
particle.
Within the food-vacuole, complex substances
undergo breakdown into simpler ones, facilitating
their diffusion into the cytoplasm.
Undigested material is transported to the cell
surface and expelled by Amoeba.

Paramoecium, a unicellular organism, maintains a distinct shape and

ingests food at a designated location.
The entire cell surface, covered with cilia, facilitates the movement of
food to the specified intake spot.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Nutrition in Human Beings:

The alimentary canal is a lengthy
tube running from the mouth to
the anus.
Salivary glands secrete saliva,
which contains the enzyme
salivary amylase, breaking down
complex starch into simple
sugars.
Muscles lining the canal contract
rhythmically, facilitating
peristaltic movements that push
food forward throughout the
digestive system.

Digestion in the stomach:

Gastric glands within the stomach wall secrete hydrochloric acid,
the enzyme pepsin, and mucus.
Hydrochloric acid establishes an acidic environment, enhancing the
effectiveness of the protein-digesting enzyme, pepsin.
Under normal conditions, mucus shields the stomach's inner lining
from the corrosive effects of the acid.
Pepsin functions as a protein-digesting enzyme.
The release of food from the stomach into the small intestine is
regulated by a sphincter muscle, allowing controlled passage in small
amounts.

Length of small intestine:

Herbivores, such as those consuming grass, require an elongated small
intestine to facilitate the digestion of cellulose.
Carnivores, like tigers, with a diet of easily digestible meat, possess shorter
small intestines.
The small intestine serves as the location for the thorough digestion of
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
Secretions from the liver and pancreas contribute to the digestive
processes occurring in the small intestine.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Bile juice from the liver:

Bile salts play a role in emulsifying fats, breaking large fat globules into
smaller ones, thereby enhancing the efficiency of pancreatic enzymes.
The initially acidic food entering the small intestine undergoes alkalization
through the action of bile juice, promoting the effectiveness of pancreatic
enzymes.

pancreatic juice from the pancreas:

Pancreatic juice includes enzymes such as trypsin, responsible
for protein digestion, and lipase, which is involved in breaking
down emulsified fats.
The small intestine walls house glands producing intestinal
juice.
Enzymes in the intestinal juice convert proteins to amino acids,
complex carbohydrates to glucose, and fats to fatty acids and
glycerol.
The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous finger-like
projections called villi.

Functions of Villi:
Enhances the surface area available for absorption.
Villi are abundantly supplied with blood vessels, facilitating the
distribution of absorbed nutrients to every cell in the body.
Unabsorbed food is directed to the large intestine, where its
walls extract additional water from the material.

Respiration:
The process by which a living being utilises the food to get energy, is
called respiration. Respiration is an oxidation reaction in which
carbohydrate is oxidized to produce energy. Mitochondria is the site
of respiration and the energy released is stored in the form of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate). ATP is stored in mitochondria and is released
as per need.

Steps of respiration:
The breakdown of glucose into pyruvate occurs in the cytoplasm.
During this process, a glucose molecule, with 6 carbon atoms, is
transformed into pyruvic acid, which consists of 3 carbon atoms.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Fate of Pyruvic Acid in Mitochondria: Pyruvic acid undergoes further

breakdown within the mitochondria, and the resulting molecules vary
based on the type of respiration specific to the organism. Respiration is
categorized into two types: aerobic respiration and anaerobic
respiration.
Respiration involves
Gaseous exchange: Intake of oxygen from the atmosphere and release
of CO2 → Breathing.
Breakdown of simple food in order to release energy inside the cell →
Cellular respiration
Types of Respiration
Aerobic Respiration: Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of
oxygen. Pyruvic acid undergoes conversion into carbon dioxide, releasing
energy, and culminating in the formation of water molecules.
Anaerobic Respiration: Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of
oxygen. Pyruvic acid is converted into either ethyl alcohol or lactic acid.
Ethyl alcohol typically forms in microbes such as yeast or bacteria
during anaerobic respiration. Lactic acid is produced in certain microbes
and muscle cells during this process.

Pain in leg muscles while running:

Intense running triggers anaerobic respiration in muscle cells,
driven by an increased demand for energy.
The process of anaerobic respiration produces lactic acid,
contributing to a throbbing pain in the leg muscles.
Resting after the activity helps alleviate the pain caused by the
deposition of lactic acid in the muscles.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

ATP
ATP serves as the energy currency within cells.
ATP is an acronym for Adenosine Tri-Phosphate.
This molecule is generated as a byproduct of reactions such as
photosynthesis and respiration.
The three phosphate bonds in ATP are high-energy bonds, and their
breaking releases a substantial amount of energy.
The released energy is subsequently utilized for various metabolic
reactions.

Respiration in Humans
The human respiratory system is a complex network crucial for
breathing, gas exchange, and cellular respiration.
A well-organized respiratory system is essential for efficient
breathing and gas exchange.
Breathing involves inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide.
Gas exchange occurs in the lungs, where oxygen is supplied to all
cells in the body.
Cellular respiration takes place in every cell, contributing to overall
energy production and cellular function.

Respiratory System
The human respiratory system involves the nose, nasal cavities,
pharynx, larynx, trachea/windpipe, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.
Bronchioles and alveoli are enclosed in a pair of lungs.
The rib cage, muscles associated with the rib cage and diaphragm all
help in the inhalation and exhalation of gases.
The exchange of gases takes place between an alveolar surface and
surrounding blood vessels.
Alveoli provide a large surface area for the exchange of gases.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

SECRET QUESTIONS

1. Why do we feel pain or cramps in muscles after vigorous exercise?

Actively metabolizing cells of an extremely active skeletal muscle,

during heavy exercise, carry oxidation in the anaerobic condition inside
the muscle cell, we feel pain after a vigorous exercise because of
production of ATP by anaerobic respiration in leg muscles

2. Describe the structure of the human heart briefly

Human heart is four chambered. The two upper chambers are called
atria and they receive blood from large veins while the two lower
chambers are called ventricles. Between left atrium and left ventricle as
well as between right atrium and right ventricle are valve which allow
blood to flow only from atrium to ventricle.

3. What is sequence of steps in photosynthesis? How is it

different in desert plants and those in temperate regions?

Chloroplast (chlorophyll), on exposure to light energy, becomes activated by

absorbing light energy, and splits water (photolysis of water) to oxygen and
hydrogen. Hydrogen reduces CO2
, and synthesizes glucose. In plants of temperate regions, stomata open during
day to take in CO2
and release O2 Desert plants open stomata at night to check excessive loss of
water hence sequence of steps of photosynthesis are slightly different. These
plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an intermediate which is
acted upon by the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during the day

4.Give schematic representation of different pathways of

breakdown of glucose molecule.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Inhalation and Exhalation

Inhalation is the process of taking in air rich in oxygen.
Exhalation is the process of expelling air rich in carbon dioxide.
A single breath involves both inhalation and exhalation.
Individuals breathe multiple times throughout the day.
The frequency of breaths in one minute is referred to as the
breathing rate.

Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration involves a series of metabolic reactions within cells,
transforming the biochemical energy derived from food into a chemical
compound known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Respiration in Plants
In contrast to animals and humans, plants lack specialized
structures for gaseous exchange.
Gaseous exchange in plants occurs through stomata in leaves and
lenticels in stems.
Plant roots, stems, and leaves exhibit a considerably lower
respiratory rate compared to animals.

Transportation:
All living organisms, including animals, rely on essential
components like air, water, and food for survival, obtained
through processes such as breathing, drinking, and eating.
Transportation systems, like vascular tissue in plants and
specialized circulatory systems in animals, facilitate the
distribution of necessary substances to cells and tissues.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Transportation in Humans
The circulatory system in humans serves as the primary
transportation mechanism.
Comprising blood, blood vessels, and the heart, it facilitates the
supply of oxygen and nutrients while eliminating carbon dioxide and
other excretory products.
Additionally, the circulatory system plays a vital role in the body's
immune response, aiding in the fight against infections.

HEART is a muscular organ, which is composed of cardiac muscles.

The heart, compact enough to fit within an adult's wrist, serves as a vital
pumping organ for blood circulation.
Comprising four chambers—right atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle,
and left atrium—the human heart orchestrates the rhythmic processes of
systole (contraction of cardiac muscles) and diastole (relaxation of
cardiac muscles).
Through systole and diastole, the heart efficiently propels and circulates
blood, ensuring essential oxygen and nutrients reach the body's tissues
and organs.

ARTERIES
Thick-walled blood vessels transport oxygenated blood from the
heart to various organs, with the exception of pulmonary arteries.
Pulmonary arteries deviate from the norm by carrying
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where the blood
undergoes oxygenation.

VEINS
These are thin-walled blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood
from different organs to the heart, pulmonary veins are exceptions
because they carry oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart.
Valves are present in veins to prevent back flow of blood.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Capillaries: are blood vessels distinguished by their single-cell walls.

Blood, a connective tissue, functions as the carrier for various
substances in the body and is comprised of three main components:
1. Plasma, 2. Blood cells, and 3. Platelets.
Blood Plasma: This is a light-colored fluid primarily composed of
water, constituting the matrix of blood.
Blood Cells: There are two main types of blood cells: Red Blood Cells
(RBCs) and White Blood Cells (WBCs).
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): These cells are red due to the presence of the
pigment hemoglobin. Hemoglobin readily binds with oxygen and carbon
dioxide, facilitating the transport of oxygen. Additionally, a portion of
carbon dioxide is transported through hemoglobin.
White Blood Cells (WBCs): These cells are pale white and play a crucial
role in the immune system.
Platelets: Responsible for blood coagulation, platelets serve as a
defense mechanism preventing excessive blood loss in the event of an
injury.

LYMPH
Lymph resembles blood but lacks red blood cells (RBCs).
Formed from leaked fluid in tissues, lymph is collected by lymph
vessels and returns to blood capillaries.
Lymph, a yellowish fluid with fewer proteins than blood, plays a
vital role in the immune system.
It flows from tissues to the heart, assisting in transportation and
germ destruction.

Double circulation:
The heart receives oxygenated blood
from the lungs, pumps it to various
parts of the body, and then receives
it back for another circulation.
Consequently, the blood completes a
full round through the body, passing
once through the right half as
deoxygenated blood and once through
the left half as oxygenated blood.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Transportation in Plants
Transportation is a crucial process in plants.
It encompasses the movement of water and essential nutrients
throughout the plant to support its survival.
Plants conduct the transportation of food and water through
distinct pathways.
Xylem is responsible for transporting water.
Phloem, on the other hand, is dedicated to the transportation
of food.
Transport of water
Root cells in contact with the soil actively absorb ions, establishing
a concentration difference between the root and the soil.
Water moves into the root from the soil to equalize this ion
concentration difference. Additionally, the evaporation of water
molecules from leaf cells generates suction, drawing water from the
xylem cells in the roots.
Transpiration
Transpiration refers to the loss of water in vapor form from the
plant's aerial parts.
This process aids in the absorption and upward transport of water
and dissolved minerals from the roots to the leaves, contributing to
temperature regulation.
Transport of food and other substances
The movement of soluble products resulting from photosynthesis is
termed translocation, and it takes place within the vascular tissue
section called the phloem.
Energy is harnessed to accomplish translocation in the phloem.
Substances such as sucrose are actively transferred into phloem
tissue, utilizing energy derived from ATP.

Xylem Phloem
Transports water and Transports the products of
minerals from the roots to photosynthesis from the leaves
various parts of the plant. to other parts of the plant.
No energy is used. Energy is used from ATP
(adenosine triphosphate).
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Excretion
The human excretory system comprises two kidneys, two ureters, a
urinary bladder, and a urethra.
Animals exhibit an advanced and specialized excretory system.
In contrast, plants lack a well-developed excretory system similar
to that of animals.
Plants do not possess specialized organs for excretion.
Consequently, excretion in plants is not as complex as it is in
animals.

Human Excretory System

The human excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys.
Each kidney is connected to the urinary bladder by a tube called
the ureter.
Urine is gathered in the urinary bladder and expelled through the
urethra as needed

Excretory system of human beings includes

A pair of kidneys, A urinary bladder, A pair of the ureter, A urethra.

Kidney:
The kidney, a bean-shaped organ, is situated near the vertebral
column in the abdominal cavity.
Comprising numerous filtering units known as nephrons.
The nephron is recognized as the functional unit of the kidney.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Nephron Nephrons are the structural and functional unit of kidney.

Each kidney comprises millions of nephrons, serving as the

fundamental structural and functional unit.
A nephron consists of two parts: the Malpighian body and
the renal tubule.
The Malpighian body includes Bowman's capsule, a cup-like
structure, and the glomerulus, a cluster of capillaries.
Working collaboratively, they filter waste materials and
various useful substances.
The renal tubule features three regions: proximal
convoluted tubule, Loop of Henle, and distal convoluted
tubule.
These regions absorb useful substances back into the
blood and filter the remaining waste substances.
The collective output from nephrons is termed urine.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Haemodialysis
Kidney failure leads to complications, and to address this, the
technology of dialysis has been developed.
Dialysis employs a machine filter known as a dialyzer or artificial
kidney.
The purpose is to eliminate excess water and salt, balance
electrolytes, and remove metabolic waste products.
Blood is extracted from the body and passes through tubes with
a semipermeable membrane.
On the other side of the membrane, a dialysate flows, drawing
impurities through the membrane.

Excretion in Plants
Cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and metabolic reactions in
plants result in the production of various excretory products.
Major plant excretory products include carbon dioxide, excess
water from respiration, and nitrogenous compounds from protein
metabolism.
Plants release two gaseous waste products: oxygen during
photosynthesis and carbon dioxide during respiration.
Gaseous waste excretion in plants occurs through stomatal pores on
leaves.
Oxygen released during photosynthesis is utilized for respiration,
while carbon dioxide from respiration is used for photosynthesis.
Excess water is excreted through transpiration.
Plants store organic by-products in different forms in various parts,
including gums, oils, latex, and resins.
These waste products are stored in plant parts like bark, stems,
leaves, etc., and are eventually shed off.
Examples of plant excretory products include orange oil, eucalyptus
oil, jasmine oil, latex from rubber trees, papaya trees, and gums
from acacia.
At times, plants release excretory substances into the soil.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Top 7 questions

1.Differentiate between Photosynthesis and Respiration.

Respiration Photosynthesis

It occurs in all living cells. It occurs in only

autotrophs.
O2 reacts with food and CO2 and H2O combine to
energy is released. form starch and water in
the presence of light.
It occurs in cytoplasm and
Occur in plastidchloroplast
mitochondria.

2. a. How is oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanged between blood

and tissue? How are the gases transported in human being?
b. What is haemoglobin?

a. Exchange of gases in tissues occurs through

diffusion. Oxygen is carried as oxyhaemoglobin from lungs to tissues. It
dissociates and carbon dioxide diffuses out into blood from tissues. It is
transported in dissolved form and reaches lungs where again it diffuses to
alveoli.
b. Respiratory pigment: Haemoglobin is a red coloured protein present in
red blood cells. Haemoglobin has affinity for O2.

3. What is excretion? Name some parts in our body involved in this

life process?

Excretion means throwing out metabolic waste from living body. Many
organs perform this process such as
a. Kidneys remove nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid in urine.
b. Sweat and oil by glands in skin.
c. Carbon dioxide and water vapor by lungs.
d. Faces or undigested food by large intestine.
e. Bile pigments by liver. It also converts toxic ammonia to urea.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

4.Explain how the air is inhaled during breathing in humans.

Mechanism of inhalation:
a. The diaphragm and rib muscles contract which make the throat
move upwards and outwards.
b. The volume inside the thoracic cavity increases i.e., it expands.
c. Air pressure inside the thoracic cavity decreases. Thus, air from
outside rushes into the lungs /
alveoli through nostrils, trachea and bronchi.

5.Leaves of a healthy potted plant were coated with Vaseline to

block the stomata. Will this plant remain healthy for long? Stage
three reasons for your answer.

No, the plant will not stay healthy for a long time. The reasons are:
a. It will not be able to exchange O2 and CO2, hence respiration will be
affected adversely.
b. Photosynthesis will also be affected as CO2 will not be available.
c. Transpiration will not take place hence there will
be no ascent of sap, hence no water absorption from the soil.

6.Draw neat and labeled diagram of nephron and describe

the process of urine formation.

Within the kidney are small functional units

called nephrons, which are made up of glomeruli,
Bowman’s capsule, proximal convoluted tubule,
loop of Henley1s loop, distal convoluted loop, and
collecting duct. Steps of urine formation: Each
kidney is made of millions of nephron. Each
nephron has a hollow cup like Bowman’s capsule
and a long tubule system following it. Arteriole
branching from renal artery make bunches of
capillaries, one of which is called a Glomerulus.
The first step in the filtration process is when
the blood enters the Glomerulus, where it is
then pumped through the porous walls into the
Bowman’s space. This filtered plasma is mainly
water, various salts, urea and glucose. The
“glomerular filtrate” then
passes through the proximal convoluted tubule ,
Loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule so
that useful substances are re-absorbed by blood
present in the capillaries around them.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

7.Describe double circulation in human beings. Name the group of

animal with double circulation? How is it important for them?

Such a flow in which blood enters the heart

twice is called double circulation. It helps in
keeping the oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood separate. The right atrium receives
blood from the vena cava and pumps the
blood into the right ventricle. Blood is sent
to lungs, where it is oxygenated. Then, it is
sent through the right and left pulmonary
veins to the left atrium where it is pumped
to the left ventricle. The blood then travels
to the ascending aorta where it leaves the
heart and delivers oxygen to different parts
of the body.

Competency-Based Questions:
1. The green plants make their food, through photosynthesis and are therefore
called autotrophs. All other organisms depend upon green plants for food and are
referred to as heterotrophs. Green plants carry out photosynthesis by using
light energy of sun. The first phase of reactions are directly light driven
therefore called light reactions. The second phase of reactions are not directly
light driven but are dependent on the products of light reactions and are called
dark reactions.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

2 .The small intestine is a tubular structure within the abdominal cavity that
carries the food in continuation with the stomach up to the colon from where the
large intestine carries it to the rectum and out of the body. The main function of
this organ is to aid in digestion. All nutrients are usually absorbed into blood across
the mucosa of the small intestine. In addition, the small intestine absorbs water
and electrolytes, thus playing critical role in and acid-base balance.
maintenance of body water
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Control Coordination
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Nervous System:

The nervous system is like the control center of our bodies. It's
made up of special tissues called nervous tissue. The worker in
this system is the nerve cell or neuron. The nervous system is
mainly in charge of managing and coordinating things in complex
animals.
Functions of the nervous system:
1. The nervous system gets information from the world around us.
2. It collects information from different parts of our body.
3. It helps us make decisions and control our muscles and glands.

Neuron or Nerve cell: Neuron is a highly specialized

cell which is responsible for the transmission of
nerve impulses.
exam mei ayega!

The cell body, or cyton, is the main rounded part of the neuron
where you find the central nucleus and cytoplasm.
Dendrites are like the tree branches of the neuron's cell body.
They receive and pass on signals or messages.
The axon is the neuron's long part that carries messages away
from the cell body. It's protected by a covering called the
myelin sheath.
Nerve endings are like tiny branches at the ends of neurons,
and they send electrical signals to other neurons.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

E.M.A
Working of a neuron:
1. The neuron gets information from receptors as an electrical
signal at the start of its dendrite.
2. This signal travels from the dendrite to the cell body and then
all the way to the tip of the axon.
3. Between two neurons, there's a small gap known as a synapse.
Special chemicals bridge this gap to transmit the same signal to
the next neuron.
4. At the end of the axon, electrical signals trigger the release of
these chemicals.
A synapse is where the end branches of one neuron's axon
connect with the dendrite of another neuron.

E.M.A
Transmission of nerve impulse: Nerve impulses travel
in the following manner from one neutron to the next.
Dendrites → cell body → axon → nerve endings at the tip of axon → synapse → dendrite of next neuron.
The chemicals released from the tip of a neuron's axon traverse the
synapse or neuromuscular junction to connect with the adjacent cell.

types of nervous
system

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

(CNS) (PNS)
{Human Brain & Spinal Cord} {3 types of Nerves}
 PRASHANT KIRAD

E.M.A
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal
cord. The brain controls bodily functions, while the spinal
cord relays signals between the brain and the peripheral
nervous system.

Human brain:

It serves as the central coordination hub of the body, empowering an organism to

both think and act.
Three Regions of Brain: exam mei ayega
Fore-brain: It is composed of the cerebrum.
Mid-brain: It is composed of the hypothalamus.
Hind-brain: It is composed of the cerebellum, pons, medulla,
oblongata.

Forebrain: The largest and primary cognitive region of the

brain responsible for receiving sensory impulses. Its
components include:

1. Cerebrum: Shaped like a dome, it serves as the brain's uppermost

structure and functions as the primary thinking center. Responsible
for tasks such as reasoning, speech, and information processing.

The cerebrum controls voluntary motor actions.

It is the site of sensory perceptions, like tactile and auditory
perceptions.
It is the seat of learning and memory.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

2. Lobes
Frontal- controls voluntary movements of muscles, memory,
and speech.
Parietal- a sense of touch and taste.
Temporal- a sense of smell and hearing. E.M.A
Occipital- a sense of vision.

Midbrain: The inclusion of the hypothalamus defines its

composition.
Hypothalamus:
It lies at the base of the cerebrum.
It also controls the urges for eating and drinking.
It controls sleep and wake cycle of the body.

Hindbrain: Serving as the link between the spinal cord and

the rest of the brain, it consists of three distinct parts.

1. Cerebellum:
It's under the cerebrum and does three main things:
helps you move
keeps you balanced
manages things you do on purpose

2.Medulla:
It's the brain stem, found at the bottom of the brain and
stretching into the spinal cord. It handles things our body
does automatically, like hearing, heartbeats, breathing, and
actions like salivating and vomiting.

3.Pons:
It also controls involuntary actions.
It regulates respiration

Spinal Cord: It manages quick reflex

actions and sends messages between
the body and the brain.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

E.M .A
Peripheral Nervous System:
The peripheral nervous system includes cranial nerves and
spinal nerves. We have 12 pairs of cranial nerves that extend
from the brain to the head's organs. Additionally, there are
31 pairs of spinal nerves that come out of the spinal cord and
connect to organs below the head.

Cranial Nerves: Originate from the brain and extend

throughout the head.
Spinal Nerves: Arise from the spinal cord and extend
throughout the body, excluding the head.
Visceral Nerves: Emerge from the spinal cord and
establish connections with internal organs.

Reflex Action: A rapid, sudden, and immediate bodily

response to a stimulus. Examples include the knee jerk and
withdrawing the hand upon touching an object.

Reflex Arc: The route traveled by nerve impulses during a

reflex action is known as a reflex arc.

HEAT --> RECEPTORS --> SPINAL ORGAN --> EFFECTOR ORGAN --> RESPONSE
(Stimulus) (skin) (Muscles) (Hand Withdraw)

THREE TYPES OF RESPONSES:

Voluntary Actions: Governed by the forebrain. Examples include

talking and writing.
Involuntary Actions: Regulated by the mid and hind brain.
Examples encompass heartbeat, vomiting, and respiration.
Reflex Actions: Orchestrated by the spinal cord. An instance is
the withdrawal of a hand upon touching a hot object.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

SECRET QUESTIONS

1.The two glands A and B which occur in pairs are

present in endocrine system. The pair of glands A is
found only in females whereas the pair of glands B
occur only in males. The gland A make and secrete
hormone C whereas gland B make and secrete hormone
E. In addition to hormone, gland A makes gamete F
whereas gland B makes gamete G.
a. What are glands A and B?
b. Name the hormone C and E
c. Name the gamete F and G.
a. glands A - ovaries B-testes
b. Hormone C - oestrogen E-testosterone
c. The gamete F - ova G-sperms

2.Tendrils encircle or coil around the object in

contact with it. Elaborate.
Tendrils are sensitive to touch. When they come in
contact with any support, the part of the tendril in
contact with the object does not grow as rapidly as
the part of the tendril away from the object. This
causes the tendril to circle around the object and
thus, cling to it.

3.Write two differences between the response of the

plants and response of the animals to stimuli?

Plants Animals
No specific or No specific or
specialized tissue specialized tissue
present for conduction present for conduction
of information. of information.
Plant cells change Specialised proteins
shape by changing the are found in muscle
amount of water in cells which help in
them. changing the shape.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Coordination in PLANTS:
Control and coordination in plants are carried out by hormones.

Plant Hormones Functions

Auxin Helps in the growth of plant tissues

Cytokinin Promotes cell division, delays ageing of cells

Gibberellins Facilitates stem growth, triggers seed

germination, stimulates flowering, supports cell
division, and fosters seed development post-
germination.

Abscisic acid Suppresses growth, induces wilting of leaves,

encourages bud and seed dormancy.

Ethylene This is a gas hormone responsible for

fruit ripening.

E.M .A
Growth Independent Movements:
Movements unrelated to growth are termed nastic movements.
These responses occur due to environmental stimuli, but the
direction of the response is not determined by the direction
of the stimulus.

The movement in the touch-me-not plant is thigmonastic movement (movement in response to touch).

Plant Movements Associated with Growth:

Growth-related movements are referred to as tropic movements.
These responses occur in reaction to environmental stimuli, and
the direction of the response is influenced by the direction of the
stimulus.
E.M.A
Phototropic movement (light-dependent)
Geotropic movement (gravity-dependent)
Chemotropic movement (chemical-dependent)
Hydrotropic movement (water-dependent)
Thigmotropic movement (touch dependent)
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Geotropism: The response of plant parts to

the Earth's gravitational force is
termed geotropism or
gravitropism.
Positive geotropism refers to growth towards gravity, while
negative geotropism involves growth away from gravity. Roots
exhibit positive geotropism by growing towards gravity, while
shoots display negative geotropism by growing away from gravity.

Phototropism: The response of plant parts

to light is termed
phototropism.

Positive phototropism involves movement towards light, while

negative phototropism entails movement away from light. Stems
exhibit positive phototropism by moving towards the light, while
roots demonstrate negative phototropism by moving away from the
light.

Hydrotropism: Movement of plant parts in

response to water or moisture.
Positive hydrotropism involves movement towards water, while
negative hydrotropism entails movement away from water. Root
movement in search of water is an example of positive hydrotropism,
as seen in the movement of roots towards areas with high humidity.

Chemotropism: The response of plant parts to

chemical stimuli is termed
chemotropism.
Positive chemotropism involves movement towards a chemical
stimulus, while negative chemotropism entails movement away
from a chemical stimulus. The growth of the pollen tube towards
the ovule exemplifies positive chemotropism.

Thigmotropism: Movement of plant parts in

response to touch is called as
thigmotropism.
Positive thigmotropism involves movement towards touch, while
negative thigmotropism entails movement away from touch. The
movement of tendrils around a support is an example of positive
thigmotropism.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

The Endocrine System

exam mei ayega!
Exocrine Glands:
Exocrine glands release their secretions through
ducts that open onto an epithelial surface.

Endocrine Glands
Endocrine glands are ductless glands that release
hormones directly into the bloodstream in humans.
In the human body, notable endocrine glands include the
pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pineal, pancreas, ovary (female),
testis (male), and others. Now, let's delve into each gland to
learn more.

Pituitary Gland:
Pea-sized gland situated at the base of the brain
Functions as the master gland, overseeing the
secretions of all other endocrine glands
Produces Growth Hormone (GH)
Insufficient GH secretion results in Dwarfism
Excessive GH secretion leads to Gigantism in children
Excessive GH in adults causes 'Acromegaly'
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Thyroid Gland:
Butterfly-shaped gland in the throat
Secretes the hormone 'Thyroxine,' which regulates
body metabolism
Requires iodine for thyroxine synthesis in the body
Iodine deficiency results in under-secretion of
thyroxine
Under-secretion of thyroxine causes goitre
Pancreas:
Leaf-like gland located behind the stomach in the
abdomen
Functions as both an endocrine and exocrine gland
Endocrine function involves the production of two
hormones: Insulin and glucagon
Insulin and glucagon act antagonistically to regulate
blood sugar levels
Exocrine function includes the secretion of enzymes to
break down proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic
acids in food
Insufficient insulin production from the pancreas
results in diabetes
Adrenal Gland:
Present in pairs above each kidney
Size decreases with age
Secretes adrenaline, a hormone facilitating the flight
and fight response
Additionally secretes noradrenaline
Gonads:
Gonads are gamete-producing organs: testes in males,
ovaries in females
Testes produce testosterone (male hormone), while
ovaries produce oestrogen and progesterone (female
hormones)
Testosterone and oestrogen contribute to gamete
production and influence the sexual characteristics of
males and females, respectively
Progesterone serves as the pregnancy hormone
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Top 7 questions

1.What are hormones?

Hormones are the chemical substances secreted in trace
amounts by specialised tissue called endocrine glands.

2.Trace the sequences of events through a reflex arc

which occur when a bright light is focused on your
eyes.

3.(a) What is reflex arc?

(b) What are the components of reflex arc?
(c) How do muscle cells move?

a. The process of detecting the signal or the input and

responding to it by an output action might be completed
quickly. Such a connection is commonly called reflex arc.
b. Stimulus " Receptors " Sensory neurons " Spinal cord "
Motor neurons " Effector.
c. Muscle cells have special proteins that change their
shape and arrangement in the cell in response to electrical
impulse. This leads the muscle cells shortening.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

4.What are hormones? Name the hormone produced by

thyroid gland and state its function.

Chemical coordination in animals occurs through chemicals

called hormones which are secreted by endocrine glands.
Thyroxin hormone.
It regulates metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and
proteins. It is advisable to consume iodized salt in our food
as iodine is required by our thyroid gland to produce
thyroxin hormone. If it lacks in our body goiter may occur
due to enlargement of thyroid in the neck region.

5. Name the hormone synthesised at the shoot tips. How

does it help the plant to respond to light?
Auxin is synthesised at the shoot tips when growing plant
detects light and helps the cells to grow longer. When
light is coming from one side of the plant, auxin diffuses
towards the shady side of the shoot. This concentration
of auxin stimulates the cells to grow longer on the side of
the shoot which is away from light. Thus, the plant
appears to bend towards light.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

6.State how concentration of auxins stimulates the

cells to grow longer on the side of shoot which is
away from light?

Auxin form in the shoot tip but diffuse toward the part
which is in shade/away from the light. The concentration
on shady part increase stimulation cells in this part to
elongate. The side of shoot on this side grows longer than
the part in light hence bend towards light.

7. 1. Name the endocrine gland associated with brain.

2. Which gland secretes digestive enzymes as well as
hormone?
3. Name the endocrine gland associated with kidneys.
4. Which endocrine gland is present in males but not
in females?
5. Which hormone is responsible for changes in
females during puberty?
6. Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of which
hormone?

1. a. Pituitary gland,
2. b. Pancreas,
3. c. Adrenal gland,
4. d. Testes,
5. e. Oestrogen,
6. f. Thyroxine.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Geotropism: Growth of roots downward towards the

earth hence positively geotropic whereas stem grows
upward, away from earth, hence it is negatively
geographic.
b. Auxins: Synthesized at the shoot tip, helps the
cells to grow longer. Abscisic acid: Inhibits growth,
causes wilting and falling of leaves.

Competency-Based
Competency-BasedQuestions:
Questions
1. If the body design in the squirrel relied only on electrical impulses via nerve
cells, the body
1. If the rangedesign
of tissues
in theinstructed to prepare
squirrel relied only onfor the coming
electrical activity
impulses viawould
nerve
be limited. On the other hand, if a chemical signal were to be sent as
cells, the range of tissues instructed to prepare for the coming activity would well, it be
would
limited.reach all cells
On the otherofhand,
the body and provide
if a chemical thewere
signal wide-ranging
to be sentchanges
as well,needed.
it would
This is done in many animals, including human beings, using a hormone
reach all cells of the body and provide the wideranging changes needed. This iscalled
adrenaline
done in many that is secreted
animals, from
including the adrenal
human beings, glands.
using a hormone called adrenaline
that is secreted from the adrenal glands.
i) which is the target organ for the adrenaline hormone?
i) which is the target organ for the adrenaline hormone?
Ezoic
Ezoic
Ans: Heart is the target organ for the adrenaline hormone which increases the
Ans: Heart is the target organ for the adrenaline hormone which increases the
heartbeat rate.
heartbeat rate.
ii) Which hormone is released by thyroid gland?
ii) Which
Ans: hormone
Thyroxine is released
is released by thyroid
by thyroid gland. gland?
Ans: Thyroxine is released by thyroid gland.
iii) What is the function of thyroxine hormone?
iii) What
Ans: is the carbohydrate,
It regulates function of thyroxine hormone?
protein and fat metabolism in the body and promote
Ans:
the It balance
best regulates
forcarbohydrate,
growth. protein and fat metabolism in the body and
promote the best balance for growth.
iv) Name the hormone released by ovary?
iv) Name
Ans: the hormone
Estrogen released by ovary?
and progesterone.
Ans: Estrogen and progesterone.
V) Name the three hormonal glands located in the brain?
V) Name
Ans: thepituitary
Pineal, three hormonal glands located in the brain?
and hypothalamus
Ans: Pineal, pituitary and hypothalamus
 PRASHANT KIRAD
2. Some plants like the pea plant climb up other plants or fences by means of
2. Some plants like the pea plant climb up other plants or fences by means of tendrils.
tendrils. These tendrils are sensitive to . When they come in contact with any
These tendrils are sensitive to . When they come in contact with any support,
support, the part of the tendril in contact with the object does not grow as rapidly
the part of the tendril in contact with the object does not grow as rapidly as the
as the part of the tendril away from the object. This causes the tendril to circle
part of the tendril away from the object. This causes the tendril to circle around the
around the object and thus cling to it. More commonly, plants respond to stimuli
object and thus cling to it. More commonly, plants respond to stimuli slowly by
slowly by growing in a particular direction. Because this growth is directional, it
growing in a particular direction. Because this growth is directional, it appears as if
appears as if the plant is moving.
the plant is moving.
i) How many type of tropism are shown by plants? Name them.
i) How
Ans: many type
Generally thereof are
tropism
6 typeareofshown by namely
tropism plants? phototropism,
Name them. gravitropism,
Ans: Generallythigmotropism,
chemotropism, there are 6 type of tropism namely
thermotropism phototropism, gravitropism,
and hydrotropism.
chemotropism, thigmotropism, thermotropism and hydrotropism.
ii) The me not plant is an example of which tropism?
ii) The
Ans: it isme not plantof
an example is thigmotropism.
an example of which tropism?
Ans: it is an example of thigmotropism.
iii) give one example of chemotropism?
iii) give
Ans: one of
growth example
pollen of chemotropism?
tubes to wheels is one example of chemotropism.
Ans: growth of pollen tubes to wheels is one example of chemotropism.
iv) Name the plants hormone which promotes cell division?
iv) Name
Ans: the plants
Cytokinins hormone
promotes which promotes
cell division in plants.cell division?
Ans: Cytokinins promotes cell division in plants.
v) Name the plant hormone which inhibits growth?
v) Name
Ans: the acid
Abscisic plant hormone which inhibits growth?
Ans: Abscisic acid
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Reproduction
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

REPRODUCTION
The term for creating new life from existing life is Reproduction. Its
significance lies in:
- Replacing deceased organisms.
- Ensuring the continuity of life on Earth.
There are mainly two forms of reproduction: asexual and sexual.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):

The resemblance among individuals in reproduction arises from the
shared DNA with their parents, resulting in a similarity between
the offspring and their progenitors.

Significance of DNA Replication:

→ Preserves body structure.
→ Facilitates the inheritance of traits.
→ Introduces diversity during the DNA replication process.

Significance of variation:
→ Essential for evolutionary processes.
→ Enables adaptation to changing environments.
→ Contributes to the resilience and survival of populations.

Asexual Reproduction:
Offspring produced by a single parent, with or without the
involvement of gamete formation, represent a reproductive
process wherein a lone parent gives rise to progeny. This
mode of reproduction may or may not include the formation
of specialized reproductive cells called gametes.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Fission:
A unicellular organism, such as bacteria, undergoes division into two or
more organisms. Generally categorized into two types, this process
involves binary fission and multiple fission.

Binary fission: Involves the splitting of an organism into two new

organisms under specific conditions.

Binary fission in Amoeba:

Initially, the nucleus undergoes
division into two, followed by the
division of cytoplasm. Ultimately,
the parent cell splits into two
daughter cells.

Multiple fission:
Multiple fission involves the parent
organism dividing into numerous
identical daughter organisms
simultaneously. This reproductive
mechanism is observed in certain
organisms, including Plasmodium, the
malarial parasite.

Fragmentation:
Fragmentation is the process wherein the body of a simple multicellular
organism breaks into two or more pieces as it matures. Each fragment then
develops into a new organism.

Example: Algae (Spirogyra) undergo maturation

and subsequently break into two or more small
fragments. Each of these fragments then grows
independently, eventually developing into a
completely new organism.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Budding:
In the process of budding, small outgrowths called "buds" emerge from
the body of the parent organism. These buds eventually detach and give
rise to new organisms. Examples include Hydra and yeast.
# Hydra:
● Hydra, a simple multicellular organism, reproduces asexually
through budding utilizing regenerative cells.
● Initiation involves a small bud forming on one
side through simple mitotic division.
● The bud matures, developing a mouth and
tentacles.
● Ultimately, the new Hydra detaches from the
parent's body to live independently as a singular
organism.

Vegetative Propagation:
Vegetative propagation involves obtaining new plants from portions of an
old plant without the involvement of reproductive structures. Typically,
this process centers on the growth
and development of a single bud on
an existing plant part to give rise to
a new plant. Examples include potato
buds, onion bulbs, leaf buds of
Bougainvillea, and Dahlia roots. This
method is a form of natural
propagation.

# Artificial propagation involves growing multiple plants from a single

plant using man-made methods.
- Common methods include:
1. Cutting: Removal of a small plant part using a sharp knife, e.g.,
sugarcane, bananas, cactus.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

2. Layering: Bending a part, typically a branch, toward the ground,

allowing the tip to remain exposed while the rest is covered by soil, e.g.,
Jasmine, or lemon.
3. Grafting: Joining the stems of two plants (one with roots and the
other without) to grow as a single plant, e.g., apple, or pear.

- These techniques are employed for efficient and controlled plant

reproduction.
Advantages of Artificial Plant Propagation:
● Ensures that new plants inherit precisely the desired
characteristics of the parent.
● Requires less attention for the growth of plants propagated through
this process.
● Allows the generation of multiple plants from the same parent,
increasing efficiency and productivity.
Tissue Culture:
Tissue culture generates new plants from a small piece of plant tissue or
cells taken from a growing plant. This tissue is then cultivated under
suitable conditions.

Advantages:
● Rapid plant growth characterizes tissue culture, making it a quick
technique.
● Plants produced through tissue culture are free from diseases.
● It results in many plants in a short period, typically weeks, and
requires minimal space for growth.
Regeneration:
Regeneration is the reconstruction of a complete organism from a specific
body part.

Challenges in Complex Multicellular Organisms:

● Regeneration is viable in organisms with simpler
body structures than cellular organization.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

● In complex multicellular organisms, cells assemble into tissues,

tissues into organs, organs into organ systems, and ultimately,
organ systems constitute the entire organism.
● The intricate hierarchy of organization in complex multicellular
organisms hinders the formation of a complete individual from a
cultured body part.

Spore formation:
In spore formation, a parent plant
generates numerous microscopic
reproductive units known as spores. Upon
bursting the plant's spore case, these
spores disperse into the air. Subsequently,
airborne spores settle on the soil, and
under favorable conditions, they initiate
germination, giving rise to new plants.

# Secret Questions:
1) Give an advantage of vegetative propagation.
Solution: Vegetative propagation can be practiced for growing such plants
which usually do not produce seeds or produce non-viable seeds.

2) Give reasons as to why the following processes are different from each
other: a. Fission in Amoeba and Plasmodium. b. Binary fission and
Fragmentation
Solution:
a. Amoeba undergoes binary fission, resulting in two daughter cells, while
Plasmodium undergoes multiple fission, producing many daughter cells.

b. Binary fission yields two daughter cells, while fragmentation in

multicellular organisms leads to the division of the body into two or more
parts.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Sexual Reproduction:
Sexual reproduction involves the union of two specialized reproductive
cells known as "sex cells," alternatively referred to as "gametes" or "germ
cells." There are two types: male gametes (sperm) and female gametes
(egg). The fusion of a male gamete with a female gamete results in the
formation of a "zygote" cell, which subsequently develops into a new
organism.

The union of a male gamete and a female gamete leads to the formation of
a "zygote" cell, which subsequently develops into a new organism.

Sexual Reproduction in flowering plant:

Angiosperms, or flowering plants, are characterized by sex organs in their
flowers, with seeds enclosed within
fruits. These plants exhibit a variety
of reproductive structures. Bisexual
flowers contain both male and female
reproductive organs within the same
flower. In contrast, unisexual flowers
have either male or female
reproductive parts within a single
flower.

● Stamen: The stamen is the male part of the flower responsible for
reproduction. A single flower can have several stamens.

● Anther: The anther is a two-lobed structure located at the tip of the

stamen. It contains two pollen sacs, producing yellowish pollen grains.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

● Carpel: The carpel is the female reproductive part located at the

center of the flower.
It consists mainly of three parts:
➔

➔ Stigma: The stigma is the terminal part of the carpel and may be
sticky. It plays a role in receiving pollen grains during pollination.
➔ Style: The style is the elongated middle part of the carpel. It
aids in connecting the stigma to the ovary.
➔ Ovary: The ovary is the swollen bottom part of the carpel. It
contains ovules that house the egg cell, the female gamete.
●

● Pollination: Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther

of the stamen to the stigma of a flower.

➔ Self-pollination: In self-pollination, pollen from the stamen of a

flower is transferred to the stigma of the same flower.
➔ Cross-pollination: Cross-pollination involves the transfer of pollen
from the stamen of one flower to the stigma of a different flower.

Fertilization:
● Following pollination, fertilization occurs in plants, involving the fusion of
male germ cells with female gametes, forming a zygote.
● Upon landing on a suitable stigma, pollen reaches the female germ cells in
the ovary through a pollen tube, growing from the pollen grains, traveling
through the style, and reaching the ovary.
● After fertilization, the zygote undergoes multiple divisions, forming an
embryo within the ovule. The ovule develops a sturdy coat and transforms
into a seed.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

● The ovary enlarges and matures into a fruit. The seed contains a future
embryo, which, under favorable conditions, grows into a seedling in a
process called germination.

Sexual Reproduction in Human Beings:

Puberty: Puberty is the stage when "sex hormones" are produced, marking
the sexual maturity of a boy or girl.
Age of Puberty:
- Boys: 13-14 years
- Girls: 10-12 years
Sex Hormones:
➔ Testis produces the male sex hormone testosterone.
➔ Ovaries produce two female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone.
Common Changes in Both Genders:
➔ Growth of thick, darker hair in new body parts like armpits and the
genital area.
➔ Thinning of hair on arms, legs, and face.
➔ Skin becomes oily with the development of pimples.

Changes in Girls:
➔ Increase in breast size.
➔ Darkening of the nipple tips.
➔ Onset of menstruation.

Male Reproductive System:

Testis:
The testis is responsible for the production of
germ cells or sperm. It is situated outside the
abdominal cavity within the scrotum, a positioning
essential for sperm formation as it necessitates a
lower temperature than the body's normal
operating temperature.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

➔ Sperm are small entities comprising a lengthy tail,

facilitating their movement toward the female germ cell.

Vas Deferens:
The vas deferens transports the formed sperm, which combines with a
tube originating from the urinary bladder.

Urethra:
The urethra is a duct that conveys urine from the bladder and serves as
a passage for semen in males.

Prostate Gland and seminal Vesicle:

Secretes fluid to make transport easier for the sperm. This fluid also
provides nutrition.

Scrotum:
The scrotum is a small pouch housing the testes, located outside the
abdominal cavity. Because sperm formation occurs here, a lower
temperature than the body's norm is necessary for this process.

Penis:
The penis is the external male reproductive organ that transfers sperm
into the female vagina during copulation.

Female Reproductive System:

Ovaries:
Paired, oval-shaped organs are located in
the abdominal cavity near the kidney. It
produces thousands of Ora or egg cells.
and secrete female sex hormones like
estrogen and progesterone.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Oviduct ( fallopian tube):

The oviduct, also known as the fallopian tube, transports eggs from the
ovary to the uterus. It serves as the site for fertilization and features
a funnel-shaped opening near the ovary, with additional openings
connecting to the uterus on both sides.

Uterus (womb):
A Hollow, pear-shaped bag-like structure where the growth and
development of the fetus take place.

Vagina:
It relieves stems from the male partner, and serves as a birth canal.

Cervix:
lower and the narrower portion of the uterus which opens into the
vagina
Fertilization or Sexual Reproduction in Animals:
1. Sperm and Ovum Production:
● Male parent produces sperm.
● Female parent produces ovum.
2. Fertilization Process:
● During copulation, sperm enters the ovum.
● Fertilization occurs, resulting in the formation of the first cell,
known as a zygote.
3. Embryo Formation:
● The zygote undergoes various divisions to form an embryo.
4. Implantation:
● The embryo embeds itself into the soft and thick lining of the
uterus.
● This process is known as implantation.
5. Placenta Development:
● During pregnancy, the placenta grows into a disc between the
uterine wall and the embryo.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

● The placenta forms finger-like projections called villi towards the

embryo.
6. Child Development:
● The development of the child inside the mother's body takes
approximately nine months in humans.
7. Childbirth Process:
● Strong rhythmic muscular contractions in the uterus cause
childbirth if the egg is not fertilized.
8. Unfertilized Egg Outcome:
● If the egg is not fertilized, menstruation occurs.

Menstruation:
Each month, the ovary releases a single egg, prompting the uterus to
prepare itself for the potential arrival of a fertilized egg. This
preparation involves the thickening and spongy transformation of the
uterine lining. If the released egg remains unfertilized, its lifespan is
approximately one day. In the absence of fertilization, the thickened
uterine lining is deemed unnecessary. Consequently, the lining gradually
breaks down and is expelled through the vagina as a combination of blood
and mucous. This natural process, known as menstruation, recurs roughly
every month and typically spans a duration of about two to eight days.

Birth Control:
Health Consequences of Unprepared Pregnancy:
● If a woman is not ready for pregnancy, it can negatively
impact her health.
Contraception or Birth Control:
● Methods to prevent pregnancy are collectively known as
contraception or birth control.
Mechanical Barrier Method:
● Condoms on the penis or similar coverings in the vagina act as
a mechanical barrier, preventing sperm from reaching the egg.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Chemical Methods:
● Oral pills alter the hormonal balance, inhibiting the release of
eggs and preventing fertilization.
● However, they may cause side effects.
Intrauterine Devices:
● Loops or Copper T devices placed in the uterus help prevent
pregnancy.
● They may cause side effects due to irritation.
Surgical Methods:
● Blocking the vas deferens in males prevents sperm transfer
while blocking the fallopian tube in females prevents egg
movement.
● Surgical methods are more permanent and involve creating
blocks.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs):
● Diseases transmitted through sexual contact are known as
sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).
● Examples include AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency
Syndrome) and genital warts, often caused by infections like
gonorrhea.
Importance of Safe Practices:
● Raising awareness about safe practices and preventive
measures is crucial for safeguarding sexual health.

# Top Seven Question:

1) What is the main difference between sperm and eggs of humans?
Solution:
Sperms are motile, and produced in large numbers by males. Eggs are
non-motile, produced one at a time by females. Sperms travel to the egg
for fertilization, forming a zygote. The zygote develops into a fetus and
eventually a baby, protected inside the female's body.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

2) List any two differences between pollination and fertilization.

Solution:

3) Define reproduction. How does it help in providing stability to the

population of species? [CBSE 2015 C]
Solution:
a. Reproduction is the vital process ensuring the continuity of a species by
generating individuals of its own kind.
b. The sustained stability of a population necessitates the replacement of
members lost to factors like old age, disease, and accidents, ensuring a
balanced and functioning community.
c. Through reproduction, genetic variation is introduced, facilitating better
adaptation and the evolutionary progression of species, ultimately leading to
the emergence of new ones.
d. While individual survival may not hinge on reproduction, it is indispensable
for the survival and perpetuation of a species.

4) What is vegetative propagation? List two advantages and two

disadvantages of vegetative propagation.
Solution: Vegetative propagation is a method of generating new plants from
vegetative parts such as roots, stems, and leaves.
Advantages:
a. Plants produced through vegetative propagation exhibit earlier
flowering and fruiting compared to sexually propagated ones.
b. In cases where plants have lost the ability to produce seeds,
vegetative propagation becomes essential for their reproduction.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Disadvantages:
a. Genetically, plants derived from vegetative propagation closely
resemble parent plants, making them susceptible to infections and
diseases.
b. The lack of genetic variation in such plants hinders their adaptability
to changing environments, impeding the evolutionary development of the
plant species.

5) List three techniques to prevent pregnancy. Which of them is not meant

for males? How does the use of such techniques have an impact on the
health and prosperity of a family?
Solution:
Three pregnancy prevention techniques include:
a. Mechanical barriers for both males and females.
b. Hormonal methods such as oral pills, alter the hormonal balance,
preventing egg release.
c. The use of intrauterine devices like the loop or Copper-T.
d. Surgical methods like tubectomy for females or vasectomy for males.
Hormonal preparations are not designed for males.
Effects on Health and Prosperity:
a. Women's health is preserved.
b. Parents can devote more attention to their children.
c. Additional resources become available.
6) Why are the testes located outside the abdominal cavity? Mention the
endocrine and exocrine function of the testes.
Solution:
Sperm formation necessitates a temperature of 1-3°C lower than the body's
normal temperature. The testes are positioned outside the body, allowing
the scrotum to maintain an optimal temperature for sperm development.
Endocrine function:
The production of the male hormone (testosterone).
Exocrine function:
The generation of male gametes (sperms).
 PRASHANT KIRAD

7) What is placenta? Explain its function in human females.

Solution: Placenta is a specialized tissue embedded in the uterine wall. It
contains villi on the embryo’s side and blood spaces on the mother’s side.
Function:
a. Helps in passing of nutrients from mother to fetus.
b. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases.
c. Passing of waste materials from the embryo to the mother.

# Competency-Based Question:
1) The reproductive
1. In an experiment, parts of
a scientist removed angiosperms
some cells from theare located
growing inathe
point of plantflower. You
and placed it a
suitable medium containing nutrients and plant hormones leading to the formation of shapeless lump
havecalled
or mass already
X. X isstudied the different
then transferred parts which
to another medium of alead
flower – sepals,
to development petals,
of roots. X
with developed and
stamens, rootspistils.
is then transferred
The stamens into another medium
and pistil that
are induced
the the development
reproductive partsof of
shoots. X in this way differentiated into tiny plantlets which were transplanted into pots where
theya grew
flower whichplants.
into mature contain the germ cells. The flower may be unisexual
(papaya,
(i) What is X inwatermelon) when it contains
the given paragraph? either stamens or pistil or bisexual
(a) Plantlet (b) Callus (c) Embryoid (d) Tissue
(Hibiscus, mustard) when it contains both stamens and pistil.
(ii) Which technique has the scientist used for the propagation of plant?
(a) Layering (b) Grafting (c) Tissue culture (d) Cutting
1. Where are the reproductive parts of angiosperms located?
(iii) What2.is What are the
the advantage two
of the main reproductive
technique mentioned in theparts of a flower mentioned in
paragraph?
(a) It helps in production of disease free plants.
(b) It is athe
verypassage?
fast technique as thousand of plantlets can be produced in a few weeks time.
(c) It is also known as micropropagation due to extremely small amount of plant material used for
3. How does the flower's sexuality differ between unisexual and
propagation.
(d) All ofbisexual
these flowers?
4.the
(iv) Select Name two statement
incorrect examples of unisexual
regarding flowers
the propagation provided
technique in theinpassage.
mentioned the paragraph.
(a) It is used in the production of ornamental plants like orchids, carnation, Chrysanthemum, etc.
Solution:
(b) It is a modern method of artificial propagation of plants.
(c) Plants produced by this methods are genetically different from the parent plant.
1. The reproductive parts of angiosperms are located in the flower.
(d) Very little space is needed for developing new plants by this technique.
2. The two main reproductive parts of a flower are the stamens and
(v) Which of the following statements is incorrect?
pistil.
(a) Virus free plants cannot be produced by tissue culture technique.
b) Tissue culture technique is useful in obtaining homozygous diploid.
3. A
(c) Tissue flower
culture is considered
is useful unisexual
in quick propagation when it contains either stamens or
of Gladiolus.
(d) Tissue culture
pistils. Iniscontrast,
artificial method
it is of vegetative
termed propagation.
bisexual when it contains both stamens
and pistils.
4. Examples of unisexual flowers mentioned in the passage are papaya
and watermelon.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

2)
2. P and QChromosomes
are two monoeciousin plants.
the Pnucleus of aflowers
bears bisexual cell contain
whereas Qinformation
bears unisexual for theP
flowers.
does not need a pollinating agent whereas pollinating agent is required in case of Q.
inheritance of features from parents to the next generation in the form of
(i) Select the option that correctly identifies plant P and Q.
(a) PDNA
Papaya,(Deoxyribose
Q - Marigold Nucleic Acid) molecules. The DNA in the cell nucleus is
(b) P-Pea, Q - Cucurbit source for making proteins. If the information is changed,
the information
(c) P-Sunflower, Q - Orchids
different
(d) P-Tulip, proteins will be made. Different proteins will eventually lead to
Q - Daffodil
altered
(ii) Select body designs.
the correct Therefore,
option regarding plants P and a Q.basic event in reproduction is the
(a) Seed settingof
creation is aassured
DNA incopy.
plant Cells
P even use
if all chemical
its flowers reactions
are emasculated.
to build copies of their
(b) Male flowers of plant Q always open only after the female flowers of the plant are pollinated.
DNA. flowers of plant Q can reproduce by cross pollens or self pollens depending upon the genus to
(c) Female
which plant Q belongs to.
(d) P is1.a cross
Where is theplant
pollinated information
whereas Q isfora selfthe inheritance
pollinated plant. of features stored in a
cell?
(iii) How can self pollination be avoided in plant P?
2. In what
(a) By removing form of
all the flowers is plant
theP information for inheritance encoded in the
(b) By removing all the anthers of all the flowers
chromosomes?
(c) By removing all the carpels of all the flowers
(d) None of these
3. What is the role of DNA in the cell nucleus, according to the passage?
4. How
(iv) Which of the does the
following alteration
holds of Q?
true for plant information in DNA impact the body's
(a) Plant Q bears complete flowers.
design
(b) Plant and
Q bears features?
either male flowers or female flowers but never both.
(c) Sexual reproduction in plant Q may or may not give rise to genetic variations.
Solution:
(d) All of these

1. The information for the inheritance of features is stored in the

chromosomes within the nucleus of a cell.
2. The information for inheritance is encoded in the form of DNA
(Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.
3. DNA in the cell nucleus serves as the information source for the
synthesis of proteins.
4. Changing the information in DNA leads to the production of different
proteins, ultimately resulting in altered body designs and features.
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Heredity and evolution
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Heredity
# Introduction:
● Heredity involves the transmission of
characteristics from one generation to the
next, as traits are passed down from parents

● Heredity is the result of genes being

inherited.
● Study of Heredity and Inheritance is term
Genetics
● A trait that is Genetically passed down from one
generation to another is termed as Inherited
trait.

Variations-> Variations in traits among individuals in a species arise

from genetic mutations and environmental factors, such as diet,
chemicals, and pollution.

Inherited Traits-> Inherited traits are characteristics passed from

parents to offspring through generations, controlled by genes. Examples
include height and skin color.

# Gregor Johann Mendel:

He is credited with establishing fundamental laws of
inheritance, earning him the title "Father of Genetics"
worldwide.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

He chose garden peas for his experiments for the following reasons:

● Pea plants have Several Contrasting

Characteristics like height, flower
Colour, Seed Colour a Shape.
● Self-pollinated plant in nature.
● Cross-pollination can be done
Artifically.
● Short life Span
● Easy to cultivate
Not : The s i t fi na of pe is Pis sa m.
Important Terms:

● Allele-> An allele is one of the various versions of a specific gene,

such as for height.
● Dominant Allele-> A dominant allele, indicated by a capital letter (e.g.,
"T"), expresses its phenotype even when another allele is present.
● Recessive Allele-> The phenotype is expressed only when both alleles
are present, and it is represented by a lowercase letter, as in "t."
● Genotype-> The genetic recipe of a person, like whether they are
entirely tall or a mix of tall traits.
● Phenotype-> Phenotype is an organism's visible traits resulting from
its genes and environment. E.g- tall or dwarf
● Chromosomes-> Chromosomes are thread-like structures in the cell
nucleus that carry genetic information (DNA).
● Hybrid-> An individual with two distinct alleles for the same trait,
like "Tt" for height (tall).
 PRASHANT KIRAD

● Monohybrid Cross-> A cross that focuses on one pair of contrasting

traits is referred to as a monohybrid cross, resulting in a 3:1 ratio
known as the monohybrid ratio.
● Dihybrid cross-> A cross that involves two pairs of contrasting traits
is termed a dihybrid cross, and it yields a 9:3:3:1 ratio, which is known
as the dihybrid ratio.
● Dominant Trait-> The trait that can be visibly expressed in the first
generation.
● Recessive Trait-> The trait that is not able to express itself in F1
generation but reappears in f2 generation.
● Homozygous-> Homozygous means having two identical alleles for a
particular gene.
●

● Heterozygous-> It refers to having two different alleles for a

specific gene.
● Dominant ene-> The gene that can be expressed in both homozygous
and heterozygous conditions.
● Recessive Gene-> A gene that can only express itself in the homozygous
condition.
● Inherited traits from previous generations provide a shared body plan and
introduce subtle modifications for the next generation.
● Depending on the nature of variations, various individuals may possess
diverse advantages.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Mendel 's Experiment:

Mendel found that traits can be dominant or recessive. When he crossed a tall
pea plant with a short one, all offspring in the first generation were tall. To
understand what happened to the short trait, he self-pollinated the
first-generation plants and observed that in the second generation, both tall
and short plants were present in a 3:1 ratio. This led Mendel to conclude that
the short trait was present in the first generation but unable to express itself.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Mendel crossed round and yellow seed pea plants with green and
wrinkled seed pea plants. In the parent generation, all offspring had a
round shape and yellow color. To understand what happened to the
wrinkled and green traits, he self-pollinated the first-generation plants.
In the second generation, he observed new combinations alongside the
parental traits, showing that shape and color traits are inherited
independently.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# Secret Questions:
1) Explain Mendel’s concept of heredity, by giving three points.
Solution:
Mendel's work on pea plants led to the discovery of three fundamental laws of inheritance:
1. Law of Segregation: Genes come in pairs, and during gamete formation, these genes
segregate randomly so that each gamete receives only one gene from the pair.
2. Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are sorted independently
during gamete formation, meaning the inheritance of one trait is not dependent on the
inheritance of another.
3. Law of Dominance: When an organism has alternate forms of a gene (alleles), one form (the
dominant allele) will be expressed in the phenotype if present.
These laws laid the foundation for our understanding of genetics and inheritance.

2) A pea plant with a blue color flower denoted by BB is cross-bred with a pea
plant with a white flower denoted by ww.

a. What is the expected color of the flowers in their F1 progeny?

b. What will be the percentage of plants bearing white flowers in F2 generation, when the
flowers of F1
plants were selfed?
c. State the expected ratio of the genotypes BB and Bw in the F2 progeny.

Solution:
a. F1 generation — blue.
b. 25%
c. BB : Bw = 1 : 2.

3) In a pea plant, find the contrasting trait if:

a. the position of the flower is terminal.
b. the flower is white in color.
c. shape of the pod is constricted.

Solution:
In a pea plant, find the contrasting trait if:
a. the position of the flower is terminal.
b. the flower is white in color.
c. shape of the pod is constricted.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Chromosomes:
Chromosome pairs refer to the two sets of chromosomes present in most
human cells. Each set consists of 23
individual chromosomes, with one set
inherited from the mother and the
other from the father. These pairs
include sex chromosomes (X and Y in
humans) and autosomes, which carry
genetic information and are essential
for genetic inheritance.

Sex Determination:

# In humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes,

making a total of 46 chromosomes. Among these, 22

pairs are autosomes, and one pair is sex
chromosomes. In males, the sex chromosomes are XY,
and in females, they are XX. The sex of a child is
determined during fertilization. If an X-carrying
 PRASHANT KIRAD

sperm fertilizes the egg, the child will be female (XX), and if a Y-carrying sperm
fertilizes the egg, the child will be male (XY). Therefore, the sperm's genetic
contribution determines the child's sex.

Haploid & Diploid Cells:

Diploid:
Dip me ha g t o se of pa c om es in a
ce or or s .
Haploid:
Hap me ha g a si l se of un ed c om es
in a ce or or s .
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# TOP 7 QUESTIONS
1) “It is a matter of chance whether a couple will have a male or a female child.”
Justify this statement by drawing a flow chart. (Foreign 2015,2017)

Solution:
Women produce only one type of ovum (carrying X
chromosome) and males produce two types of sperms
(carrying either X or Y chromosome) in equal proportions. So
the sex of a child is a matter of chance depending upon the
type of sperm fertilizing the ovum.

2) Why traits such as intelligence and knowledge cannot be passed on to the next
generation?
Solution:
Traits such as intelligence and knowledge are not heritable traits, which do not bring
upon any changes in the DNA of the germ cells and, therefore, cannot be passed on
to the progeny.

3) Distinguish between inherited traits and acquired traits in a tabular form, giving one
example of each. (All India 2017)

Solution:

4) What is a dominant trait with respect to height in pea plants? Give any two
examples.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Solution:
Characters/Traits like ‘T’ are called dominant trait (because it express itself)
‘t’ are recessive trait (because it remains supressed).

5) What are chromosomes? Explain how sexually reproducing organisms the number of
chromosomes in the progeny is maintained. (Outside Delhi 2015)

Solution:
Chromosomes - Thread-like structures made up of DNA found in the nucleus. The
original number of chromosomes becomes half during gamete formation. Hence, when
the gametes combine, the original number of chromosomes gets restored in the
progeny

6) Rekha has a dark complexion and seeks beauty products to lighten her skin. Her
friend Lila tells her that skin color is determined by birth and advises against
excessive use of such products. (All India 2013)
a. What might have caused Rekha’s color to be dark?
b. Is it possible that all the family members of Rekha’s family were dark?
c. What value do you learn?
Solution:
a. Her dark colour may be due to genetic inheritance.
b. All may not be dark, depending upon the genes inherited and the environmental conditions
that each one of them living in.
c. Awareness, logical thinking, and scientific temperament.

7) How do Mendel’s experiment show that traits are inherited independently?

Solution:
Mendel performed dihybrid crosses by mating pea plants with different traits in two
characteristics, like yellow round seeds with green wrinkled seeds. In the F2 generation, he
observed both parental (yellow round and green wrinkled) and recombinant (yellow wrinkled
and green round) phenotypes. This showed that these traits separated from their original
combinations and were inherited independently.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# COMPETENCY-BASED QUESTIONS
1. Gregor Mendel conducted hybridisation experiments on garden peas for seven years and proposed
the laws of inheritance in living organisms. He investigated characters in the garden pea plant that
1) Mendel
were performed
manifested dihybrid
as two opposing traits,crosses bydwarf
e.g., tall or mating
plants, pea
yellow and green seeds, etc.
plants with different traits in two characteristics, like
(i) Among the seven pairs of contrasting traits in pea plant as studied by Mendel,
yellow round seeds
the number with related
of traits green towrinkled
flower, podseeds. In respectively
and seed the were
(a) 2, 2, 2 (b) 2, 2, 1 (c) 1, 2, 2 (d) 1, 1, 2.
F2 generation, he observed both parental (yellow
round and
(ii) Thegreen wrinkled)
colour based and traits
contrasting recombinant (yellow pairs, studied by
in seven contrasting
Mendel in pea plant were
wrinkled(a) and
1 (b) 2green
(c) 3 (d)round)
4. phenotypes. This showed
that these traits separated from their original
combinations and were inherited independently.

(a) Why did Mendel select a pea plant for his experiments?
(b) Study the picture below that represents traits studied
by Mendel in garden peas.

Solution:

(a) Mandel Selected the pea plant for his experiment

because the pea plant grew easily in a few days and also has some interesting
characteristics. Also, many generations can examined by Mendel in a few days or
months.

(b) Yellow pod colour and axial position are dominant traits.

2) Lokesh was very fond of dogs. So, one day his friend called him to show a
white dog and a black dog which he had recently got
(iv) Some of the dominant traits studied by Mendel were
from his(a)
friend, Lokesh
round seed was
shape, wondering
green how
seed colour anddifferent
axial flower position
dags have(b)different
terminal flower
colors!position, green pod colour and inflated pod shape
(c) violet flower colour, green pod colour and round seed shape
(d) wrinkled
(A) Dogs having blackseed shape,
coat coloryellow
whenpod colour and
crossed withaxial
dogsflower position.
having the(v)same
Whichcolor, produced
of the following200 offspring.
characters wasOut
not of this by Mendel?
chosen
150 were(a)black and 50 were white. What would be the
Pod shape
genotype (b) Pod colour
of dogs?
(c) Position of flower
(d) Position of pod
 PRASHANT KIRAD

2. Mendel crossed tall and dwarf pea plants to study the inheritance of one gene. He collected the seeds
produced as a result of this cross and grew them to generate plants of the first hybrid generation which is
(B) Harsh has two golden retriever dogs- one male and one female. Now they have
called the first filial progeny or F₁. Mendel then self pollinated the tall F₁ plants and he obtained F₂
grown up and he is surprised and curious to know whether his two golden retrievers can
generation.
produce a black puppy.
(i) In garden pea, round shape of seeds is dominant over wrinkled shape. A pea plant
(C) heterozygous
Lokesh allowed for to mate
round a black
shape dog
of seed havingand
is selfed a 1600
homozygous genotypeduring
seeds produced with the
a black
cross
are subsequently
heterozygous dog, germinated. How many
a total of four seedlings
puppies would have What
were produced. non-parental
will bephenotype?
the color of
(a) 1600 (b) 1200 (c) 400 (d) 800
the puppies?
(ii) If 'A' represents the dominant gene and 'a' represents its recessive allele, which of
the following would be the most likely result in the first generation offspring when Aa is
Solution:
crossed with aa?
(a) All will exhibit dominant phenotype.
(A)The genotype of the dogs with black coat color is likely **Bb**
(b) All will exhibit recessive phenotype.
(c)(heterozygous for coat
Dominant and recessive color). The
phenotypes ratios
will be of black to white puppies in the
50% each.
(d)offspring
Dominant phenotype will be 75%.
(150:50) suggest that these dogs have one dominant allele for black
coat color (B) and one recessive allele for white coat color (b).

(B) Harsh's two grown-up golden retriever dogs can potentially produce a black
puppy if both of them carry the recessive allele for black coat color (bb) and
pass it on to their offspring. The genetic combination of the parents will
determine the coat color of the puppies they produce.
iv) What result Mendel would have got, if he self pollinated a homozygous tall F₂ plant?
(a) TT and Tt (b) All Tt (c) All TT (d) All tt
(C) When a black dog with a homozygous genotype (BB) mates with a black
(v)heterozygous
In plant, tall phenotype
dog (Bb), is dominant over dwarf
the offspring phenotype,
will all and coat
have black the alleles
color.are
The genotype
designated as T and t, respectively. Upon crossing one tall and one dwarf plant, total 250
of the
plants were puppies
obtained, will
out ofbe Bb124
which (heterozygous for black
displayed tall phenotype andcoat color),
rest were and their
dwarf.
Thus, the genotype
phenotype of black.
will be the parent plants were
(a) TTX TT (b) TTx tt (c) Ttx Tt (d) Ttxtt.

All the
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Our Environment
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

ENVIRONMENT- It refers to the complete range of

physical and biological conditions in which org. like and
interact with biotic and abiotic factors.
ECOSYSTEM: All the interacting organisms in an area together
with the non-living constituents of the environment form an
ecosystem. E.g. forest, pond etc.

The ecosystem which exist Man-made ecosystem are

in nature on its own. e.g., called artificial ecosystem.
forest, lake, ocean. e.g., crop field, aquarium,
garden.
note- Agro-ecosystem is the largest man-made ecosystem.
other examples are aquariums, botanical gardens, parks, field crops, etc.

Components of, an Ecosystem

I

Abiotic components Biotic components

(air, water, land) (Plant, animals)

I
producer Consumer Decomposers

I I I I
E. M .A Herbivore Carnivore Omnivore Parasites

1. Biotic component: It includes three types of organisms :

(a) Producers: All green plants, blue green algae can produce their food (Sugar
and starch) from inorganic substance using light energy (Photosynthesis).
Therefore, all green plants are called producers. They are also called autotrophs.

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(b) Consumers: They are organisms which consume other organisms or their
products as their food. All animals belong to this category. The consumers
depend upon producers for their food directly or indirectly. They get their food
by eating other organisms or their products. For example, man, goat, deer, fish,
lion, cow, buffalo, etc., are common consumers.

The consumers can be classified into the following types :

Herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and parasites are the various type of consumers.

1. Herbivores: These are organisms (animals) which get their food by eating the producers (or plant)
directly. Herbivores are also called first order consumers. Some common examples of herbivores are :
deer, rabbit, rat, squirrel, goat, cattle, etc.

2. Carnivores: These are organisms (animals) which consume other animals. Therefore, carnivores
feed on the flesh of herbivores. These are also called primary carnivores or second order consumers.
Some common examples are snake, wild cat, jackal, frog, some birds, fishes, etc.

3. Omnivores: The organisms which feed on both plants and animals are called omnivores.
Human beings are common example of omnivores because they eat both plants (For example;
pulses, grams, oilseeds, fruit, etc.) and animal products (milk, meat, egg, etc.).

4.parasites - Those who live on body of host and take food from it without killing them. Egdice,
cascuta etc

(c) Decomposers: They are those micro-organisms that obtain energy from the chemical
breakdown of dead organisms or animals or plant wastes. These micro organisms are
decomposers as they breakdown the complex organic substances into simple inorganic
substances that go into the soil and are used up once more by the plants.

2. Abiotic Components: All the nonliving components such as air, water, land ,
CO2 , Oz , light etc . form abiotic .These component are physical factors such
as light , temp. , water etc.
Climatic factors: These are sunlight temperature, pressure humidity, moisture, rainfall,
etc. these factors affect the distribution of the organisms.

Light energy (sunlight) is the primary source of energy in nearly all

ecosystems. It is used by green plants (which contain chlorophyll). During
photosynthesis plants manufacture organic substances by combining
inorganic substances.

Temperature The distribution of plants and animals is greatly influenced

by extremes in temperature. The pattern of rain also affects the growth
of the plant. This plant growth determines the overall variety of animals
living in that place.

Atmospheric Gases Oxygen is required for respiration and carbon dioxide

for photosynthesis. Nitrogen is made available to plants by certain
bacteria and through the action of lightening.

Wind It helps in pollination and seed dispersal of some plants. It can

remove and redistribute top soil, especially where vegetation has been
reduced.

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Water It is essential for life. Plant and animal habitats vary from
entirely aquatic environments to very dry deserts.

E.M.A
Trophic levels:
Trophic levels are the various steps or levels in the food tertiary 1st
chain where transfer of food or energy takes place.
secondary
Producers are the first trophic level, herbivores are second 2nd
consumer
trophic level, carnivores or secondary consumers are third
primary
trophic level and large carnivores or tertiary consumers are 3rd
consumer
the fourth trophic level.
producers 4th
E.M.A trophic levels in
Food chain: an eco-system

Food chain is sequence of organisms through which energy is

transferred in the form of food by the process of one
organism consuming the other.
e.g: Grass > Grasshopper > Frog > Snake > Eagle
(Producer) (Herbivore) (Carnivore) (Carnivore) (Top Carnivore)

On the basis of choice of habitat. food chains are of two types:

(1).Terrestrial food chain It is the food chain present on land.
e.g. Grass > Insects > Snake + Hawk.
(2).Aquatic food chain It is the food chain in different water
bodies.
e.g. Phytoplankton — Zooplankton — Fish — shark.

Significance of Food Chain:

1.Exploring food chains helps us see how different creatures in an ecosystem share food
and interact. Think of food chains as nature's delivery system, moving energy and
resources between the different living parts of an ecosystem.
2.Food chains act like energy highways, carrying vital energy and resources between the
different living parts of an ecosystem or even across the whole biosphere.
3.Food chains are like the engines of an ecosystem or the biosphere, making everything
alive and dynamic by showing how energy flows between different creatures.
4. When harmful substances like pesticides and weedkillers travel through food chains,
they can become increasingly dangerous. This can lead to more serious effects on top-level
creatures, including humans. It's a reminder of how important it is to understand and
manage these harmful chemicals in ecosystems.

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 PRASHANT KIRAD

SECRET QUESTIONS

1.a. What is an ecosystem? List its two main components.

b. We do not clean ponds or lakes, but an aquarium needs to be
cleaned regularly. Explain.
a. A self-sustaining functional unit consisting of living (biotic) and
nonliving (abiotic) components, is called an ecosystem.
1. Biotic components: Plants and animals.
2. Abiotic components: Light, soil, temperature, humidity, wind, air, etc.
b. An aquarium is an artificial and incomplete ecosystem in contrast to a
pond or lake which is natural, self- sustaining and complete ecosystem.
In natural ecosystem, decomposers help in recycling waste. So, an
aquarium needs to be cleaned regularly.

2.Mention the differences between food habits of organisms

belonging to the first and third trophic level. Give one example
of each of them

First Trophic Leve Third Trophic Level

The organisms of this trophic The organisms of this trophic
level are plants and are also level are animals and are also
called producers. called secondary.

They transform solar energy They obtain chemical energy by

into chemical energy by eating other animals. e.g., all
photosynthesis. e.g., grass (all carnivores (like lion).
green plants)

3. State one important function of ozone layer in the atmosphere. How

is it formed there? Which compounds are responsible for the
depletion of ozone layer? How do these compounds enter into the
atmosphere?
Ozone present in the upper regions of the atmosphere protects us from
dangerous UV radiations. Formation of ozone layer :
Ozone at the higher levels of the atmosphere is a product of UV radiations
acting on oxygen (O2) molecule. The higher energy UV radiations split apart
some molecular oxygen (O2 ) into free oxygen (O) atoms. These atoms then
combine with the molecular
oxygen to form ozone as shown:
 PRASHANT KIRAD

E.M.A
FOOD WEB:
Food web is the network of various food chains which are
interconnected at various tropic levels. Since an organism
can occupy position in more than one food chain, in a food
web it occupies more than one trophic level.

E.M.A FOOD CHAIN CONSISTS OF MANY INTERLINKED FOOD CHAINS

ENERGY FLOW
Energy is accumulated by the primary producers and its transferred through food
chain to different trophic This phenomenon is called energy flow. It is unidirectional
and there is no recycling or going back to previous level, whenever energy is
transferred from one to another, some energy is always lost.

The flow of energy in an ecosystem:

The energy in a food chain only moves in one direction. It goes from the plants
(the autotrophs) to the plant-eating animals (the herbivores) and doesn't go back
to the sun.

The flow of energy in different trophic levels:

Energy in a food chain only goes in one direction. Green plants capture a small part of
sunlight (about 1%) and turn it into food energy.
According to the 10 percent law, only about 10% of this energy is passed on to the
next level of creatures. The rest, the remaining 90%, is used up by the current level
of organisms for their life processes like digestion, growth, and reproduction.
Because energy decreases at each step, most food chains consist of 3 to 4 levels of
different creatures.
Biological magnification is when harmful chemicals become more concentrated as you
move up the food chain. This can be a problem because the highest concentration of
these chemicals often ends up in human bodies since humans are typically at the top of
many food chains.
Ozone (O3) is a special form of oxygen made up of three oxygen atoms. Ozone plays a
crucial role in protecting the Earth's surface from the sun's harmful ultraviolet
radiation. O, + O—> 0,

Depletion of ozone layer: Ozone layer gets depleted – due to the use of chemicals
called aerosol, spray propellants like chlorofluorocarbons. Depletion of ‘ ozone layer
would cause skin cancer in men and animals and severe damage to the plants.

Biological magnification happens when harmful, non-biodegradable chemicals like

pesticides accumulate in organisms as you move up the food chain, increasing their
concentration.

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 PRASHANT KIRAD

Top 7 questions
1. Distinguish between biodegradable , and nonbiodegradable
substances. ‘ List two effects of each of them on our
environment.

Biodegradable Non-biodegradable
Substances that are broken down by Substances that are not broken down
biological processes are said to be by biological processes are said to be
biodegradable. nonbiodegradable.
These substances get recycled and, These substances require a lot of
therefore, do not require any space for dumping which causes
dumping sites. wastage of land.

2. a. What is the height of ozone from the equator?

b. Name the rays against which ozone layer provides protection.
c. Name one effect of depletion of ozone.
i. 10 to 16 km.
ii. UV rays.
iii. Global wanning.

3.State two advantages of conserving

(i) forests
(ii) wild life

Advantages of conserving forest are termed as biodiversity

hotspots. They have large number of species of plants and animals.
(a) They purify air, help in recharging groundwater, bring rains and
maintain the fertility of soil.
(b) They are also a source of income for tribal people.

Wild life is important

(a) To preserve bio-diversity.
(b) As each species has a position in the food chain so wildlife helps
in balancing the nature.

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 PRASHANT KIRAD

4.Why are green plants called ‘producers’ ?

‘Producers’ are the organisms which prepare their own food in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Therefore green plants are called
producers as they prepare their own food.

5.Energy flow in a food chain is unidirectional. Justify this statement.

Explain how the pesticides enter a food chain and subsequently get into
our body.

a. Energy moves progressively through the various trophic levels and is

no longer available to the previous trophic level. The energy captured
by autotrophs does not revert back to the solar input. Therefore flow
of energy is unidirectional.
b. Pesticides, used for crop rotation when washed down into the
soil/water body, are absorbed by the plant/producer along with water
and minerals. Being non-biodegradable these chemicals get accumulated
progressively in the food chain and enter our body.

6. Food web increases the stability of an ecosystem. Justify.

Food web depicts feeding connection in an ecological community. It

consists of many food chains. Thus, if any of the organism becomes
endangered or extinct, the one who is dependent on it has an
alternative option available to him for its survival. In this way, food
web increases stability in an ecosystem.

7. What is wild life? How is it important? How is it being protected by

government of India?

Wild life means our flora and fauna. It is important:

a. to preserve bio-diversity.
b. as each species has a position in the food chain so
wildlife helps in balancing the nature.
Various species of plants and animals are preserved in botanical
gardens, national parks, zoological parks and wildlife sanctuaries.

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CASE BASED COUNTRY

1. 1.
Alternatives are always
Give one instance whereavailable in nature which
people’s participation results
helped in a
to save
sortthis
of interlocking pattern
natural resource? Why orshould
food web. Forbe
forests instance, if a
conserved?
particular species of producers get destroyed by a disease in an
ecosystem, herbivores of that area can feed on other species.
Chipko movement i.e., hug the trees movement is one of the
Also inmovements
a food web, any given species may operate simultaneously
in India to conserve biodiversity and to the end the
at more than one
alienation trophic
of people fromlevel.
their forests which started in March 1973
by Sunder Lal Bahuguna in Hilly areas like Himachal Pradesh.
Two benefits are:
(i) Existing forest cover was protected reducing landslides, land
erosion. It actually protected environment and maintained ecological
balance.
(ii) Forest wealth could be utilized for food, fodder, fuel, fertilizers
and fibers keeping in mind its conservation.
We should conserve forests as:
(i) Forests purify the air and also prevent pollution of air and regulate
the climate by maintaining the level of rainfall necessary for their
own existence.
(ii) Forests are a storehouse of biodiversity (hotspots of
biodiversity).

2. Some wastes in nature persist for a long time while others

get decomposed in a shorter period. Explain their difference.
State in brief two ways each in which they affect the
environment.
All wastes generated are not of the same nature.
Biodegradable wastes such as plant and animal can be acted upon by
decomposers in nature and broken down easily in simpler substances as
they possess enzymes to do so. Example: animal excreta, fruit peels,
leftover food, crop refuge and so on.
Some other wastes or materials especially the ones produced by man
can not be broken down by decomposers as they do not possess enzymes
to do so. They are non biodegradable wastes such as some pesticide-
DDT, detergents, plastics, radioactive wastes, metals etc. These
substance may be broken down by chemical and physical processes in
nature such as rusting of iron but not by biological processes.

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 PRASHANT KIRAD

2. Ozone layer is present in the earth's atmosphere. It is in the

form of a protective shield. It contains three oxygen atoms (O3)
which are formed
Two ways as a consequence
each in which of photochemical
biodegradable wastes reactions in
affect the environment:
the environment. Ozone absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiations of
a. The beauty of a place and it stinks.
the sun.
b. ItIn this way,
attracts flies,itcockroaches
protects all
andliving
germs beings on the
which spread earth. The
diseases.
thinning of ozone layer due to various human activities allows more
Biodegradable pollutants are agricultural waste and sewage
UV radiations to pass through it which leads to harmful effects on
man, animals and plants.
Non biodegradable wastes affect our environment by entering the food
chain and accumulating in the body of organisms (biomagnification).
(i) Ozoneand
Nitrates layer is present
phosphates in which
entering layer
the water of the
bodies atmosphere?
can result in
(a) Troposphere
eutrophication. Some(b)pesticide-DDT,
Mesospheredetergents,
(c) Stratosphere (d)
plastics, radioactive
wastes, metals etc.
Thermosphere

(ii) Enhanced UV-radiations would affect humans and other

animals causing
(a) skin cancer
(b) blindness and increased chances of cataract in eyes
(c) malfunctioning of the immune system
(d) all of these.

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