energies

Review
Review on the Microgrid Concept, Structures, Components,
Communication Systems, and Control Methods
Maysam Abbasi 1 , Ehsan Abbasi 2 , Li Li 1, * , Ricardo P. Aguilera 1 , Dylan Lu 1 and Fei Wang 3

1 School of Electrical and Data Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney 2007, Australia
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Tabriz, Tabriz 5166616471, Iran
3 Department of Electrical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
* Correspondence: li.li@uts.edu.au

Abstract: This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the microgrid (MG) concept, including
its definitions, challenges, advantages, components, structures, communication systems, and control
methods, focusing on low-bandwidth (LB), wireless (WL), and wired control approaches. Generally,
an MG is a small-scale power grid comprising local/common loads, energy storage devices, and
distributed energy resources (DERs), operating in both islanded and grid-tied modes. MGs are
instrumental to current and future electricity network development, such as a smart grid, as they
can offer numerous benefits, such as enhanced network stability and reliability, increased efficiency,
an increased integration of clean and renewable energies into the system, enhanced power quality,
and so forth, to the increasingly growing and complicated power systems. By considering several
objectives in both islanded and grid-tied modes, the development of efficient control systems for
different kinds of MGs has been investigated in recent years. Among these control methods, LB
communication (LBcom)-based control methods have attracted much attention due to their low
expenses, recent developments, and high stability. This paper aims to shed some light on different
aspects, a literature review, and research gaps of MGs, especially in the field of their control layers,
concentrating on LBcom-based control methods.

Citation: Abbasi, M.; Abbasi, E.; Li, Keywords: microgrid; microgrid control; centralized; distributed; hierarchical; wireless communication;
L.; Aguilera, R.P.; Lu, D.; Wang, F. low-bandwidth communication; wired communication; communication network
Review on the Microgrid Concept,
Structures, Components,
Communication Systems, and
Control Methods. Energies 2023, 16, 1. Introduction
484. https://doi.org/10.3390/
Today, due to the increasing power demand, the need for power dependability, reli-
en16010484
ability and stability requirements, increasing interest in RESs, fossil fuel depletion, and
Academic Editors: Qian Xiao, environmental problems, conventional power systems are increasingly becoming compli-
Yiqi Liu, Jun Zeng and Fei Gao cated and are facing new, serious challenges [1,2]. Several solutions have been introduced
Received: 4 December 2022
to overcome these problems. The most well-known and influential resolutions are DERs,
Revised: 17 December 2022 MG, ADM, and ESSs [3–6].
Accepted: 25 December 2022 Hereafter, the discussion will be concentrated on MGs, as they are one of the most im-
Published: 1 January 2023 portant solutions for solving existing and upcoming problems in current and future power
networks. According to [1,3,7], an MG is a hybrid electric network comprising DERs, local
loads, and ESSs for supplying power to specific areas or remote locations, with a primary
function of ensuring the system’s stability on the occurrence of different network faults.
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. Generally, one of the primary reasons for introducing the MG concept is increasing the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. RES integration into power grids [8]. Considering the intermittent/variable nature of most
This article is an open access article RESs, such as PV parks and wind farms, these resources are mostly employed in power
distributed under the terms and
grids to provide the required power generation. Their generation can be instantaneously
conditions of the Creative Commons
used or stored through ESSs, leading to an overall enhancement in MG performance. In
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
total, to realize a smart grid, the integration of MGs into a power system is regarded as one
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
of the essential technologies providing advantages such as enhanced stability, increased
4.0/).

Energies 2023, 16, 484. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010484 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 484 2 of 36

efficiency, higher RES integration, a continuous supply of loads in islanded mode, and so
forth, compared to conventional distribution systems. To take advantage of MGs, their
integration into the power grid should be performed based on proper and robust engineer-
ing to avoid possible adverse effects on the power grid, such as power quality, control,
reliability, and problems [1]. For solving the problems of MGs and their integration into
the grid, numerous papers have been published to date; most of them are concentrated on
developing efficient control methods. Majorly, MGs are controlled based on the hierarchical
control strategy, including three control layers named primary, secondary, and tertiary
control levels, which can be realized in decentralized, centralized, and distributed control
structures. Compared to a low cost with a high redundancy decentralized control struc-
ture, the others need communication systems, making them costly and more complicated,
with the capability of providing sub-optimal/optimal solutions for MGs. Hence, to use
communication-based methods, many investigations have been performed regarding using
LB WL and wired communication technologies in MG control systems, which are cheaper
and simpler to use with lower power consumption than HB ones. It should be noted that
the limited data transfer rate, vulnerability to communication delays and noises, and short
coverage of LB technologies are the most critical challenges in using them in MG control
methods.
Several review papers have been published about MGs and their control methods.
In [9], a thorough overview is presented, concentrating on control methods introduced for
different MGs’ hierarchical control levels. In [1], different challenges and issues related
to MGs are reviewed. It discusses various topics related to MGs, such as their technical
and economic issues, diverse controllers designed for controlling power flow in MGs, their
limitations and protection issues, and their future prospects and market integration. In [8],
the main advantages and challenges of an AC MG are explained. As an effective solution
for AC MGs, the hierarchical control architecture is introduced, and its control levels are
discussed in detail [8]. In [10], along with conventional droop control methods, various
modified droop controllers are listed and explained briefly. In [11], different primary
control techniques used for regulating the voltage and frequency of inverter-based MGs
are categorized, reviewed, and also compared with each other in terms of their potential
merits and drawbacks. In [12], a comprehensive survey is presented about MGs’ different
control methods, classified into four main groups: centralized, distributed, hierarchical,
and decentralized strategies. It reviews their applicability, operational principles, and
performances. It also discusses future trends, research gaps, technical challenges for real-
world applications along with their possible solutions, and different integrated technologies
for MGs leading to SG. In [13], a solid and informative overview is carried out regarding
different structures and control methods of MGs at various hierarchical levels. Initially,
by concentrating on grid-supporting, grid-forming, and grid-feeding configurations of
power converters, their major operating modes and control methods are analyzed and
discussed. Then, the hierarchical control scheme is reviewed. In [14], a survey of control
strategies used for achieving the coordinated integration of PEL-interfaced distributed
generator (DG) units in islanded MGs is presented, which also includes detailed figures
of the strategies. As an effort toward the standardization of AC and DC MGs, Guerrero,
J.M. et al. presented a hierarchical control method obtained from electrical dispatching and
ISA-95 standards to make MG smart and flexible [15]. In [16], diverse control methods are
compared and summarized for reactive and active power sharing in islanded hierarchical
controlled MGs. Moreover, it discusses the future research trends on islanded MGs. In [17],
a compact discussion is presented for different control techniques and the modeling of
MGs. Table 1 summarizes the mentioned review papers along with their main focus. As
can be seen, these papers reviewed MG control methods comprehensively; however, none
of them focus on wired and WL LBcom-based control methods.
Energies 2023, 16, 484 3 of 36

Table 1. Different review papers on the microgrid control topic.

Ref. Main Focus

[18] Recent developments in the control and optimization of MGs
[19] A brief study on MGs in terms of the two topics of feasibility and economic studies and control and optimization
[9] Control methods for different MGs’ hierarchical control levels
[1] Different challenges and issues related to MGs
[10] Conventional droop control methods and various modified droop controllers
[8] Hierarchical control architecture and its control levels
[11] Different primary control techniques used for regulating the voltage and frequency of inverter-based MGs
Applicability, operational principles, and performances of centralized, distributed, hierarchical, and decentralized
[12]
strategies
[16] Diverse control methods for reactive and active power sharing in islanded hierarchical controlled MGs
[14] Control strategies for the coordinated integration of PEL-interfaced DGs in islanded MGs
Different structures and control methods of MGs at various hierarchical levels besides grid-supporting, grid-forming,
[13]
and grid-feeding configurations of power converters in MGs
[15] Standardization of AC and DC MGs, including a hierarchical control method to make MG smart and flexible
[17] Different control techniques and modeling of MGs

Besides introducing the MG concept and its related topics, this paper presents a com-
prehensive review of MG control methods, with a focus on wired and WL LBcom control
methods due to their advantages and importance. In Section 2, a thorough introduction
is presented about the concept, components, configurations, challenges, advantages, and
significant control structures of MGs. Then, Section 3 presents a compact discussion on
communication requirements, standards, and challenges in SGs/MGs. In Section 4, wired
and WL LBcom technologies are discussed, along with their characteristics. In Section 5,
a thorough literature review is given for wired and WL LBcom-based control methods.
Finally, Section 6 presents the conclusion, including future trends and suggestions.

2. Microgrid
In this section, a comprehensive introduction to the MG concept and its structures,
control system, challenges, and components is given.
It is worth noting that the criteria used for selecting the research papers reviewed in
this article are as follows. First, it was attempted to select papers published in high-quality
scientific journals and conferences indexed in prestigious databases such as IEEE, IET,
Elsevier, Springer, WILEY, and so on. Second, only the papers with new and/or significant
contributions and analyses were selected to provide a compact but well-designed summary.
As the third criterion, this paper tries to give a good picture of the published works in the
area of LBcom-based control methods after presenting a general overview of MGs.

2.1. MG Definitions
Several definitions have been presented for an MG, of which the most important ones
are listed in Table 2. By considering the fact that an MG includes cyber (communication),
control, and physical layers, it is obviously seen that all these definitions only considered
the physical layer of an MG.
 alternative), MGs are classified into three major groups: ACMG, DCMG, and HMG [23],
which are respectively shown in Figures 1–3. In Table 3, the main characteristics of each
type of MG are briefly listed.
Energies 2023, 16, 484 4 of 36

Table 3. Main characteristics of different types of MGs.

s Table 2. Different definitions presented for an MG.

sually, a Reference
common AC bus exists, connecting its different components.
Definition
hey can be easily integrated into conventional An ACMG power systems, providing more controllability and flexibility
is basically a typical hybrid electric network comprising DERs, local loads,
r them compared
[1,3,7] to other kinds of MGs. and ESSs for supplying power to specific areas or remote localities. The main
C/AC converters must be used as an interfacefunction between is to ensure the system’s stability
DC components underAC
and the different
commonnetwork faults
bus, [1].
decreasing
e total efficiency dramatically [24–26]. An MG is a group of interconnected loads and DERs within clearly defined
IEEE standard 2030.7 [9,20] and the U.S. electrical boundaries that acts as a single controllable entity with respect to the
enerally, Department
a common of DC bus
Energy exists, connectinggrid.
[1,21] its different
An MG can components.
connect to and disconnect from the grid to enable it to operate in
hey are connected to the main grid through a DC/AC power converter.
both grid-connected and islanded modes.
terms of operation principles, DC and AC MGs An MGarecansimilar.
be considered a small-scale power grid that consists of DERs, loads,
and controllers. One of the major advantages of an MG is that it can operate in
ompared[8]to ACMGs, DCMGs provide reduced power conversion
grid-connected lossesthat
or islanded modes since fewer power
can generate, distribute,conversion stages
and regulate the
e needed, resulting in a higher efficiency, lower cost,
power flow and smaller
to local size.
consumers.
hey provide better stability than AC ones sinceSections no reactive power
of electricity exists systems
distribution in DCMGs [24,27–29].
containing loads and DERs (such as
DGs, storage devices, or controllable loads) that can be operated in a controlled,
hey are better
CIGREoptions
[9,22] for DER integration [24,27–29].
coordinated way, either while connected to the main power network and/or while
heir most popular structures are the bipolar, monopolar, islanded and homopolar structures [25,30].
hey are obtained by combining both ACMGs and DCMGs in the same distribution system.
oth AC and DC components can be 2.2.directly
Different integrated
MG Structures into them.
hey benefit from all the advantages ofBased ACMGs on theandtypeDCMGs, such as
of their current the
and theleast
way ofnumber of interface
the connection devices,
of their buses, MGsfacil-
ated DR integration, fewer conversion can bestages,
categorized in several
decreased ways.losses,
power However, according
lower overalltocosts,
their current type (direct
and higher and
reliability.
alternative), MGs are classified into three major groups: ACMG, DCMG, and HMG [23],
HMGs, AC and DC components can be respectively connected to AC and DC parts. Hence, no synchronization
which are respectively shown in Figures 1–3. In Table 3, the main characteristics of each
required for generation and storage typeunits
of MG[31–33].
are briefly listed.

Figure 1. Simple diagram

Figure of a typical
1. Simple ACMG.
diagram of a typical ACMG.
 55 ofof 33
33
Energies 2023, 16, 484 5 of 36

Figure
Figure2.2.Simple
Simplediagram
Figure of
diagram aatypical
2.ofSimple
typical DCMG.
DCMG.
diagram of a typical DCMG.

Figure
Figure3.3.Simple
Simplediagram
Figure of
diagram aatypical
Simple
3.of HMG.
diagram
typical of a typical HMG.
HMG.

In
Interms
termsofofthe
theDERs’
DERs’connection
connectionway,
way,MGs
MGscan canbe
becategorized
categorizedinto
intothree
threemain
maintypes:
types:
parallel,
parallel,cascaded
cascaded(series),
(series),and
andhybrid
hybridcascaded–parallel
cascaded–parallelMGs MGs[34–37].
[34–37].These
TheseMGMGstruc-
struc-
tures
tures are respectively shown in Figure 4a–c [38]. The hybrid cascaded-parallel MG isis
are respectively shown in Figure 4a–c [38]. The hybrid cascaded-parallel MG
among
among the the most
most recent
recent structures
structures that
that can
can support
support high-power
high-power operation
operation and
and bebe em-
em-
ployed for integrating LV sources such as cascaded solar panels and battery
ployed for integrating LV sources such as cascaded solar panels and battery cells [38].cells [38].
Energies 2023, 16, 484 6 of 36

Table 3. Main characteristics of different types of MGs.

Type Features

• Usually, a common AC bus exists, connecting its different components.

• They can be easily integrated into conventional AC power systems, providing more
ACMGs controllability and flexibility for them compared to other kinds of MGs.
• DC/AC converters must be used as an interface between DC components and the AC common
bus, decreasing the total efficiency dramatically [24–26].

• Generally, a common DC bus exists, connecting its different components.

• They are connected to the main grid through a DC/AC power converter.
• In terms of operation principles, DC and AC MGs are similar.
• Compared to ACMGs, DCMGs provide reduced power conversion losses since fewer power
DCMGs conversion stages are needed, resulting in a higher efficiency, lower cost, and smaller size.
• They provide better stability than AC ones since no reactive power exists in DCMGs [24,27–29].
• They are better options for DER integration [24,27–29].
• Their most popular structures are the bipolar, monopolar, and homopolar structures [25,30].

• They are obtained by combining both ACMGs and DCMGs in the same distribution system.
• Both AC and DC components can be directly integrated into them.
• They benefit from all the advantages of ACMGs and DCMGs, such as the least number of
HMGs interface devices, facilitated DR integration, fewer conversion stages, decreased power losses,
lower overall costs, and higher reliability.
• In HMGs, AC and DC components can be respectively connected to AC and DC parts. Hence,
no synchronization is required for generation and storage units [31–33].

In terms of the DERs’ connection way, MGs can be categorized into three main types:
parallel, cascaded (series), and hybrid cascaded–parallel MGs [34–37]. These MG structures
are respectively shown in Figure 4a–c [38]. The hybrid cascaded-parallel MG is among
the most recent structures that can support high-power operation and be employed for
integrating LV sources such as cascaded solar panels and battery cells [38]. Besides the
Energies 2023, 16, 484 6 of 33
aforementioned classifications, it is noteworthy that MGs also can be classified into LV, MV,
and HV systems in terms of their voltage level.

DERn+1 DERn+m
DER1 DERn DER1 DERn
=
= = DER1 DERn

= Converter Converter
Converter Converter Converter Converter
Converter Converter

MG
Bus MG
MG Bus Bus

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Simple
Simplediagrams
diagramsofofdifferent
different MG
MG structures
structures in
in terms
terms of
of DERs
DERs connection
connection types:
types: (a)
(a) Parallel
Parallel
structure; (b) Cascaded structure; (c) Hybrid parallel–cascaded structure.
structure; (b) Cascaded structure; (c) Hybrid parallel–cascaded structure.

2.3. Different
2.3. Different Components
Components of
of an
an MG
MG
MGs are
MGs are composed
composed of different components such as loads, DGs/DERs, ESSs, PEL-
DGs/DERs, ESSs, PEL-
based interfaces (converters), and so forth. In Table 4, the different components of an MG
based interfaces (converters), and so forth. In Table 4, the different components of an MG
are briefly
are briefly explained.

Table 4. Main characteristics of different components of an MG.

Type Characteristics and Features

• In terms of different factors, loads can be classified as follows:
 Power: AC and DC loads.
 Linearity: linear and non-linear loads.
 Location: local and common loads.
 Operating conditions and load management schemes: Tier-1, Tier-2, or Tier-3 loads [39].
Loads
 Tier-1: The most critical loads such as hospitals that should never be shed at all.
 Tier-2: Such as hot water heating and pool filters which can be shed in the short term to decrease
Energies 2023, 16, 484 7 of 36

Table 4. Main characteristics of different components of an MG.

Type Characteristics and Features

• In terms of different factors, loads can be classified as follows:

â Power: AC and DC loads.
â Linearity: linear and non-linear loads.
â Location: local and common loads.
â Operating conditions and load management schemes: Tier-1, Tier-2, or Tier-3 loads [39].
Loads v Tier-1: The most critical loads such as hospitals that should never be shed at all.
v Tier-2: Such as hot water heating and pool filters which can be shed in the short term to
decrease load peaks.
v Tier-3: Such as commercial facilities with backup generators and residential customers
that can only be shed in emergencies to protect MG stability and to prevent a blackout.

• ESSs are used for backing up the power supply by storing different DERs’ extra generation.
ESSs • They are used for improving MGs’ total stability and performance.
• ESSs enable DERs to operate at a fixed output while providing load-fluctuations-based demand [40].

• In terms of dispatchability, DERs are classified as dispatchable and non-dispatchable ones. Unlike
dispatchable units, non-dispatchable DERs cannot be fully controlled since they generally are intermittent
DERs/DGs resources like RESs whose outputs are based on weather conditions and are difficult to control [41].
• In terms of generated power, DERs can be classified into AC sources, such as wind turbines, and DC
sources, such as PV systems.

• In MGs, rather than installing power conditioning devices for transferring the energy between DC and
Power AC networks, PEL-based interfaces’ employment is preferred [42].
Converters • In Section 2.5, a brief discussion about power converters is presented.

2.4. Advantages and Challenges of MGs

Over conventional distribution systems, MGs provide several advantages which are
summarized in Table 5 [1,8].

Table 5. Main advantages of MGs over conventional distribution systems.

Advantage Explanation

• Due to MGs’ unique characteristics, main grid stability can be increased by integrating MGs
Enhanced stability into the system.

Increased efficiency • Decreased power losses of transmission and distribution lines result in increased efficiency.

• MGs facilitate the integration of low-carbon technologies such as RESs into the power system,
Higher RESs integration resulting in decreasing global warming and pollution.

Continuous supply to • Unlike conventional distribution systems, MGs can provide a continuous and independent
loads in islanded mode supply of all micro sources (MSs) to loads during their autonomous/islanded mode.

• MGs can support the local power grid and facilitate the generation increase, leading to
Supporting the main grid improving the system’s reliability and power quality.

Plug-and-play capability • MGs can switch either to grid-tied or islanded modes.

Back-up supply source • Under the main grid’s power supply failure, MGs can play the role of a backup supply source.
Energies 2023, 16, 484 8 of 36

Table 5. Cont.

Advantage Explanation

Maintaining the energy • In the case of any fault in the main grid, MGs can maintain the energy supply and stability of
supply and V-f stability of the voltage and frequency for all local loads by operating in the islanded mode [8].
loads in failures

• By integrating MGs into a distribution feeder, the concept of unidirectional power flow (from
Bidirectional power flow the substation to the load designed for conventional distribution systems) can be changed to a
path bidirectional structure.

Despite the advantages, careful and precise engineering is required to integrate MGs
into the power systems since MGs consist of diverse components such as DERs (FC,
PV systems, gas turbines, micro turbines, and wind power). Without such engineering
design, MGs’ penetration may have adverse effects on the whole system in terms of several
operational aspects, such as power quality, control, operational safety, restoration time,
reliability, protection, etc. [1]. For an MG, the most critical technical and economic issues
are listed in Table 6 [1]. Generally, in islanded mode, the most significant challenges can be
named as ensuring the system stability and reliability and meeting the customer power
demand without any interruption [8].

Table 6. Main technical and economic issues and challenges of MGs.

Issue/Challenge Explanation

• By changing the MG’s mode from grid-tied to islanded mode, due to the slow dynamic response and
low inertia of MSs, power imbalances happen.
â FACTS [43–45] and ESSs can be considered as applicable solutions for solving this problem.
â For islanding an MG, PEL-based devices with a high acceleration and accurate sensing ability
Power Imbalance must be employed.
â An islanded MG should be re-connected to the grid only by considering synchronization
issues [12].
• Load changes and DG failures can also cause power imbalances in MGs.

• In a power system, harmonics can have diverse impacts on system reliability and stability.
• In MGs, several PEL devices are employed, which are the main harmonic sources in power systems.
Harmonics • These harmonics can cause many problems, such as threatening ESSs’ safety [46].
• Active and passive power filtering techniques are used to mitigate harmonics in power systems [47].

• For the stability and power quality issues of a power system, including MGs and DERs, three main
reasons can be named [48]:
(a) Lower network inertia causing decreased angular stability leading to frequency and voltage
instabilities.
Stability and power (b) Low-frequency power oscillations caused by changing the power-sharing ratio between DERs.
quality (c) Reduced voltage stability caused by decreased energy distribution support.
• The feasible solutions for these problems are enhancing the quality of supply decentralization, having
an accurate ratio between demand and supply, and reducing the generation and transmission outages
and downtimes [49].

• Despite the ability of DERs, such as RESs, to provide clean and free/low-cost energy, it is still
challenging to manage their produced energy without any interruption/curtailment [50].
• ESSs are widely used as an effective approach to solving these problems.
ESS • By using ESSs, many advantages can be achieved, such as decreased fluctuations, a higher power
factor for the whole system, regulated frequency and voltage, and overcoming RESs’ intermittent
nature.
Energies 2023, 16, 484 9 of 36

Table 6. Cont.

Issue/Challenge Explanation

• Besides intermittent RESs, the continuous connection and disconnection of MSs, loads, and ESSs can
cause topological changes in MGs [51].
Topological changes • MGs can be installed in diverse locations such as houses, farms, buildings, etc.
• Based on requirements, various kinds of MGs can be designed and established to meet consumer
and/or system demands.

• Due to problems such as global warming, increased carbon emissions, increased high-quality power
demand, and the depletion of fossil fuels, countries are obliged to increase the share of
Environmental issues environment-friendly DERs, such as RESs, in their networks.
• Several studies have been performed on different MSs to compare their harmful emissions [1].

• In an MG, essential variables for governing are the reactive and active powers of DERs and the
current/voltage of the interface bus of CSI/VSI [52].
• By controlling these variables properly, optimal operation, power distribution, RESs integration, and
economical operation are achieved in MGs.
Economic aspects • In grid-tied mode, by controlling the output of the MG, losses incurred from feeders and transformers
can be controlled.
• Since the total life span of MGs depends on the proper utilization of ESSs, an optimized energy
approach must be designed for them [53].
• In [54], the most critical parameters resulting in an optimal cost of MGs are presented.

• A protection system must provide a quick and robust response to all faults for either grid-tied or
isolated MGs.
• In the case of any fault in the main grid, the protection system should be able to quickly detect it and
Protection issues easily isolate the MG to ensure its components’ protection.
• In the case of any fault in the MG, protection systems should be able to quickly detect it and easily
isolate the faulty part of the MG from the rest.

• For the proper operation of an MG, and by considering that MGs are small-sized grids mainly
established in remote areas, it is required to establish a cost-effective, robust, and reliable
Communication communication system with suitable coverage, security, and latency.
system • In terms of communication technology, communication systems can be categorized into WL and
wired systems.
• In terms of data rate capability, LB- and HB-com systems are mainly used in MGs.

• For controlling MGs, hierarchical control methods are commonly employed due to equipment
diversity, unique challenges, and complicated relations among the components.
• Despite MGs’ advantages, a careful and precise control system is required for MGs to provide a
robust, proper, and stable operation.
Control system • In terms of communication systems, MGs’ control systems can be classified as communication-based
and -free controllers.
• In terms of the controlling structure, it can be grouped into centralized, decentralized, and distributed
methods.

• Besides the RESs’ benefits (being low-cost and clean sources), most of them have a variable,
non-dispatchable, and intermittent nature. For achieving higher/optimum RES integration into MGs,
RESs integration these problems must be considered in designing control systems and by using some other solutions
such as ESSs.

2.5. Power Converters in MGs

Today, PEL-based technologies are used as an interface between an MG and its different
devices, such as DERs and ESSs [55–57]. Since the stability of the rotating electric machines
(directly coupled ones) imposes strict voltage and frequency boundaries, PEL technologies
used in interconnected DERs enable us to relax the mentioned boundaries [9]. Besides its
 Energies 2023, 16, 484 10 of 36

advantages, the dominant presence of PEL-based devices in MGs causes serious challenges
such as [9]:
• Increased control complexities, such as increased difficulties in controlling voltage and
frequency caused by the short lines and low inertia of MGs
• Strong coupling between reactive and active powers with crucial control and mar-
ket implications, particularly for voltage characteristics, caused by MGs’ particular
characteristics such as relatively large R/X ratios
• Increased safety and protection challenges caused by the low contribution of PEL-
based DERs in system faults and errors
• Lacking computation and communication facilities of typical power systems in MGs
• Need for low-cost and efficient solutions
Energies
Energies 2023,
2023, 16, 16, 484
484
According to the operation of power converters in an ACMG, they can be categorized
99 ofof 33
33
Energies 2023, 16, 484 99 ofof33
Energies 2023, 16, 484 into three classes: grid-supporting, grid-forming, and grid-feeding structures, whose main
33
characteristics and simplified diagrams are presented in Table 7 [13,58,59].
Table 7. Main characteristics of different types of power converters used in ACMGs with their sim-
Table Table 7. Main
7.7.circuit
Main
Main characteristics
characteristics
characteristics of of
different
different
of differenttypes
typesofofpower power converters
converters used
used in in ACMGs
ACMGs withtheir
with their sim-
sim-
TableTable
plified
plified
7.circuit
Main diagrams.
characteristics
diagrams. of different typestypes of powerof power converters
converters used in used in ACMGs
ACMGs with their withsim-their
plified circuit diagrams.
simplified
plified circuit diagrams. circuit diagrams.
Converter
Converter Characteristics and Features
Converter Simplified Diagram
Type Characteristics
Converter
Converter Characteristics and and FeaturesFeatures Simplified
Simplified Diagram Diagram
Type Type Characteristics
Characteristicsand Features
and Features Simplified
Simplified Diagram
Diagram
TypeType • Can be shown as an ideal AC voltage source with a low-output impedance MG Bus
• •Can be Can
[13]. be shown
shown as an asideal
an ideal ACAC voltage
voltage source
source withwith a low-outputimpedance
a low-output impedance MG
MGBusBus
• Can
[13].
• be
[13].shown
Can be as an as
shown idealan AC voltage
ideal AC voltage source
source withwith a low-output
a low-output impedance Z=r+jX MG Bus
• Using a proper control loop to set the voltage amplitude (E∗) and frequency ∗ Z=r+jX
Z=r+jX
• [13]. Using
•Using ofathe proper control looploop to set
thethe voltage amplitude (E(E
impedance [13]. ∗ ) and frequency Z=r+jX
Grid-form- (ωa∗∗)proper control
local grid. to set voltage amplitude ) and frequency
•
Grid-form-
Grid-form- •∗ (ωaUsing
Using )proper
ofto the control
a proper
local looploop
control
grid. to settothe set voltage
the voltage amplitude
amplitude(E(E*) ∗
) andandfrequency ω* V*
ing •(ω∗) of
Usedthe local
frequency form grid.
a
(ω*) reference
of the local AC voltage
grid. in MGs, especially in islanded mode ω*
ω*
Cv
V*
Grid-form-
ing • •Used
(ω ) of
Usedthe
toUsed
formlocal
to form grid.
a reference ACAC voltage in MGs, especially inin islandedmode mode E*
CCvv
V*
ing Grid-forming • [60]. to aformreference
a reference voltage
AC voltage in inMGs,
MGs,especially
especially in islanded
islanded ω*
E*
E* V*
ing • UsedNote:
to form
•[60]. [60]. In[60].
a reference AC voltage in MGs, especially in islanded mode
the main grid, reference AC voltage is formed by synchronous E*
C v
mode
•[60]. Note: InInthe main
• • Note:
Note: In the main
generators the
[60]. grid,grid,
main grid, referenceAC
reference
reference ACAC voltage
voltage
voltage is is formed
isformed
formed byby by synchronous
synchronous
synchronous
• Note:generators
In the
generators main[60].
[60].grid, reference AC voltage is formed by synchronous
•generators
Employed [60]. for delivering power (energy) to an energized network [13]. MG Bus
••generators
Employed [60]. for delivering power (energy) to an energized network [13]. MG Bus
• Can befor
Employed
• Can
modeled
delivering as anpower ideal current
(energy) source
to an paralleled
energized with
network a high imped-
[13]. MG Bus
•Employed Employed
be modeled for delivering
as an ideal powercurrent (energy)
to to
source an energizedwith
paralleled network a high[13].
imped-
•• Can ance
beCan
• ance andfor
modeled
be
delivering
connected
modeled as anasideal to
an
power
the (energy)
grid.
current
ideal current source
source
an energized
paralleled
paralleled with
with
network
a high [13].
ahigh imped- MG Bus
• •ance
Can Atbe theand
modeled connected
connection as an to thecurrent
ideal
point, grid.
it should source
be paralleled
synchronized with
with a high
AC imped-
voltage to

Z=r+jX
Grid-feeding • and
At theconnected
impedance
connection
andto the
connected
point, grid. to the grid.
it should be synchronized with AC voltage to Q* i*

Z=r+jX
•
Grid-feeding ance
At• theand
achieve
At connected
thean
connection accurate
connection to the
point, power
point, grid.
it it exchange
shouldbe
should with the gridwith
be synchronized
synchronized [13].
with ACAC voltage to
voltage to Q* CP
i*

Z=r+jX
P* CP
Grid-feeding
Grid-feeding • •At theachieve
achieve
connectionan an accurate
a accurate
point, power
power exchange
exchange with
with the the grid
grid [13].
[13]. Q* i*
Generally, poweritexchange
converter/generator, should be synchronized
forming the grid with ACis voltage
voltage, requiredtoto
Z=r+jX
P* CP
Grid-feeding •achieve an accurate
• Generally, this aconverter
Generally,
enable aconverter/generator,
converter/generator, operate. forming
to exchange
with
forming thethe
the
gridgrid[13].
grid[13]. voltage,
voltage, is required to
is required
Q*
P* CP
i*
• achieve
Generally, an accurate
athis power
converter/generator, with the grid
forming the grid voltage, is required to P*
enable
•Generally,to enable converter
this converter to operate.
to operate.
• Hence,aitconverter/generator,
cannot operate independently forming in theislanded
grid voltage,mode [13]. is required to
•enable
• Hence,this converter
Hence, it it cannotoperate
cannot to operate.
operate independently in
independently inislanded
islandedmode mode[13]. [13].
• enable this
Hence, converter
it cannot operate to operate.
independently in islanded mode [13]. MG Bus
• Hence, it cannot operate independently in islanded mode [13]. MG Bus
• Can be represented in two models [13]: Q* MG Bus
• • 1.Can Can
Anbebe represented
represented
ideal AC-controlled inintwo
two models
models
current[13]: [13]:
source paralleled with a shunt imped-
Q*
MG Bus
Q**
Z=r+jX

• Can1.be represented
An
ance. ideal AC-controlled
in two models current [13]:source paralleled with a shunt imped- E* E C Q* +
Q** i*
Z=r+jX

• 1. An ideal AC-controlled current source paralleled with a shunt E* C + P** C

1.CanAn be represented in two models [13]: E P
Q* i*
ance.
2. ideal
An ideal AC-controlled
AC voltage current
impedance. source insource series paralleled
with a link with a shunt imped- ω* CC
impedance.
ω + P
Q**
P**
C
Z=r+jX

ω* CE ++
1. ance.
An ideal
2.Contributing AC-controlled current source paralleled with a shunt imped- E* ω
i*
2.An ideal AC voltage source in in series with
witha alink
linkimpedance. Q**
Z=r+jX

• An ideal AC
to keeping voltage thesource
voltage series
amplitude and impedance.of the grid E*
frequency CE +P*P** CP
CP i*
• ance.
2. • An Contributing
ideal AC voltageto keeping source the voltage amplitude and frequency of the grid ω* Cω +
Contributing
close to rating to keeping
values the in
by regulating seriesamplitude
voltage itswith
output a link
and impedance.
frequency of the
voltage/current (delivering ω* Cω
P*
+
P**
Grid- • 2.Contributing
Ancloseideal
grid AC
toclose
rating
to to voltage
values
keeping
rating source
the
values byinregulating
by regulating
voltage series itswith
amplitudeoutput a link impedance.
voltage/current
and
its output frequency of(delivering
voltage/current the grid
Grid-sup- proper active and reactive powers) [13]. Current
Current P* source-based
source-based model model
supporting
Grid-sup-• Contributing tovalues
keeping the voltage amplitude and
[13]. frequency of the grid Current P* source-based model
porting •closeproper
While rating active
to(delivering
controlling and reactive
proper it active
by asregulating powers)
and
a voltage reactive
its [13].
powers)
output
source, the voltage/current
internal control (delivering
loop usually MG Bus
porting
Grid-sup- •proper
• While
close toWhile
rating
active
emulates
values
controlling
controlling
and
the reactive
link
by
it as
it asregulating
impedance
a voltage
voltage
powers) effect.
its output
source,
source,
[13].
thethe voltage/current
internal
internal control
control (delivering
looploopusuallyusually Current source-basedZ=r+jX model MG Bus
Grid-sup- proper emulates
emulates
activesimilarthe
andthelinklinkimpedance
reactive impedancepowers) effect.
effect.[13]. and Current E* source-based model
porting • •While controlling
Partially
• Partially
Partially similarit toastoboth
aboth
voltage source,
grid-feeding
grid-feeding thegrid-forming
and internal control
grid-forming loop usually
converters:
converters: E* Z=r+jX
MG Bus
porting • •While controlling
 Inthe similar
thelink it
caseimpedance to
as both
a
of controlling grid-feeding
voltage source, and
the grid-forming
internal converters:
control
it as a current source, at least one grid-forming Q* loop usually E** MG Bus
emulates â In the case of effect.
controlling it as a current source, at least one
Q C +
E** C V* Z=r+jX
 In
emulates the
the case
link of controlling
impedance it
effect. as a current source, at least one grid-forming Q* C E* + v
ω**
•
Q
Partiallyconverter
similar toisboth
grid-formingneeded to enableis itneeded
grid-feeding
converter to operate
and grid-forming[13]. converters:
to enable P* C +
E* ω** C
V* Z=r+jX
[13].it to operate [13]. P v

• Partially
 the
In
converter
âIn similar
the In
case case
of toisofneeded
both
controlling
the case of
to enable
grid-feeding
controlling asititand
it as ait current
controlling
to
aas operate
a grid-forming
voltage
source,
voltage source,
at least
source, itconverters:
itcan
canoperate
one in both Q*
grid-forming
operate in
P* P
CQ
C
+
+
E**
 the
 converter
In In the both
case case of islanded
controlling aititcurrent
as[13].a modes
voltage source, it can operate in both ω*E**
+ ω** Cv
V*
isofneeded
controlling it modes
as source, [13].at least one grid-forming Q*
grid-tied and
grid-tied and islanded [13]. CQ
grid-tied and
to enable
islanded modes
to[13].
operate P* CP +ω*
ω** Cv
V*
converter is needed to enable it to
 In the case of controlling it as a voltage source, it can operate in both operate [13]. P* CVoltage
P + source-based model
Voltage source-based model
 grid-tied
In the case and of islanded
controlling modes it as[13].a voltage source, it can operate in both Voltage ω*
source-based model
ω*
grid-tied and islanded modes [13].
2.6.
2.6.Control
ControlStrategies Strategies of MGs Voltage source-based model
2.6. Control Strategies of MGs Voltage source-based model
For
Forcontrolling
controlling conventional power networks,
conventional power networks,multi-layer
multi-layersolutions/methods
solutions/methods are are
For controlling conventional power networks, multi-layer solutions/methods are
2.6.commonly
commonly employed
employed
Control Strategies due
duetotoequipment
of MGs equipmentdiversity
diversityandandcomplicated
complicatedrelations
relationsamong
amongmultiple
mul-
commonly
2.6.subsystems
Control employed
Strategies of due to equipment diversity and complicated relations among mul-
MGs
tiple [9]. A
subsystems
Forsubsystems
controlling [9].hierarchical
A structure
hierarchical
conventional structurecancanbe
becharacterized
characterized by
by threesets
three sets
of of common
common
tiple [9]. A hierarchicalpower networks,
structure multi-layer by
can be characterized solutions/methods
three sets of common are
For controlling
properties
properties [9,61]:
[9,61]: theconventional
the vertical
vertical power
arrangement
arrangement networks,
ofof multi-layer
subsystems,
subsystems, the
the solutions/methods
action
action priority
priority of
of higher-are
higher-level
commonly employed due to equipment diversity and complicated relations
properties [9,61]: the vertical arrangement of subsystems, the action priority of higher- among mul-
commonly employedover
level subsystems duelower-level
to equipmentones,diversity and complicated
and higher-level relations
subsystems’ amongupon
dependence mul-
tiplelevel
subsystems
subsystems [9]. over
A hierarchical
lower-levelstructure
ones, and can be characterized
higher-level by three
subsystems’ sets of common
dependence upon
tiplelower levels’ actual
subsystems [9]. Aperformance.
hierarchical structure can be characterized by three sets of common
properties [9,61]:actual
lower levels’ the vertical arrangement of subsystems, the action priority of higher-
performance.
properties Despite
[9,61]:orienting
the verticalthe actions’ priority
arrangement of in a top-downthe
subsystems, command manner,ofdecision
action priority higher-
level subsystems over lower-level
Despite orienting ones,
the actions’ and higher-level
priority in a top-down subsystems’
command dependence
manner, decisionupon
levelmodules/units
subsystems should
over possess
lower-level a given
ones,freedom
and of action
higher-level to lead to the
subsystems’ effective utilization
dependence upon
lowermodules/units
levels’ actualshould possess a given freedom of action to lead to the effective utilization
performance.
lowerof the multi-layer
levels’ control structure [9], meaning that regardless of considering the action
actual performance.
Energies 2023, 16, 484 11 of 36

subsystems over lower-level ones, and higher-level subsystems’ dependence upon lower
levels’ actual performance.
Despite orienting the actions’ priority in a top-down command manner, decision
modules/units should possess a given freedom of action to lead to the effective utilization
of the multi-layer control structure [9], meaning that regardless of considering the action
priority, each level must be as independent as possible. Generally, the concept of layers is
defined as decomposing a decision problem vertically into sub-problems. For classifying
control architectures developed for subsystems, two factors can be used [9]: the model
complexity (used for the dynamic control of the grid) and the communication degree
(between different units’ controllers or hierarchical levels). Based on these factors, control
structures can be classified and briefly explained as follows [9]:
• Centralized: There is only a single central controller managing, communicating, and
controlling the whole MG/system.
• Distributed: There are several individual controllers, and some information about
their behavior is shared among them.
• Decentralized: Several individual controllers exist; however, no information is shared
among them.
Table 8 lists and compares the major characteristics of the above-mentioned structures.

Table 8. Comparing the characteristics of different control strategies.

Control Strategy
Characteristic
Centralized Distributed Decentralized
Solution Global optimal Sub-optimal Non-optimal
Reliability Low Moderate High
Computational burden and complexity High Moderate Low
Scalability Low Moderate High
Communication degree High Moderate No
Model complexity High Moderate Low
Stability affected by communication High Moderate No

By following the architecture of traditional power systems, three levels are defined for
the hierarchical control of MGs: primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. As a controversial
issue, up to now, no agreement has been reached on the definitions of their boundaries [9].
However, different control layers can be separated based on their two factors: control
functionalities and time intervals. Accordingly, in the following, the major levels of the
hierarchical control of an MG are briefly explained [8,9]:
• Primary (local/field level): It operates at the fastest time scale compared to other levels
and is responsible for maintaining voltage and frequency stability and also ensuring
proper power sharing among DERs.
• Secondary (management/MG level): In comparison to the primary level, this level has
a slower time scale; its main responsibilities are mitigating the voltage and frequency
deviations caused by primary control, facilitating synchronization with the upstream
network, and performing optimal economic management. Note that its computed
control outputs are used as input data for primary control. In Figure 5, simple diagrams
of centralized, distributed, and decentralized secondary controllers are shown [8].
• Tertiary (highest/grid level): As the highest control level of an MG with the longest
time scale, it determines the interactions of the MG with other MGs and also the up-
stream grid. Moreover, it is responsible for coordinating the MG with the distribution
system to solve the energy management problem. It provides the input data for the
secondary level by setting optimal operating points and producing optimal profiles as
 • Primary (local/field level): It operates at the fastest time scale compared to other lev-
els and is responsible for maintaining voltage and frequency stability and also ensur-
ing proper power sharing among DERs.
• Secondary (management/MG level): In comparison to the primary level, this level
has a slower time scale; its main responsibilities are mitigating the voltage and fre-
Energies 2023, 16, 484 12 of 36
quency deviations caused by primary control, facilitating synchronization with the
upstream network, and performing optimal economic management. Note that its
computed control outputs are used as input data for primary control. In Figure 5,
references. For a better
simple diagrams understanding,
of centralized, a schematic
distributed, of a hierarchical
and decentralized controlcontrollers
secondary system of
an
areMG is shown
shown [8]. in Figure 6 [8].

Communication Links

Central Secondary
Control DG(1) DG(2) DG(n)
DG(1) DG(2) DG(n) Communication Links Secondary Secondary Secondary

Field Level
Control Control Control
Secondary Secondary Secondary
Control Control Control
Field Level

DG(1) DG(2) DG(n)

Field Level
Primary Primary Primary
Primary Primary Primary
Control Control Control
Control Control Control
Primary Primary Primary
Control Control Control

Energies 2023, 16, 484 Microgrid 11 of 33

Microgrid
Microgrid
(a) (b) (c)
as references. For a better understanding, a schematic of a hierarchical control system
Figure
of 5.
Figure anVarious
5. secondary
MG is secondary
Various control
shown in control architectures:
Figurearchitectures:
6 [8]. (a) distributed;
(a) distributed; (b)
(b) centralized;
centralized; (c)
(c) decentralized.
decentralized.

• Tertiary (highest/grid level): As the highest control level of an MG with the longest
Tertiary Control
time scale, it determines
(Grid level) the interactions of the MG with other MGs and also the up-
streamT < grid.
T 2
Moreover, it is responsible for coordinating the MG with the distribution
3

system to solve the energy management problem. It provides the input data for the
Secondary Control
secondary level (MGbyLevel)
setting optimal operating points and producing optimal profiles
T 1 < T2

Primary Control
(Field Level )
T1 Controlled
Measurements input signals

Disturbances Microgrid

Figure
Figure6.6.General
Generalschematic
schematicof
ofthe
thehierarchical
hierarchicalcontrol
controlsystem
systemof
of MGs.
MGs.

3.3.Communication
CommunicationRequirements
Requirementsand andStandards
Standards
In this
In this section,
section, communication
communication standards
standards and
and requirements
requirements are
are discussed.
discussed. For
For the
the
proper operation of an MG, a cost-effective, robust, and reliable communication
proper operation of an MG, a cost-effective, robust, and reliable communication system system
withsuitable
with suitablecoverage,
coverage,security,
security, and
and latency
latency must
must be
be established.
established. Several
Severalstandards
standardshave
have
been presented for this aim, and some of the most important ones are listed
been presented for this aim, and some of the most important ones are listed in Table 9. in Table 9. In
In
addition, some papers present the communication requirements and standards
addition, some papers present the communication requirements and standards [62–65]. [62–65].

Table 9. Standards related to the communication systems of MGs.

Table 9. Standards related to the communication systems of MGs.
Standard
Standard Title Title
Communication networks and
Communication systems
networks andfor power for
systems utility automation—Part
power 7-420: Basic
utility automation—Part communication
7-420: Basic struc-
IEC 61850-7-420
IEC 61850-7-420[66]
[66]
ture—Distributed energy resources logical nodes
communication structure—Distributed energy resources logical nodes
Communication networks and
Communication systems
networks andfor power for
systems utility automation—Part
power 8-2: Specific
utility automation—Part communication
8-2: Specific ser-
IEC 61850-8-2 [67]
IEC 61850-8-2 [67] vice mapping (SCSM)—Mapping
communication service to Extensible
mapping Messaging Presence
(SCSM)—Mapping Protocol Messaging
to Extensible (XMPP) Presence Protocol
Communication
(XMPP) networks and systems for power utility automation—Part 90-12: Wide area network engi-
IEC 61850-90-12 [68]
neering guidelines
Communication networks and systems for power utility automation—Part 90-12: Wide area network
IEC 61850-90-12 [68]Wind turbines—Part 25-2: Communications for monitoring and control of wind power plants—Information
IEC 61400-25-2 [69] engineering guidelines
models
Wind turbines—Part 25-2: Communications for monitoring and control of wind power
IEC 61400-25-2 [69] IEEE Guide for Monitoring, Information Exchange, and Control of Distributed Resources Interconnected with
IEEE 1547 [70] plants—Information models
Electric Power Systems
IEEE Guide
2030–2011—IEEE forfor
Guide Monitoring,
Smart GridInformation Exchange,
Interoperability and Control
of Energy of Distributed
Technology Resources
and Information Technology
IEEE 1547 [70]
IEEE 2030 [71] Interconnected with Electric Power Systems
Operation with the Electric Power System (EPS), End-Use Applications, and Loads
2030–2011—IEEE Guide for Smart Grid Interoperability of Energy Technology and Information
IEEE 2030 [71]
Technology
BasedOperation with the Electricfunction
on the corresponding Power System (EPS), End-Use
and location, Applications,
architectures and
of the Loads
communica-
tion system of a smart power system, such as a smart MG, can be generally classified into
three levels: HAN, FAN, and WAN [63,72]. Compared to other layers in an MG, the HAN
layer needs the least bandwidth covering the load level, including EVs, smart appliances,
etc. On the other hand, the FAN layer is employed for coordinating among operators,
ESSs, DERs, and energy marketing entities, leading to it having higher bandwidth links
Energies 2023, 16, 484 13 of 36

Based on the corresponding function and location, architectures of the communication

system of a smart power system, such as a smart MG, can be generally classified into three
levels: HAN, FAN, and WAN [63,72]. Compared to other layers in an MG, the HAN layer
needs the least bandwidth covering the load level, including EVs, smart appliances, etc. On
the other hand, the FAN layer is employed for coordinating among operators, ESSs, DERs,
and energy marketing entities, leading to it having higher bandwidth links compared
to the HAN layer. Moreover, WAN is the highest communication layer responsible for
exchanging the information between the MG and the upstream network (main utility grid),
while the MG operates in grid-tied mode. Table 10 lists the characteristics of these levels
and their applications [63,65,72–75].

Table 10. Characteristics of HAN, FAN, and WAN and their applications in smart power systems.

Communication
Characteristics Applications Technologies
Level

• Smart-MG/-grid applications at the

consumer level
• Short coverage ranges • Communication between MG assets
• WiFi [76]
(up to hundreds of • Home automation applications
• Zigbee [76]
HAN meters) • In MGs, home energy management
• Bluetooth [76]
• LB (up to hundreds of systems (9.6–56 kbs bandwidth with
• HSPA M2M
kbps) 0.2–2 s latency)
• In MGs, EV charging (9.6–56 kbs
bandwidth with 2 s–5 min latency)

• Coverage ranges up to • Suitable for MG communities’

kilometers applications
• PLC
• Communication • Long-distance communication
• RF-mesh
bandwidth up to tens of needed for real-time energy
FAN • WiMax
Mbps management and monitoring
• WiFi
• Portal to transmit • Demand response
• Cellular (LTE)
information between the • In MGs, DER, and ESS (9.6–56 kbs
HAN and WAN layers bandwidth with 20 ms–15 s latency)

• Wide coverage ranges

• The HBcom system
• Cellular
processing the whole
• Power transmission/generation scales • Fiber optics
WAN aggregated data
• Adaptive islanding • PON
• Sending/receiving
• SDH
command signals to and
from other layers

In communication networks, several limitations such as the coverage range, vulnera-

bility to noises, bandwidth and data transfer ratio, transmission delays, and ZOH delays
exist that should be considered in the control system design. As one of the main limitations,
delay can be caused by communication links congestion due to a high traffic volume,
distance and obstacles (such as buildings and trees) between transceivers, propagation,
interferences and noises generated by other devices/networks, malicious activity, network
flooding, and service complete denial [77,78]. In a PEL-intensive smart MG, cyber-attacks
can impose adverse impacts on system operation and stability due to the low inertia of MG,
especially in islanded mode [79]. Cyber-attacks can be classified into three main categories:
data availability, integrity, and confidentiality attacks. In a secure cyber layer (communica-
tion network), system data are timely and accessible, accurate and trustworthy, and viewed
and employed only by authorized operators. Among cyber-attacks, FDIA is one of the most
critical problems of a smart MG targeting data integrity. It gets more challenging if FDIA
Energies 2023, 16, 484 14 of 36

is crafted intelligently, which cannot be detected by conventional methods [80]. Several

studies and standards have been published on cyber-security topics [79,81,82].
Generally, MGs should be equipped with a reliable and secure communication network
providing two-way communication between the components and other MGs. For this aim,
several well-known and widely used communication protocols/standards, such as MQTT,
CIM, Modbus, and OPC-UA, have been introduced. Since the main focus of this article is
not to cover these protocols, some recent publications, such as [83–86], can be referred to
for more information.

4. Low-Bandwidth Communication Technologies

Here, LBcom technologies, classified into wired and WL technologies, are discussed.
Wired technologies need more implementation costs compared to WL ones. This gets worse
in MGs, which are usually placed in remote areas. Moreover, the wiring will reduce the
communication system’s modularity. However, unlike WL technologies, wired ones do not
need any battery. In addition, they show more robustness against interference over WL
technologies.

4.1. LB Wired Technologies

For different communication layers of MGs, several wired technologies, such as PLC
and Ethernet in the HAN layer, PLC, Ethernet, coaxial cable, and DSL (digital subscriber
line) in the FAN layer, and fiber-optic in the WAN layer, can be employed based on
requirements and conditions. However, among them, only CAN, UNBPLC, and NBPLC can
be classified as LBcom technologies, whose essential characteristics are listed in Table 11 [65].
So far, PLC has been a widely used technology in power systems for communicating
information through the power lines, making it a technology with a lower implementation
cost compared to other wired technologies whose most challenging issue is their high
implementation costs.

Table 11. Characteristics of LB wired technologies for the MGs communication system.

Standard/
Technology Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Protocol

• Data rate: 100 bpc

UNBPLC • Coverage: 150 km • Simple, convenient, and • Vulnerable to the
cost-effective interference of
PLC • No need for separate infrastructure MG noises or
• Data rate: 10–500
other than the power grid weather
NBPLC kbps
conditions
• Coverage: 150 km

• Priority-based access
• Low cost • Low data transfer
• Data rate: up to 1
CAN - • Error detection capabilities rate
Mbps
• Robust, fault-tolerant, multi-host • Latency
serial communication

4.2. LB WL Technologies
These days, WL technologies have been increasingly used in MGs, resulting in a
decreased complexity and cost in the communication system of MGs. Since the focus of this
paper is on LB technologies, the important characteristics of different LB WL technologies
are presented in Table 12 [65,76,87–90].
Energies 2023, 16, 484 15 of 36

Table 12. Characteristics of LB WL technologies for the MGs communication system.

Standard/ Characteristics and

Technology Advantages Disadvantages
Protocol Applications

• Data rate: 40 kbps

• Coverage: 30 m • Mesh connectivity • High power
Z-Wave • Application: smart • Free bandwidth consumption
appliances and • No interference • Low data rate
HEMS

• Data rate: 115 kbps • Short coverage

• Coverage: 200 m • Scalable range
WirelessHART • Application: smart • Backward-compatible • Low data rate
meters and HEMS • Interference

• Low cost
• Low power consumption
• Data rate: 250 kbps
• Low complexity
• Coverage: 100 m • Short coverage
• Provides tree, star, and mesh networks by
• Application: Widely range
ZigBee Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
used in HAN, smart • Low data rate
WPAN modulation
homes, smart meters, • Interference
• Point-to-multipoint connection
monitoring, and EVs
• Flexible for expansion
• Encryption code

• Data rate: 250 kbps

ZigBee pro • Coverage: 1.6 km • Low data rate
• Mesh connectivity
(Inter-WPAN) • Application: V2G • Interference
(Vehicle-to-grid)

• Data rate: 1–2 Mbps • Higher data rate • Not safe

• Coverage: 15–30 m • Free bandwidth • Too short of a
Bluetooth • Application: smart • Low power consumption coverage range
appliances and • Low complexity • Vulnerable to noise
HEMS • Flexible for expansion • No encryption code

• Data rate: 14.4 kbps • Existing infrastructures and service

• Coverage: 1–10 km model
2G (GSM) • Low data rate
• Application: DMS, • Ubiquitous coverage
EMS, AMI, DR • Good coverage range

• Data rate: 144 kbps

• Coverage: 1–10 km • Ubiquitous coverage
2.5G (GPRS) • Low data rate
• Application: DMS, • Good coverage range
Cellular
EMS, AMI, DR
Network Com-
munication
• Monthly recurring
costs
• Data rate: 2 Mbps • Ubiquitous coverage • High-cost licensed
• Coverage: 1–10 km • Higher data rate spectrum
3G • Application: DMS, • Good coverage range • Uncertainty of stable
EMS, AMI, DR • Low latency connectivity in
severe weather
conditions

• Data rate: (LoRa

modulation: 0.3–37.5
kbps; LoRaWAN: 50
kbps) • Good coverage range
LPWAN LoRa • Coverage: (Urban • Low power consumption compared to • Low data rate
area: 2–5 km; Rural Cellular Network
area: 10–15 km)
• Application: DMS,
AMI
Energies 2023, 16, 484 16 of 36

Table 12. Cont.

Standard/ Characteristics and

Technology Advantages Disadvantages
Protocol Applications

• Data rate: (Iridium:

2.4–28 kbps)
• Coverage: 100–6000
km
• Application: DMS,
• Wide-area coverage • High cost
LEO AMI, a solution for
• High reliability • High latency
MG communication
in remote places, a
redundant path for
creating backup
communication

• Data rate:
(Inmarsat-B: 9.6–128
kbps)
• Coverage: 100–6000
km
• Application: DMS, • Wide-area coverage • High cost
MEO AMI, a solution for • High reliability • High latency
Satellite MG communication
Network in remote places, a
redundant path for
creating backup
communication

• Data rate: (BGAN: 1

Mbps)
• Coverage: 100–6000
km
• Application: DMS,
AMI, a solution for
MG communication • Wide-area coverage • High cost
GEO in remote places • High reliability • High latency
with no access to
other WL
technologies, a
redundant path for
creating backup
communication

5. LBcom-Based Control Methods

As explained, each control infrastructure, i.e., decentralized, distributed, and central-
ized, has its advantages and drawbacks compared to others. Generally, to have an optimal
solution, a communication system should be employed in the control system, which in turn
results in increased complexity, decreased reliability, and increased cost. To overcome these
drawbacks while achieving a sub- or global-optimal solution, several LBcom-based control
methods have been developed, which are reviewed in Sections 5.1–5.4.
As mentioned, recent LBcom tools such as Zigbee, PLC, and Bluetooth are low-cost,
with flexible operation and distributed intelligence, and they require no extra wired connec-
tion [91]. Moreover, built-in checking rules are employed in these digital modules, making
them reliable even in a highly electromagnetic EMI environment. Several diverse signals,
such as phase, amplitude, or control commands, can be transmitted through them by multi-
plexing a single digital communication channel. However, these tools can provide low data
transmission rates, causing challenges such as communication delays and ZOH periods for
their applications, especially in high-level coordination [91]. In designing LBcom-based
controllers and stability analyses of MGs, these limitations should be considered properly.
For instance, while most studies only consider pure transmission delay (∆t1 ) [91–95], ZOH
(∆t2 ) can be larger than it, as shown in Figure 7.
 signals, such as phase, amplitude, or control commands, can be transmitted through them
by multiplexing a single digital communication channel. However, these tools can pro-
vide low data transmission rates, causing challenges such as communication delays and
ZOH periods for their applications, especially in high-level coordination [91]. In designing
LBcom-based controllers and stability analyses of MGs, these limitations should be con-
Energies 2023, 16, 484 sidered properly. For instance, while most studies only consider pure transmission 17 of 36
delay
(∆t1) [91–95], ZOH (∆t2) can be larger than it, as shown in Figure 7.

Simple waveforms
Figure 7. Simple waveforms of of a transmitted
transmitted signal
signal and
and the corresponding received signal with its
transmission delay (Δt
(∆t11)) and
and ZOH
ZOH (Δt(∆t22))in
inan
anLB
LBdigital
digitalcommunication
communicationnetwork
network[91].
[91].

5.1. Primary
5.1. Primary Control
Control
In aa hierarchical
In hierarchicalstrategy,
strategy,primary
primary control
controlis the firstfirst
is the control layer
control withwith
layer the fastest time
the fastest
scale. This control level works on the variables of MG, such as frequency
time scale. This control level works on the variables of MG, such as frequency and voltage, and voltage, to
guarantee their proper set-point tracking [8]. Maintaining system
to guarantee their proper set-point tracking [8]. Maintaining system stability and reliabil- stability and reliability,
system
ity, system performance
performance improvement,
improvement, andandappropriate
appropriatepower powersharing
sharingbetween
between DERs
DERs are are
the major responsibilities of this level [96]. The most well-known communication-based
the major responsibilities of this level [96]. The most well-known communication-based
primary controllers can be classified into concentrated, master–slave, distributed, and
primary controllers can be classified into concentrated, master–slave, distributed, and cur-
current-sharing methods that generally include central processing and data distribution
rent-sharing methods that generally include central processing and data distribution
units. The central processing unit performs the needed computations. Shared information
units. The central processing unit performs the needed computations. Shared information
between PEL converters is distributed through the data distribution unit. Despite providing
between PEL converters is distributed through the data distribution unit. Despite provid-
a fast dynamic response and semi-optimal/optimal solutions (such as desirable current-
ing a fast dynamic response and semi-optimal/optimal solutions (such as desirable cur-
sharing ability), a relatively HBcom link is usually required by these controllers, causing an
rent-sharing ability), a relatively HBcom link is usually required by these controllers, caus-
increased complexity and implementation cost for them. These controllers can be negatively
ing an increased complexity and implementation cost for them. These controllers can be
impacted by communication limitations such as delays, causing grave challenges for MGs,
negatively impacted by communication limitations such as delays, causing grave chal-
such as overall stability problems [91–93].
lenges for MGs, such as overall stability problems [91–93].
To solve these problems, several LBcom-based primary control methods have been
To solve
presented for these problems, several
MG applications. LBcom-based
By establishing primary
an LBcom control
system, methods have
master–slave been
methods
presented for MG applications. By establishing an LBcom
can be used in a wide range with no wire implementation and a low cost, achieving system, master–slave methods
can
properbe used in a wide range
load/current sharing with
and noplug-n-play
wire implementation
features for andDERs.
a low cost, achieving
In [92], proper
an analog RF
load/current sharing and plug-n-play features for DERs. In
WLcom-based master–slave control approach with robustness against delays is presented[92], an analog RF WLcom-
based
for themaster–slave
load sharingcontrol approach
of a parallel buckwith robustness
converter system against
as an delays
islanded is presented
DCMG. Infor [97],thea
load sharing of a parallel buck converter system as an islanded
model for the dq frame-based master–slave controller is presented, where the system is DCMG. In [97], a model
for the dqas
modeled frame-based
a time-delay master–slave
system withcontroller is presented,
parallel inverters whereaccurate
to achieve the system
loadissharing
modeled in
as a time-delay system with parallel inverters to achieve
an ACMG. In [91], a master–slave LBcom-based current-sharing control method, immune accurate load sharing in an
ACMG.
to delays, Inhigh
[91], EMI
a master–slave
noises, andLBcom-based
ZOH, is presentedcurrent-sharing
for parallelcontrol method,
interfacing immune
inverters to
as an
delays,
ACMG.high UnlikeEMI thenoises,
steadyand ZOH,
state, is presented
the oscillation andfor parallel are
instability interfacing
avoidedinverters as an
by decoupling
ACMG.
the invertersUnlike at the steady in
transients state,
thisthe oscillation
method. Unlikeand instability
the are avoided
papers focused on thebydelay-bound
decoupling
the invertersthe
calculation, at transients in this method.
system’s tolerability Unlike the papers
to communication focused
delays on the delay-bound
is increased. Figure 8a–c,
calculation, the system’s tolerability to communication delays
respectively, show a typical configuration of a system with two separate communication is increased. Figure 8a–c,
respectively,
systems, the LB show a typical
WLcom configuration
system, and control of diagrams
a system withof thetwo
method separate communication
of [91].
systems,Some themethods/studies
LB WLcom system, areand control diagrams of theInmethod
non-master–slave-based. [98], two of [91].
communication-
based and -free droop control methods are developed for load sharing in LV isolated
ACMGs. In [99], the effect of the time-varying delay of a WLcom on load sharing among
DERs in islanded smart ACMGs is studied, and an optimal control method is developed,
whose block diagrams are shown in Figure 9. In [100], the impact of the latency of WLcom
technologies including ZigBee within HAN on the power converters and the bus voltage
during islanding in a centrally controlled DCMG has been studied. In [101], a robust and
stable PLC-based ACMG architecture considering the noise and delays of the LBcom system
is presented for achieving an automatic and proper load sharing among DGs without using
the droop method. This MG can adapt to changes and also minimize the battery support
amount simultaneously.
 Optimization C1 Optimization C1 Optimization
Layer Layer Layer

C2 C2
Control Layer Control Layer Control Layer

Energies 2023, 16,

Energies 2023, 16, 484
484 18 of
16 of 36
33
Physical Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer

Inverter 1 Inverter 2 Inverter 3

UI Layer (Optional)
(a) (b)
Communication
Network
C1
User Interface
Master Unit C1+C2 C1+C2 C1+C2

Optimization C1 Optimization C1 V
DC,ref
Optimization Power Iref1 I1,rms IG,rms
+ TP1(s)
Sources Tin1(s) + Tp(s) VDC DC Link
Layer Layer Layer − err
VDC Tcom(s) Voltage
C2 C2 Control I2,rms
Control Layer Control Layer Control Layer (communication)
DC-AC Current DC-AC Current DC-AC
Inverter Control Inverter Control Inverter
Current
I
Control
ref2
T1pf(s)Master Unit
+ Tin2(s)Slave Unit 1 Slave Unit 2
Physical Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer
Utility Ifw AC Link
Inverter 1 Inverter 2 Inverter 3 VDC,ref Grid
err
+
−
Tfw(s)
Slave Unit
(a) (b)
VDC

Master Unit (c)

VDC,ref Iref1 I1,rms IG,rms
+ FigureT8. (a) A typical
P1(s) Tin1(s) configuration
+ Tofp(s) VDCinverter system with two separate communicat
a parallel
err
systems C1 and C2; (b) The LB WLcom-based method of [91]; (c) Control diagram of the method
VDC Tcom(s) the communication
[91] considering I impact and having the voltage feed-forward loop in the sla
2,rms
(communication)
unit.
Iref2
T (s) + T (s)
Some 1pfmethods/studies in2
are non-master–slave-based. In [98], two communicatio
based
VDC,ref anderr -free droop control methods are developed for load sharing in LV isolated A
Ifw

MGs. In + [99], theTfw (s)

effect of Slave
the Unit
time-varying delay of a WLcom on load sharing amo
DERs in Vislanded
DC
smart ACMGs is studied, and an optimal control method is develope
whose block diagrams are shown in Figure 9. In [100], the impact of the latency of WLco
technologies including (c) ZigBee within HAN on the power converters and the bus volta
Figure 8.8. (a) during islanding in a centrally controlledsystem
DCMG hastwo been studied. In [101], a robust a
Figure (a) AA typical
typical configuration
configuration of of aa parallel
parallel inverter
inverter system withwith two separate
separate communication
communication
systems C1 and stable
C2;PLC-based ACMG architecture
(b) The LB WLcom-based method considering the noise
of [91]; (c) Control diagram andofdelays of theofLBcom sy
the method
systems C1 and C2; (b) The LB WLcom-based method of [91]; (c) Control diagram of the method
[91] consideringtem the
is presented
communication for achieving
impact and an having
automatic and proper
the voltage load sharing
feed-forward loop inamong DGs witho
the slave
of [91] considering the communication impact and having the voltage feed-forward loop in the slave
unit. using the droop method. This MG can adapt to changes and also minimize the batte
unit.
support amount simultaneously.
Some methods/studies are non-master–slave-based. In [98], two communication-
based and -free P11 droop Tcontrol Delay methods are developed Pfor 11 load sharingTDelay in LV isolated AC-
MGs. In [99], theZ(s) effect of the time-varying delay of a WLcom on load sharing among
DERs in islanded y’ smart ACMGs is studied, and an optimal y’ control method is developed,
d P21 S K P12 S Z d P21 S K P12 TDelay S Z
whose block diagrams are shown in Figure 9. In [100], the impact of the latency of WLcom
technologies including
P22 ZigBee within HAN on the power
TDelay P22 converters and the bus voltage
during islanding in (a) a centrally controlled DCMG has been studied.
(b) In [101], a robust and
stable PLC-based ACMG architecture considering the noise and delays of the LBcom sys-
Figure 9. Block Figure 9. Block
diagram diagram
of the of the load
load sharing sharing
control control
method methodinpresented
presented in [99]:
[99]: (a) with (a) with light-b
light-blue
tem is presented for achieving an automatic and proper load sharing among DGs without
blocks to obtainblocks to obtain
a uniform a uniform
delay time; (b) delay
withtime; (b) with
a uniform a uniform
delay time. delay time.
using the droop method. This MG can adapt to changes and also minimize the battery
support amount
As mentioned, simultaneously.
As mentioned, decentralized
decentralized controllers, especially
controllers, droop-based
especially droop-based ones,ones,
suffer fromfrom lim-
suffer
limited stability, which iswhich
ited stability, majorly caused caused
is majorly by a lack byofa communication
lack of communication between DERs. To
between DERs. To
P11 TDelay P11 TDelay
overcome this
overcome this drawback, some droop-based control methods with an network
drawback, some droop-based control methods with an LBcom LBcom network
Z(s)
have been developed for achieving proper power sharing in islanded ACMGs [102–106].
y[102], an application of WL sensor LB networks y
d P21 In
S K P12 S Z d P21 S K Pfor
12 power
TDelay sharing
S Z and control in a
droop-controlled ACMG with DGs is presented. In [103], the stability of the droop-based
P22 TDelay P22
decentralized control is enhanced, where a power-sharing control method is developed
based on (a)a limited WLcom infrastructure, which is used (b) for transferring all DGs’ generation
information.
Figure 9. BlockIn [104], an
diagram online
of the load virtual
sharing impedance
control method adjustment-based
presented in [99]:droop control
(a) with ap-
light-blue
proach with a one-way LBcom network is presented
blocks to obtain a uniform delay time; (b) with a uniform delay time. for proper power sharing at the steady
state. The block diagram of this approach is shown in Figure 10. In [106], an LBcom-based
adaptive
As mentioned, voltagedecentralized
droop controlcontrollers,
is developed to improve
especially reactive power
droop-based ones,sharing by compen-
suffer from lim-
sating for the which
ited stability, effect of
is voltage
majorly drops
causedonbythe impedances
a lack of the feeder.
of communication The block
between DERs. diagram
To
of this method
overcome is shown in
this drawback, someFigure 11. Instead
droop-based of direct
control methods control ofan
with theLBcom
inverter’s output
network
 tion information. In [104], an online virtual impedance adjustment-based droop control
approach with a one-way LBcom network is presented for proper power sharing at the
steady state. The block diagram of this approach is shown in Figure 10. In [106], an
LBcom-based adaptive voltage droop control is developed to improve reactive power
sharing by compensating for the effect of voltage drops on the impedances of the feeder.
Energies 2023, 16, 484 19 of 36
The block diagram of this method is shown in Figure 11. Instead of direct control of the
inverter’s output voltage, the voltage droop slope is adjusted to compensate for the volt-
age drop mismatch across feeders by employing an LBcom system. The method’s delay
voltage, the
immunity voltage
comes from droop slope
the fact is the
that adjusted
tuningtoclosed-loop
compensatecontrol
for thesystem
voltageincludes
drop mismatch
no
across feeders by employing an LBcom system. The method’s delay
communication. In [105], an improved droop-based control method is presented immunity comes
for from
the fact that the tuning closed-loop control system includes no communication. In [105],
proper reactive power sharing among DGs. To achieve this aim, the voltage bias on the
an improved droop-based control method is presented for proper reactive power sharing
conventional droop control basis is changed, which is activated by employing a synchro-
among DGs. To achieve this aim, the voltage bias on the conventional droop control basis
nization events
is changed, whichsequence through
is activated an LBcom anetwork
by employing with onlyevents
synchronization communication delays. an
sequence through
M. Eskandari
LBcom et al.with
network presented a servo controldelays.
only communication system M.for Eskandari
controllingetpower converters
al. presented in
a servo
ACMGs, by which droop-based VSIs are converted to servo-VSIs [107].
control system for controlling power converters in ACMGs, by which droop-based VSIs In addition to
the
arementioned
converted droop-based
to servo-VSIscontrollers, in [38], to
[107]. In addition anthe
LBcom-based
mentionedunified distributed
droop-based con-
controllers,
trol method
in [38], is presented for
an LBcom-based achieving
unified proper power
distributed controlsharing
methodwithout frequency
is presented devia-
for achieving
tions in hybrid
proper cascaded-parallel
power sharing ACMGs under
without frequency both in
deviations resistive-inductive and -capacitive
hybrid cascaded-parallel ACMGs
under both resistive-inductive and -capacitive loads.
loads.

Iabc abc I (αβ ) Sequence Compensation Flag

from Central Controller
αβ Detection

I (−αβ ),5
I (−αβ ), f I (+αβ ), f
I (+αβ ),7
PLPF
QH Frequency droop fDG
VDG(abc) abc VDG (αβ ) Power QNeg controller
Signal
αβ Calculation
QLPF Magnitude
EDG
Generator
droop
controller

PAVE
k q1 1 LV,f
KH

s Vdroop (αβ )
LV,Neg Voltage VV (αβ )
PLPF − k Neg 1 +
KH

+ s drop −
calculation −
kH 1 LV,H VDG (αβ )
KH

RV,f RV,Neg RV,H

IL(abc) abc Multi-loop
Voltage VPWM (αβ )
αβ I L(αβ ) Controller
Energies 2023, 16, 484 18 of 33
Figure
Figure10.
10.Block
Blockdiagram
diagramofofthe
thecontrol
controlmethod
methodofof[104].
[104].

Adaptive Voltage droop

Timeout

Receiver Enable
n1 Vo
Com. Link
for DG1 +
+ × −
Transmitter
Q1*

Q1m − ΔQ
+ × Ki/s

ωo V o*
EMS Reference
ω
P1m m1 −+ Voltage VRef(dq)
Generator
Frequency Droop
Controller of DG1

Com. Link
for DGN Controller of DGN

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Block
Block diagram
diagram of
of the
the controller
controller of
of [106].
[106].

DCMGs, load
In DCMGs, loadsharing
sharingand
andlow-voltage
low-voltageregulation
regulation are
are thethe main
main objectives
objectives of con-
of control
trol systems
systems that that cannot
cannot be achieved
be achieved appropriately
appropriately by conventional
by conventional droop
droop controllers
controllers sim-
simulta-
ultaneously
neously due due toerror
to the the error in nominal
in nominal voltages
voltages and distribution
and load load distribution
[108].[108]. To address
To address these
these problems, a distributed controller based on an LBcom system (CAN protocol with a
0.1 ms delay) is presented in [108], whose block diagram is shown in Figure 12.

LBcom
Channel
Measured source
current
0
 for DGN Controller of DGN

Figure 11. Block diagram of the controller of [106].

Energies 2023, 16, 484 In DCMGs, load sharing and low-voltage regulation are the main objectives of20con- of 36
trol systems that cannot be achieved appropriately by conventional droop controllers sim-
ultaneously due to the error in nominal voltages and load distribution [108]. To address
these problems,
problems, a distributed
a distributed controller
controller basedbased
on anon an LBcom
LBcom system system
(CAN(CAN protocol
protocol with awith a
0.1 ms
0.1 ms delay) is presented in [108], whose block diagram is shown in
delay) is presented in [108], whose block diagram is shown in Figure 12. Figure 12.

LBcom
Channel
Measured source
current
Droop V0
i jpu 1 ij +
V jref Voltage &
i rated dj −+ Current
j
Controllers

n ΔV j0
i
j =1
pu
j
i avg
j
i rated kj
j
n
DACS DGj

impu
DGm

Figure
Figure12.
12.Block
Blockdiagram
diagramofofthe
thecontrol
controlmethod
methodintroduced
introducedinin[108].
[108].

Generally,ESSs
Generally, ESSsare
areemployed
employed forfor absorbing
absorbing the energy mismatches
mismatches between
between the
the gener-
gen-
ation and
eration andthethedemand
demandsides.
sides.Unlike
Unlikeprevious
previousworks concentrating
works concentratingon on
energy management
energy manage-
through
ment communication
through systems,
communication Oureilidis
systems, KO et al.
Oureilidis KOintroduced a WL control
et al. introduced a WLmethodol-
control
ogy for maintaining
methodology the frequency
for maintaining and voltage
the frequency and of an ACMG
voltage of anwithin
ACMGpermissible limits by
within permissible
employing
limits an ESS [109].
by employing Besides
an ESS [109].computing ESS capacity,
Besides computing ESSproper reactive
capacity, andreactive
proper active power
and
sharing is achieved among parallel DERs by a droop controller.
active power sharing is achieved among parallel DERs by a droop controller.
InIn[110],
[110],the
thedesign,
design,establishment,
establishment,andandrequirements
requirementsofofthetheCAN
CANprotocol
protocol(with
(withaa
speedup
speed uptoto11Mbps;
Mbps;robust
robustagainst
againstsevere
severetest
testconditions)
conditions)asasthe
thecommunication
communicationlink link
amonghigh-frequency
among high-frequencypowerpowerconverters
convertersare
arestudied
studiedforforcontrolling
controllingand
andcoordinating
coordinatingthe
the
converters in a master–slave configuration.
converters in a master–slave configuration.
InInTable
Table13,13,the
themost
mostimportant
importantLBcom-based
LBcom-basedprimary
primarymethods
methodsarearesummarized
summarizedand and
categorized.
categorized.
5.2. Secondary Control
In the hierarchical control strategy, the second control layer is called secondary con-
trol, whose main responsibility is to mitigate the deviations of the voltage and frequency
introduced by the primary control. This control layer can be employed not only for syn-
chronizing MG with the upstream power grid but also for realizing optimal economic
management [9]. In comparison with the primary layer, secondary control is slower. It
is noteworthy that the control outputs of this control level are delivered to the primary
control as its input control signals. Typically, a conventional controller such as the central-
ized proportional-integral (PI) controller is utilized in the restoration of the voltage and
frequency of an MG that can be designed to show a desirable performance in achieving
optimal solutions for particular operating conditions [15]. However, this controller has
several serious disadvantages, such as poor flexibility, limited scalability, and single-point
failures. To solve the technical challenges of MGs, several LBcom-based secondary control
methods have been introduced, which are presented in the following.
Energies 2023, 16, 484 21 of 36

Table 13. Summarizing and categorizing important LBcom-based control methods in the primary
control level.

Main Objectives Ref. Characteristics/Results Communication Test System Year

• A master–slave-based controller • DC
• Proper current sharing among DERs network
• LBcom
• Desirable performance and stability in the presence of • Parallel
[92] • Analog WL 2008
communication delays DC-DC
RF
• Sending the reference current from master to slave buck
units through WL LBcom converters

• Introducing either communication-based or -free droop

control methods for load sharing
• By considering the close error margin difference and • LBcom • LV isolated
[98] high cost of HBcom, LBcom is proved to be the best &HBcom ACMG 2010
option
• Considering communication delays

• A study on the effect of the time-varying delay on load

sharing • HBcom & • Islanded
[99] • Delay impact may be severe prior to the occurrence of LBcom ACMG 2012
latency

• A dq frame-based master–slave control method

• Two
• The reference current is sent from the master to slave
• WL parallel
Current/load sharing units
[97] network or inverters 2017
• Accurate load sharing
CAN • Islanded
• Maintaining MG stability by max. communication
ACMG
delay calculation

• Various
• A control method with a central controller
WLcom
• Impact of various WLcom technologies’ latency, within • DCMG
technolo-
[100] HAN, on MG voltage and converters’ switches • During 2018
gies
• The design of an MG should be coordinated along with islanding
including
the selection of the communication technology
LB

• A master–slave control method • ACMG

• Robust against communication delays, high EMI noises, • Input- &
• LB WLcom
[91] and ZOH output- 2019
• ZigBee
• Proper current sharing parallel
• Good system stability inverters

• Automatic & proper load sharing without droop

• LBcom
control in the primary control layer • Standalone
[101] • PLC 2021
• Considering noise and delays in communication in the ACMGs
technology
analysis
Energies 2023, 16, 484 22 of 36

Table 13. Cont.

Main Objectives Ref. Characteristics/Results Communication Test System Year

• Application of WL sensor networks in ACMGs with

DGs
• Introducing a scheme for having reliable • Islanded
[102] • LBcom 2012
communication ACMG
• Improving power sharing by DGs’ reference signal
correction

• A droop-based decentralized control method

• Islanded
• Proper active and reactive power sharing while • LB WLcom
ACMG
maintaining frequency and voltage • ZigBee,
[103] with 2013
• Enhanced system stability WiFi, and
paralleled
• Presenting two analytical models with and without cellular
inverters
considering delays

• An online virtual impedance-based droop control

method
• Proper power sharing based on online virtual
impedance adjustment
• Compensating for reactive, imbalance, and harmonic
powers sharing errors
• Good performance in the presence of a communication • One-way • Islanded
[104] delay of a duration of a few milliseconds LBcom ACMG 2014
• Sending the compensation command from the central
to the DGs local controller to obtain a synchronized
compensation in DGs with no noise addition
• Virtual impedance at fundamental positive & negative
sequences and harmonic frequencies is determined
based on transient real power variations

• An improved droop control method

• Proper reactive power sharing by sharing error
Active and/or reactive reduction operation • Islanded
power sharing [105] • LBcom 2014
• Voltage regulation achieved by the voltage recovery ACMG
operation
• Achieving plug-and-play

• An adaptive voltage droop-based control method

• Better reactive power sharing by compensating for the
voltage drops’ effect on feeder impedances
• Immune to communication delays • MV
[106] • Better response than that of a conventional droop • LBcom Islanded 2015
under communication interruptions ACMG
• Simple implementation
• No need for feeder parameters and any estimation
algorithm

• Introducing a fast-response strategy for accurate

reactive power sharing
• Determining reactive power references based on V/Q
droop coefficients
• Introducing a servo-VSI to a fast-track reactive power • Islanded
[107] • LBcom 2017
reference ACMG
• Developing an optimization-based method to
determine optimal servo-VSI parameters
• Robustness against communication delay and
interruption

• A unified distributed control method

• Proper power sharing without frequency deviations
• Hybrid
• Automatic match load feature by introducing a sign
cascaded–
[38] function • LBcom 2019
parallel
• Supporting power management & plug-and-play
ACMG
• Slightly affected by communication delays and failures
in steady state
Energies 2023, 16, 484 23 of 36

Table 13. Cont.

Main Objectives Ref. Characteristics/Results Communication Test System Year

• Islanded
• A distributed control method • LBcom
DCMG
Voltage regulation and • High reliability • CAN with
[108] • Parallel 2012
proper load sharing • Good low-voltage regulation a small
DC-DC
• Proper load sharing delay
converters

• A WL energy management method based on using ESS

• Maintaining the voltage and frequency of MG within
permissible limits
• Islanded
Voltage and frequency • Relatively proper power sharing is achieved
and
regulation and energy [109] • Non-linear loads are not considered to prove the • LBcom 2012
grid-tied
management method’s performance
ACMG
• Supplying the load by a high-quality voltage in both
grid-tied and islanded modes under several load
scenarios

• Design, establishment, and requirements of the CAN • Two

protocol as a communication link of a master–slave paralleled
method DC-DC
• LBcom
Voltage control [110] • Simple voltage control converters 2012
CAN
• Providing priority access to the CAN bus supplying
• In the case of failure in the master unit, the slaves’ a common
communication is not affected. load

In conventional DC droop controllers commonly used for sharing load current among
DERs in DCMGs, the more the output current increases, the more the output voltage
of the DC bus decreases linearly [93]. The output voltages of converters are not equal
to each other due to their line resistances, causing a degraded accuracy for the output
current sharing. In addition, the droop action causes increased voltage deviation of the
DC bus as the load changes. So far, in DC islanded MGs, several LBcom-based secondary
control methods have been presented to address these challenges. In [93], an improved
LBcom-based decentralized droop controller was developed for DC bus voltage restoration
and accurate current sharing in DCMGs. In [111], P. Ghalebani and M. Niasati presented a
non-centralized droop-based control method with an LBcom system for achieving a more
accurate power sharing and also a decreased voltage deviation in isolated DCMGs. In [112],
an LBcom-based average voltage regulation strategy with an algorithm-based solution
for an equal voltage correction factor is developed. In [113], an LBcom-based distributed
secondary control method is developed for droop-controlled DCMGs. It is not only able to
obtain proper power sharing but also can restore the DC bus voltage deviation by using
the voltage-shifting strategy. In [114], an improved droop-based method is presented for
achieving proper power sharing and bus voltage restoration in isolated DCMGs.
In [115], a distributed secondary frequency and voltage control method for islanded
ACMGs is presented based on the LBcom network, which is also able to achieve active and
reactive power sharing. For similar aims, a distributed secondary frequency and voltage
approach based on an uncertain LBcom system without a central control unit is presented
in [116]. Moreover, the authors of [117] studied HMGs, where inaccurate load sharing
among some DERs and large voltage/frequency deviations in AC and DC buses can be
caused by poor power management in sub-grids and bidirectional interlinking converters.
To solve these problems simultaneously, a coordination factors-based distributed power
management technique with an LBcom system is developed in [117].
Besides the mentioned secondary controllers, some papers studied only frequency
control based on LBcom networks for islanded ACMGs [118,119]. In [118], the communica-
tion delays’ impact on the secondary frequency control with the LBcom system is studied,
where the adverse impact of communication delays is reduced by the introduced gain
scheduling approach. Since, in the real world, weak/unreliable communication conditions
Energies 2023, 16, 484 24 of 36

such as LBcom infrastructures and communication failures can impose negative impacts
on the performance of a typical consensus-based controller and MG stability, in [119], a
distributed consensus-based secondary frequency control method is presented for islanded
ACMGs, where the impact of weak communication is mitigated in two parts.
For achieving only power sharing among DERs in islanded ACMGs, a distributed
secondary cooperative strategy based on networked multiagent systems is developed
in [120], consisting of two distributed secondary controllers.
In [121], a distributed iterative event-triggered secondary control method for multiple
DERs’ voltage synchronization and optimal load sharing with economical operation is
presented for a master–slave-based islanded DCMG. In this method, the controller sampling
frequency is reduced in comparison to continuous-time feedback control.
Even though using the VSGs can increase the inertia of inverter-based MGs, severe os-
cillations may also be caused by using multiple paralleled VSGs. In [122], an LBcom-based
secondary frequency control method is presented for frequency damping and restora-
tion in islanded ACMGs with distributed VSGs. In this study, active power sharing is
accomplished by the event-triggered communication mechanism.
As one of the secondary control level’s responsibilities, GS has been studied in some
papers [123,124]. In [123], a fast CAN communication-based GS strategy is presented for an
ACMG, providing a smooth transfer from the islanded to grid-connected mode. Through
the CAN network, the phase angle derived from the grid voltages is transmitted to all MSs.
In [124], a simple GS method based on the CAN protocol is presented to achieve a less
transient and faster synchronization of RESs.
In Table 14, the essential LBcom-based secondary control methods are summarized
and categorized.

5.3. Tertiary Control

In the tertiary control layer, an MG’s interactions with both the upstream/main grid
and other neighbor MGs are determined by considering it as a part of the system’s global
operation. This control level coordinates the MG with the distribution system in order
to optimally solve energy management problems with the consideration of the MG’s
dynamical behavior (such as weather forecast information and electric energy prices) and
external criteria, such as technological, economic, and environmental ones. Generally,
this control level generates optimal profiles as the references and sets optimal operating
points for the secondary control level as its input signals [125], resulting in achieving
improved operation stability in the whole system [13]. In ancillary services or the local
energy market, the amount of the energy flow demanded from the secondary controller
for achieving a cost-effective operation will be determined by the tertiary level in an MG.
Power flow distribution [25] and DERs’ power dispatch will be further optimized by this
level, which has the longest time intervals among all control levels in a hierarchical control
structure [126]. So far, researchers have not paid sufficient attention to the impact and
utilization of the LBcom system on the tertiary control level.

5.4. More Than One Control Layer

Some studies on more than one control layer have been published, where an LBcom
network is used. In [127,128], a consensus-based P-f/Q-V droop control method and a
fuzzy-based consensus control method with an LBcom network for proper power sharing
are respectively introduced for ACMGs. In [129], the authors presented a WLcom system
based on ZigBee technology for data transfer between primary and secondary control layers.
So far, several papers have studied ZigBee and its different applications in MGs, such as
the data monitoring of DCMGs and real-time measurement and data transfer [130,131]. On
the other hand, there are several papers attempting to solve ZigBee’s limitations, such as its
low data transfer rate and caused data transfer delay, by presenting data traffic scheduling
and management schemes [132–135]. Generally, in MGs’ communication systems, data
transmission delay must be within an acceptable limit. To this end, it is crucial to use
Energies 2023, 16, 484 25 of 36

an efficient data coding method and a suitable data code length. By considering these
points, an efficient data payload code and an appropriate data management scheme for a
ZigBee-based control layer are presented in [129].

Table 14. Summarizing and categorizing important LBcom-based control methods in the secondary
control level.

Main Objectives Ref. Characteristics/Results Communication Test System Year

• An LBcom-based improved decentralized droop

controller
• Desirable DC bus voltage restoration and accurate • Two-node
[93] current sharing • LBcom islanded 2014
• Only transferring DC current and voltage values DCMG
through LBcom
• Considering the communication delay in the analysis

• A non-centralized droop-based control method

• Accurate power sharing and decreased voltage
deviation
• Robust against the system’s physical characteristics
(line resistances, DG capacities, and local loads’ • Isolated
[111] • LBcom 2018
presence) DCMG
• Transmitting only current information through LBcom
lines
• Considering only pure communication delays on
controller performance

• An average voltage regulation strategy with an

algorithm-based solution for the equal voltage
Current/load/power correction factor
sharing and voltage • Providing proper load sharing through a droop
restoration controller with a high droop gain
• Providing good voltage regulation through an LB CAN • Droop
• LBcom
[112] communication controlled 2019
• CAN
• Possessing merits such as fault tolerance, plug-n-play, DCMG
and expandability
• Through LB links, each converter only needs to share
local DC bus voltage information
• Communication delays are considered in stability
analysis.

• An improved voltage-shifting strategy

• Proper power sharing and desirable DC bus voltage • LBcom
restoration • CAN 2.0 • Islanded
[113] • Transmitting only one variable per converter (λ) with 125 DCMGs 2020
through an LBcom link kbps
• Communication delay is considered in the analysis

• An improved droop-based control method

• Proper power sharing achieved by the power
compensation strategy
• Reduction in bus voltage deviation achieved by adding
• Isolated
[114] a voltage compensation term • LBcom 2020
DCMG
• Transferring only information of the DGs’ output
powers through LBcom links
• No delays and noises are considered for LBcom
networks.
Energies 2023, 16, 484 26 of 36

Table 14. Cont.

Main Objectives Ref. Characteristics/Results Communication Test System Year

• Developing distributed controllers using localized

information and nearest-neighbor communication
• Introducing a frequency controller for the rapid
regulation of the MG’s frequency while maintaining
active power sharing among DGs
• Islanded
[115] • By tuning the voltage controller, a simple trade-off • LBcom 2015
ACMG
between voltage regulation and reactive power sharing
is achieved
• Not requiring any knowledge of the MG’s topology,
impedances, or loads.
• No central controller

• A distributed frequency and voltage control approach

based on an uncertain LBcom system
• No central controller
Voltage and • Developing two discrete-time secondary controllers
frequency restoration based on an iterative learning mechanism
and proper power • Providing proper voltage and frequency restoration • Uncertain • Isolated
[116] and active power sharing for all DGs LBcom ACMG 2018
sharing
• Each DG only needs to have the intermittent
information of its neighbors through an LBcom link
• Acceptable system stability and robust against
uncertainties and noises
• Not considering LBcom delays

• A power management method

• Providing accurate active power sharing among all
AC/DC DERs
• Islanded
[117] • Proving reactive power sharing among AC DERs • LBcom 2021
HMG
• Providing AC voltage/frequency and DC voltage
restorations
• Robust against communication latency or failure

• A study on the impact of communication delays on

secondary frequency control with a central control unit
• Exchanging information between central and local • Islanded
[118] • LBcom 2014
controllers through LBcom ACMG
• Introducing a small-signal method for obtaining delay
margins in order to maintain MG stability
Frequency
restoration/control • Distributed consensus-based frequency control for
MGs under weak communications
• The impact of weak communication is mitigated by: • Weak com-
• Islanded
[119] • Introducing an event-triggered decentralized technique munication 2020
ACMG
and a time-varying control gain • LBcom
• Presenting a distributed secondary frequency control
with finite-time convergence performance

• A distributed secondary cooperative method based on

networked multiagent systems
• Developing two distributed secondary controllers • LBcom • Islanded
based on time-varying, local, and LBcom systems to • ACMG
Active and reactive achieve proper power sharing among DERs Intermittent including 4
[120] 2016
power sharing • Communication delays are considered communi- DERs with
• Sharing only the current and active/reactive load cation local loads
information of each DER in an intermittent and
distributed way with its neighboring units
Energies 2023, 16, 484 27 of 36

Table 14. Cont.

Main Objectives Ref. Characteristics/Results Communication Test System Year

• A distributed iterative event-triggered secondary

control method
• Master–
• Achieving voltage synchronization of multiple DERs
DERs’ voltage slave-
and optimal load sharing
synchronization and [121] • LBcom based 2018
• Sharing the local voltage and current of the DG with
optimal load sharing islanded
some nearest neighbors at a specified event-triggered
DCMG
time
• Communication limitations are not considered

• A secondary frequency control method for distributed

VSGs
• Proper frequency damping and restoration without
Frequency affecting the virtual inertia bestowed by VSGs
restoration and • Achieving the active power sharing through the • Islanded
oscillation damping [122] • LBcom 2020
event-triggered communication mechanism ACMG
with active power • Demonstrating stability and Zeno-free behavior by
sharing ultimately uniformly bounded theory
• Robust against both measurement noises and
communication delays

• A fast CAN communication-based grid

synchronization (GS) strategy
• Providing a smooth transfer from the islanded mode to • LBcom
[123] • ACMG 2015
the grid-connected mode. • CAN
• The communication delay is considered to be small but
Grid Synchronization known and definite
(GS)
• A CAN-based GS technique for RESs • Islanded &
• Sharing information between controllers through CAN • LBcom grid-tied
[124] • A simple study without considering real-world • CAN RESs 2017
limitations and problems • ACMG

In 2016, J. Ma et al. introduced a hierarchical power flow sharing and voltage regula-
tion control method for transmission loss minimization in islanded DCMGs with merits
such as improved expandability and reduced cost, resulting from its independence from
information such as grid conductance and load distribution matrices [136]. The LBcom
network is used for sharing needed information between primary and secondary control
layers. Figure 13a,b, respectively, show the block diagram of the conventional method
and the presented methods in [136]. In 2019, M. Eskandari et al. presented a fuzzy con-
sensus protocol for improving the power-sharing performance of droop controllers in
IN-ACMGs [137]. In addition, a consensus protocol, coordinated with reactive power
sharing, is developed for average voltage profile restoration, resulting in an enhanced
power quality [137]. In [138], a control method is introduced for the fast and simultaneous
realization of reactive power sharing and voltage regulation in an IN-ACMG.
To achieve the desired frequency and voltage regulation for all DGs of all MGs and
also proper active and reactive power sharing among MGs in a cluster of autonomous
MGs with diverse numbers of heterogeneous DERs, a distributed cooperative hierarchical
control approach based on intermittent communication is presented in [139]. In another
study [140], active power sharing and frequency restoration in an IN-ACMG are aimed
at developing a phase-angle feedback-based control along with a controller for feedback
gains’ adaptive tuning.
In Table 15, the characteristics of LBcom-network-based methods with more than one
control layer are summarized and categorized.
 developed for average voltage profile restoration, resulting in an enhanced power quality
[137]. In [138], a control method is introduced for the fast and simultaneous realization of
Energies 2023, 16, 484 reactive power sharing and voltage regulation in an IN-ACMG. 28 of 36

LBcoms

Gu(s) δu
U*DC +
−
Voltage Current
uMG u*=U0 + δuc− ik
loop loop
Secondary control Primary control (droop method)
(Voltage regulation loop)

(a)

LBcoms
δuc
U*DC +
−
G(s)

U *j = U 0 + ki j + δ uc + δ ud ( f ) Voltage Current
N u
 S (u , i )
j j j loop loop
x δud(f) Primary controller of jth power supply node
+
−
Gdf(s)
u j , i j , a j , bj
S j (u j , i j )

(b)
Figure
Figure 13.
13.Block
Blockdiagrams
diagrams of:of:
(a)(a)
thethe
conventional hierarchical
conventional method;
hierarchical and and
method; (b) the
(b)hierarchical con-
the hierarchical
trol-based OPF realization method of [136] for DCMGs.
control-based OPF realization method of [136] for DCMGs.

To achieve the desired frequency and voltage regulation for all DGs of all MGs and
15. Summarizing
Tableproper
also active and and categorizing
reactive powerLBcom-network-based
sharing among MGs control
in methods
a clusterwith more than one
of autonomous
control layer.
MGs with diverse numbers of heterogeneous DERs, a distributed cooperative hierarchical
control approach based on intermittent communication is presented in [139]. In another
Main Objectives Ref. Characteristics/Results Communication Test System Year
study [140], active power sharing and frequency restoration in an IN-ACMG are aimed at
developing
• Introducinga phase-angle feedback-based
a consensus-based droop control withcontrol
a along with a controller for feedback
sparse communication network for proper active and
gains’ adaptive tuning. • LV
reactive power sharing
In Table • LBcommethods with Islanded
[127] • Suitable for15, the characteristics
ACMGs of LBcom-network-based
with either uniform-ratio or more than2014
one
ACMG
Active and/or control layer arelossy
pure-resistive summarized and categorized.
line impedances
reactive power • No communication limitations are considered
sharing Table 15. Summarizing and categorizing LBcom-network-based control methods with more than
• Developing a fuzzy-based consensus control protocol
one
•
control layer.
Inserting consensus signals into the droop controller to
• Multi-bus
[128] achieve accurate power sharing • LBcom 2018
Main Objec- • Adjacent buses are connected by LBcom links
ACMG
Ref. Characteristics/Results Communication Test System Year
tives • LBcom limitations are not considered.
• Introducing a consensus-based droop control with a sparse
communication
• network
Introducing for data
an efficient proper active
payload code and
and anreactive
appropriate data management scheme for a
power sharing • LV Islanded
[127] ZigBee-based control layer • LBcom 2014
Realizing an efficient • Suitable for ACMGs with either uniform-ratio or pure-resis- • LBcom ACMG
ZigBee-based [129] • Communication delay impact on MG dynamic • DCMG 2015
Active and/or tive lossyperformance
line impedances • ZigBee
controller is studied
reactive power • No communication
• Focusing on limitations
communication are between
considered
primary and
sharing • Developingsecondary control consensus control protocol
a fuzzy-based
• Inserting consensus signals into the droop controller to
• Multi-bus
[128] achieve accurate power sharing • LBcom 2018
ACMG
• Adjacent buses are connected by LBcom links
• LBcom limitations are not considered.
Realizing an ef- • Introducing an efficient data payload code and an appropri-
• LBcom
ficient ZigBee- [129] ate data management scheme for a ZigBee-based control • DCMG 2015
• ZigBee
based controller layer
Energies 2023, 16, 484 29 of 36

Table 15. Cont.

Main Objectives Ref. Characteristics/Results Communication Test System Year

• A hierarchical power flow sharing and voltage

regulation control method for transmission loss
• Islanded
minimization
DCMGs
• Primary control improves grid stability and reliability
• IEEE
by setting a voltage droop characteristic for each power
[136] • LBcom 14-bus 2016
converter
modified
• Secondary control is responsible for realizing optimal
for a 400 V
power flow
DCMG
• The LB network’s limitations, such as delays and
noises, are not considered in proving the performance

• Developing a small-signal model to evaluate the

stability and performance of droop control
Power sharing and • Providing accurate active and reactive power sharing
voltage regula- by introducing a fuzzy-based consensus protocol
tion/restoration [137] • Introducing a consensus algorithm to restore the • LBcom • IN-ACMG 2019
voltage profile while maintaining accurate reactive
power sharing
• Adjacent buses are linked by LBcom links
• LBcom network limitations are not considered

• Developing a power flow method for droop-based

isolated MGs
• Introducing a supplementary control loop for a V-Q
droop-control loop for accurate reactive power sharing
and voltage regulation
[138] • Achieving voltage regulation without an independent • LBcom • IN-ACMG 2019
secondary controller
• Determining the supplementary loop gain by
developing a new state-space model
• Sending information (a DC voltage) to DG controllers
• LBcom network limitations are not considered

• A distributed cooperative hierarchical control approach

for a cluster of autonomous MGs
• Achieving desirable frequency and voltage regulation
for all DGs of all MGs
• Providing proper active and reactive power sharing
among MGs
• An approach including droop-based secondary and
Frequency and • LBcom
tertiary control layers based on an iterative learning
voltage regulation • • Islanded
mechanism
among DGs and [139] Intermittent ACMG 2017
• Only sharing information of each DG with its
proper power communi- Clusters
neighbors through LBcom links
sharing among MGs cation
• Using a two-layer sparse communication network
model where one or some DERs are pinned from each
MG’s lower network to create an upper network
• Allowing different numbers of heterogeneous DGs in
each MG
• Testing the method performance in the presence of
delays, data dropout, and link failure

• Developing a phase-angle feedback-based control

method for frequency restoration
Frequency • Developing a controller for the adaptive tuning of
restoration and active [140] • LBcom • IN-ACMG 2019
feedback gains to achieve proper active power sharing
power sharing • Transferring information through one-way LBcom links
• Robustness against communication delays and failures

6. Conclusions
This paper presents a comprehensive review paper on the different aspects of an MG,
including its concept, challenges, advantages, components, and communication and control
systems. As mentioned, communication-based control methods can provide a global-
/sub-optimal solution that cannot be achieved by communication-free control methods
Energies 2023, 16, 484 30 of 36

(decentralized methods). However, employing communication infrastructure in an MG

can cause some serious challenges, such as a high establishment cost, low reliability, high
complexity, etc. As a solution, instead of using high-cost and complex HB technologies with
a high power consumption, LBcom-based control methods have been introduced, which
are developed based on LBcom technologies such as PLC, ZigBee, Bluetooth, CAN, and so
forth. However, there is always a trade-off. Besides their advantages, LBcom systems suffer
from drawbacks such as limited (low) bandwidth (low data transfer rate) and vulnerability
to noise and communication delays, which can lead to severe problems in MGs, such as
affecting their stability. Hence, several LBcom-based control methods with consideration
of these problems have been presented for MG applications so far. As one of the main
objectives of this paper, an overview is given about the most important wired and WL
LBcom-based control methods for MG applications. There is still a long way to go to reach
a desirable research point in this field. There are several challenges and open problems
in using LBcom in control methods of MGs that should be investigated and solved by
introducing efficient control algorithms, especially in the tertiary control layer and also the
entire hierarchical control structure. Moreover, future methods should be robust against
the LBcom link’s inherent limitations, such as variable and fixed communication delays.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

ACMG AC microgrid
ADM Active demand management
AMI Advanced metering interface
CAN Controller area network
CIM Common Information Model
CSI Current source inverter
DCMG DC microgrid
DER Distributed energy resource
DG Distributed generation
DMS Distribution management system
DR Demand response
EMI High electromagnetic interference
EMS Energy management system
EV Electric vehicles
ESS Electrical energy storage
FACTS Flexible AC transmission systems
FAN Field area network
FC Fuel cells
FDIA False data injection attack
GEO Geostationary earth orbits
GS Grid synchronization
HAN Home area network
HB High bandwidth
HBcom High bandwidth communication
HEMS Home energy management systems
HSPA M2M High-speed packet access machine-to-machine
HV High voltage
HMG Hybrid AC/DC microgrid
IN-ACMG Islanded networked AC microgrid
LB Low bandwidth
Energies 2023, 16, 484 31 of 36

LEO Low earth orbits

LoRa Long range
LPWAN Low-power wide-area network
LTE Long-term evolution
LV Low voltage
MEO Medium earth orbit
MG Microgrid
MQTT Message Queue Telemetry Transport
MV Medium voltage
MS Micro source
NBPLC Narrow band power line communication
OPC-UA Open platform communication-unified architecture
PEL Power electronics
PLC Power line communication
PON Passive optical network
PV Photovoltaic
RES Renewable energy source
RF Radio frequency
SDH Synchronous digital hierarchy
SG Smart grid
UNBPLC Ultra-narrow band power line communication
VSGs Virtual synchronous generators
VSI Voltage source inverter
ZOH Zero-order-hold
WAN Wide area network
WL Wireless
WLcom Wireless communication
WPAN Wireless personal area network

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