What is OSI Model?

– Layers of OSI Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that

explains how different computer systems communicate over a network.
OSI Model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each
layer has specific functions and responsibilities.

This layered approach makes it easier for different devices and

technologies to work together. OSI Model provides a clear structure for
data transmission and managing network issues. The OSI Model is widely
used as a reference to understand how network systems function.

In this article, we will discuss the OSI Model and each layer of the OSI
Model in detail. We will also discuss the flow of data in the OSI Model and
how the OSI Model is different from the TCP/IP Model.

OSI Model

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Layers of the OSI Model

There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in
handling data. All the layers are mentioned below:

 Physical Layer

 Data Link Layer

 Network Layer

 Transport Layer

 Session Layer

 Presentation Layer

 Application Layer

Layer 1 – Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The
physical layer contains information in the form of bits. Physical Layer is
responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it
into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the
frame back together. Common physical layer devices
are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.

Physical Layer

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the

synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls
both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit
level.

 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission
rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
  Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star
topology, or mesh topology.

 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission
modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a
packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it
to the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred
to as Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.

The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

 Logical Link Control (LLC)

 Media Access Control (MAC)

The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL
also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.

The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address

Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP
address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a

way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns
to the beginning and end of the frame.

 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer

adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.

 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else
the data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the
amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.
  Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared
by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.

Layer 3 – Network Layer

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the
other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e.
selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of
routes available. The sender and receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is referred to
as Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such
as routers and switches.

Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is

suitable from source to destination. This function of the network
layer is known as routing.

 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network

uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The
sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely
and universally.

Layer 4 – Transport Layer

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred
to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the
complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment
of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found. Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.

At the sender’s side, the transport layer receives the formatted data
from the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also
implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data transmission.
It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and
forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.

 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by

default or manually. For example, when a web application requests a
web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the
default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have
default ports assigned.
At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its
header and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective
application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the
segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message

from the (session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units.
Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The
transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.

 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct

process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called
service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this
address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process.

Services Provided by Transport Layer

 Connection-Oriented Service

 Connectionless Service

Layer 5 – Session Layer

Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of

connections, management of connections, terminations of sessions
between two devices. It also provides authentication and security.
Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The

layer allows the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a
connection.

 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints

that are considered synchronization points in the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is
re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.

 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start

communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

Example

Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through

some Messenger application running in their browser. The “Messenger”
here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an
interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is
compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted
into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from
the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network. Protocols used in the
Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into

another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the
ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.

 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be

transmitted on the network.

Layer 7 – Application Layer

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data to be transferred over the network. This
layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user. Protocols
used in the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.
Application Layer

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.

 Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on to a

remote host.

 File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM): This application

allows a user to access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a
remote host, and manage or control files from a remote computer.

 Mail Services: Provide email service.

 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database

sources and access for global information about various objects and
services.

How Data Flows in the OSI Model?

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels

through 7 layers of OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers
from the sender’s end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s
end.

Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:

 Application Layer: Applications create the data.

 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.

 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.

 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.

 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.

 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.

 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted

physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its
destination correctly, and these steps are reversed upon arrival.

We can understand how data flows through OSI Model with the help of an
example mentioned below.

Let us suppose, Person A sends an e-mail to his friend Person B.

Step 1: Person A interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook,

etc. Writes his email to send. (This happens at Application Layer).

Step 2: At Presentation Layer, Mail application prepares for data

transmission like encrypting data and formatting it for transmission.

Step 3: At Session Layer, There is a connection established between

the sender and receiver on the internet.

Step 4: At Transport Layer, Email data is broken into smaller segments.

It adds sequence number and error-checking information to maintain the
reliability of the information.

Step 5: At Network Layer, Addressing of packets is done in order to find

the best route for transfer.

Step 6: At Data Link Layer, data packets are encapsulated into frames,
then MAC address is added for local devices and then it checks for error
using error detection.
Step 7: At Physical Layer, Frames are transmitted in the form of
electrical/ optical signals over a physical network medium like ethernet
cable or WiFi.

After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Person B, the process will
reverse and decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown
on Person B email client.

Protocols Used in the OSI Layers

Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols

Establishing
1–
Physical USB, SONET/SDH,
Physical Bits
Connections etc.
Layer
between Devices.

Node to Node
2 – Data
Delivery of Frames Ethernet, PPP, etc.
Link Layer
Message.

Transmission of
3– data from one host
IP, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF
Network to another, located Packets
, etc.
Layer in different
networks.

Take Service from Segments

4–
Network Layer and (for TCP) or
Transport TCP, UDP, SCTP, etc.
provide it to the Datagrams
Layer
Application Layer. (for UDP)

Establishes
Connection,
5–
Maintenance, NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP,
Session Data
Ensures etc.
Layer
Authentication and
Ensures security.
 Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols

Data from the

application layer is
6– TLS/SSL, MIME,
extracted and
Presentati Data JPEG, PNG, ASCII,
manipulated in the
on Layer etc.
required format for
transmission.

Helps in identifying
7–
the client and FTP, SMTP, DNS, DH
Applicatio Data
synchronizing CP, etc.
n Layer
communication.

Why Does The OSI Model Matter?

The OSI Model matters because it provides the user a clear structure of
“how the data moves in the network?”. As the OSI Model consists of 7
layers, each layer has its specific role, and due to which it helps in
understanding, identifying and solving the complex network problems
easily by focusing on one of the layers not the entire network.

As the modern Internet does not prefer the OSI Model, but still, the OSI
Model is still very helpful for solving network problems. It helps people
understanding network concepts very easily.

Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Model

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission

Interconnection. Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

OSI model has 7 layers. TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers.

Package delivery is guaranteed in Package delivery is not guaranteed

OSI Model. in the TCP/IP Model.
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

In the OSI model, Only layers 1,2

All layers of the TCP/IP model are
and 3 are necessary for data
needed for data transmission.
transmission.

Layers are integrated, some layers

Protocols at each layer is
are required by other layers of
independent of the other layer.
TCP/IP model.

OSI Model is a conceptual Widely used in actual networks like

framework, less used in practical Internet and Communication
applications. Systems.

OSI vs TCP/IP

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7

different layers. Its advantages include:

 It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it

easier to understand and troubleshoot.
  It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed
functions and protocols.

 Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.

 It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get

updates separately.

Disadvantages of OSI Model

 The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard
to understand for beginners.

 In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the

Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), so the OSI Model is not always
directly applicable.

 Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations,
which can make the process more time-consuming and less
efficient.

 The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it’s

great for understanding concepts but not always practical for
implementation.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model helps us

understand how data moves in networks. It consists of seven distinct
layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and
Application. Each layer has specific responsibilities and interacts with the
layers directly above and below it. Since it is a conceptual model, but the
OSI framework is still widely used to troubleshoot and understand
networking issues.

Frequently Asked Questions on OSI Model – FAQs

Can OSI layers work independently?

No, OSI layers do not work independently. Each layer depends on the
services provided by the layer below it and, in turn, provides services to
the layer above it. This layered approach ensures that data is transmitted
smoothly from the source to the destination.

How does the OSI Model help in troubleshooting network issues?

By breaking down communication into layers, the OSI Model helps

network administrators isolate problems more easily.

What happens if a layer in the OSI Model fails?

If a particular OSI layer fails, data transmission may be disrupted or fail
entirely. Network administrator will check layer by layer to identify and
resolve the issue, make sure that each layer is functioning correctly or
not.

How does DNS fit into the OSI Model?

The Domain Name System (DNS) operates at Layer 7 (Application Layer).

It translates domain names into IP addresses, facilitating communication
between users and services across the network.