POGIL - Materials

POGIL Semiconductor Materials Goal: In this POGIL we will investigate basic properties and applications of semiconductors.
Semiconductor Basics
A semiconductor is a material that has an electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator. Devices made from semiconductor materials are the foundation of modern electronics, including radio, computers, telephones, and many other devices. Semiconductor devices include the various types of transistor, solar cells, many kinds of diodes including the light-emitting diode. Solar photovoltaic panels are large semiconductor devices that directly convert light energy into electrical energy. In a metallic conductor, current is carried by the flow of electrons. In semiconductors, current can be carried either by the flow of electrons or by the flow of positively-charged "holes" in the electron structure of the material. Common semiconducting materials are crystalline solids. A pure semiconductor is often called an intrinsic semiconductor. A commonly known intrinsic semiconductor is Silicon. The conductivity, or ability to conduct, of common semiconductor materials can be drastically changed by adding other elements, called impurities to the melted intrinsic material and then allowing the melt to solidify into a new and different crystal. This process is called "doping" and results in the formation of an extrinsic semiconductor, [1] such as Silicon Nitride. Semiconductors are often distinguished by their differing energy band gaps. A simple model to illustrate what an energy band gap is can be constructed if you imagine row upon row of silicon atoms in a silicon crystal. The outermost electrons (valence electrons) reside in overlapping electron clouds. This is called the valence band. The conduction band (shown in the figure below) is separated from the valence band by an energy band gap. Electrons must be energetically promoted to this conduction band to be able to move throughout the crystal. Click here for a list of band gaps of common semiconductors.
Conduction Band Valence Band
Conduction Band Energy gap Valence Band
Conduction Band
Energy gap
Magnesium Nuclei (Metal) Silicon Nuclei (Semiconductor)
Valence Band
Selenium Nuclei (Insulator)
Electrons, Holes and Doping, OH MY!

Semiconductor materials are useful because they will only conduct electricity (electrons) under certain minimum energy levels. This allows semiconductor devices to act as tiny switches which can turn off or on based upon electrical current. The conductivity of semiconductors can be manipulated by the addition of dopants. Dopants are atoms of a different element that are inserted into the semiconductor crystal. For example, taking a pure crystal of silicon and replacing some of the silicon atoms with other atoms such as Aluminum or Nitrogen drastically alters the conductivity of the silicon crystal. Adding dopants to a semiconductor crystal has consequences; it affects the energy needed to conduct electricity within the crystal as well as changing the numbers of available electrons to be conducted through the crystal. If a dopant adds additional electrons to
Material adapted from the following sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/led1.htm and http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/led1.htm
the crystal (dopant atoms having more valence electrons compared to the other elements that comprise the semiconductor) incorporating these atoms into the semiconductor crystal forms a n-type semiconductor. This is a semiconductor with an abundance of free electrons that can move about throughout the crystal (Silicon doped with Nitrogen is an example of an n-type semiconductor). If a dopant has less electrons (dopant atoms having less valence electrons compared to the other elements that comprise the semiconductor) incorporating these atoms into the semiconductor crystal forms a p-type semiconductor. P-type semiconductors have an abundance of holes, or locations where electrons can reside. Creative combination of n-type and p-type semiconducting materials allow physicists to create diodes, transistors and other solid state devices.
Simple model of N-type and P-type extrinsic semiconductor crystals:
N-type
P-type
NOTE: Electrons are shown in blue (due to dopant atoms); holes are shown in white (due to dopant atoms). Conceptual Thinking Questions, Part 1 1. How does the conductivity of semiconductor materials compare to metals? Non-metals? Why do their conductivities differ?
2. Classify the following elements as either n-type or p-type dopants when added to the crystalline germanium, a common semiconductor material. Provide a brief reason why the element is p-type or n-type. a. Gallium N-Type P-Type Reason: b. Arsenic Reason: N-Type P-Type
c. Phosphorus Reason:
N-Type
P-Type
d. Tellurium Reason:
N-Type
P-Type
Solid State Semiconductor Devices

Heres where it gets interesting: both electrons and holes can move. So if we construct a crystal of Gallium Arsenide and dope the top portion with more Arsenic atoms (which have 5 valence electrons) on the top portion of the crystal and more Gallium atoms (which have 3 valence electrons) on the bottom portion of the crystal, we form a n-type crystal layered upon a p-type crystal. Where these two crystalline forms meet, electrons and holes combine. When this happens, a depletion zone forms where there are neither free electrons nor holes. This crystal now behaves as an electronic switch, or diode.
Depletion Zone
In a depletion zone, the semiconductor material is returned to its original insulating state -- all of the holes are filled, so there are no free electrons or holes (empty spaces) for electrons, and charge can't flow. In order to conduct charge, we must move electrons into the depletion zone, which requires energy. The energy required for either holes or electrons to cross this zone is known as the materials energy band gap. Depending upon the semiconductor material and level of doping, the energy band gap can vary.
Conceptual Thinking Questions, Part 2 3. Mr. Cook hooks up a diode to a battery with copper wire as shown in the Setup A and B below. Sketch how the holes and electrons will move within the diode after the battery is connected. Will the diode allow current (electrons) to flow in one or both situations? Explain. Setup A (Battery connected):
Setup A (Battery disconnected):
Depletion Zone
Explain:
Setup B (Battery Disconnected)
Setup B (Battery Connected)
Depletion Zone
Explain:
Critical Thinking Questions, Part 2 4. Explain why diodes are often called one-way devices.
5.
[Nano] Why would it be beneficial to make diodes, such as LEDs smaller?
6.
[Research] You probably have a little bit of Gallium Nitride in your possession. Where are you likely to find this material, and why is it there?

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POGIL Semiconductor Materials Goal: In this POGIL we will investigate basic properties and applications of semiconductors.

Conduction Band Valence Band

Conduction Band Energy gap Valence Band

Selenium Nuclei (Insulator)

Electrons, Holes and Doping, OH MY!

Simple model of N-type and P-type extrinsic semiconductor crystals:

Solid State Semiconductor Devices

Setup A (Battery disconnected):

Setup B (Battery Disconnected)

Setup B (Battery Connected)

[Nano] Why would it be beneficial to make diodes, such as LEDs smaller?

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